南京夏季城市热岛时空分布特征观测及模拟研究
|
摘要
城市热岛是关系到城市生活环境、城市发展规划、局地气候改变乃至全球气候变暖的重大问题,也是城市气象研究的一个热点课题。本研究利用2010年南京夏季热岛三维观测试验资料,采用试验资料分析和数值模拟方法,研究了南京夏季热岛的时空分布特征及其形成原因。主要结论如下：
(1)2010年南京夏季典型高温晴天的日平均热岛强度达1℃以上,夜间热岛强度稳定且强于白天,观测期间夜间平均热岛强度1.63℃,且热岛分布及强度与土地利用现状对应较好。强热岛出现在晴朗、无风的天气条件下。夏季风速较小的情况下,热岛强度随风速增加而减弱。风向对热岛地理分布有显著影响,城市下风向会受到城市尾羽层影响而增温,热岛向下风向延展。
(2)白天,城区大气混合层的发展速度和高度均大于郊区;夜间,城区大气的不稳定层结易于形成混合层。城市的强对流混合加剧了边界层的发展,夜间的逆温层和大风区也随之抬升,2010年夏季南京城区混合层高度夜间300m、白天1300m,而由于夜间强热岛的存在,近年来夜间混合层高度增长较快。城市高热量储存和强湍流输送的共同作用形成边界层内热岛,热岛强度总体上随高度而递减,影响高度白天约900m、夜间约300m。
(3)模拟结果表明,夏季晴好天气下,南京地区昼夜均在边界层内形成热岛。午后14时,城市显热达到350W/m2以上,是郊区的2倍;此时城市土壤热通量为200W/m2,是郊区的4倍；城市下垫面大量储热,提供了热岛形成的热量基础。同时,城区湍能在200-700m达到高值1.2m2/s2,是郊区的2倍,白天强湍流运动促进了城市边界层发展及700m以下热岛的形成,与夜间相比,热岛向高空延伸更高。夜间02时,城、郊显热均明显降低,此时城市土壤热通量约30-35W/m2,是郊区的2倍,城市积蓄的热量持续输出,维持夜间近地面较高的热岛强度；与白天相比,夜间城市大气相对稳定,热岛在近地面分布范围更广且强度更大,热岛发展高度较低为100m。
Urban heat island effect, which is an important issue related to urban environment, urban development planning, local climate changing and even global climate warming, is acting as a hot topic in urban meteorological research.By using the data of2010Nanjing Summer heat island three-dimensional observation test, temporal and spatial distribution of summer heat island in Nanjing and its causes were analyzed in methods of data analysis and numerical simulation. The results showed that:
(1) Daily UHI intensity on typically sunny day was above1℃in summer2010in Nanjing. UHI was stronger and more stable in nighttime than it was in daytime, with average UHI intensity reaching1.63℃and UHI intensity&distribution corresponding well to urban land use status at night. The strong heat island existed in sunny, windless weather conditions. In case that wind speed was small in summer, UHI intensity was weakened with increasing wind speed. Wind direction had significant influence on geographical distribution of UHI when the leeward of city was warming by the tail flow of city, resulting in the thermal region extending to down wind direction.
(2) During daytime, mixed layer in urban developed faster and higher than that in suburb. During nighttime, unstable stratification of the urban atmosphere was easy to form a mixed layer. The strong convective mixing in urban atmosphere exacerbated the development of boundary layer, so that the night inversion layer and gale area uplifted. Urban mixed layer height was estimated as300m in nighttime and1300m in daytime in summer2010in Nanjing. Due to the strong heat island at night, mixing layer height in nighttime was growing rapidly in recent years. Owing to high heat storage and strong turbulent transport of urban underlying surface, heat island took shape in urban boundary layer, with UHI intensity decreasing with height. Heat island in boundary layer extended up to900m in daytime and maintained at300m in nighttime.
(3) Simulation results showed that:In the summer time when the weather was fine, heat island took shape in boundary layer all day in Nanjing. In02:00pm, sensible heat flux reached350W/m2in city, twice as that in suburbs, and soil heat flux reached200W/m2in city as four times that of the suburbs. Urban underlying surface stored a lot of heat, providing the heat base of UHI. At the same time, TKE in city reached the higher value of1.2m2/s2in200-700m, twice as that in suburbs. Strong turbulent motion in daytime promoted the development of urban mixed layer, and UHI in boundary layer formed within the height700m, which was higher than that at night. In02:00am, sensible heat flux and TKE reduced significantly both in urban and suburban, when urban soil heat flux was up to30-35W/m2, twice as that in suburbs. Urban surface continuously released heat storage, to maintain higher groud UHI intensity in nighttime. Compared with daytime, urban atmosphere at night was relatively stable, so that groud UHI was of wider distribution and greater strength and UHI developped at low altitudes of100m.
(1)2010年南京夏季典型高温晴天的日平均热岛强度达1℃以上,夜间热岛强度稳定且强于白天,观测期间夜间平均热岛强度1.63℃,且热岛分布及强度与土地利用现状对应较好。强热岛出现在晴朗、无风的天气条件下。夏季风速较小的情况下,热岛强度随风速增加而减弱。风向对热岛地理分布有显著影响,城市下风向会受到城市尾羽层影响而增温,热岛向下风向延展。
(2)白天,城区大气混合层的发展速度和高度均大于郊区;夜间,城区大气的不稳定层结易于形成混合层。城市的强对流混合加剧了边界层的发展,夜间的逆温层和大风区也随之抬升,2010年夏季南京城区混合层高度夜间300m、白天1300m,而由于夜间强热岛的存在,近年来夜间混合层高度增长较快。城市高热量储存和强湍流输送的共同作用形成边界层内热岛,热岛强度总体上随高度而递减,影响高度白天约900m、夜间约300m。
(3)模拟结果表明,夏季晴好天气下,南京地区昼夜均在边界层内形成热岛。午后14时,城市显热达到350W/m2以上,是郊区的2倍;此时城市土壤热通量为200W/m2,是郊区的4倍；城市下垫面大量储热,提供了热岛形成的热量基础。同时,城区湍能在200-700m达到高值1.2m2/s2,是郊区的2倍,白天强湍流运动促进了城市边界层发展及700m以下热岛的形成,与夜间相比,热岛向高空延伸更高。夜间02时,城、郊显热均明显降低,此时城市土壤热通量约30-35W/m2,是郊区的2倍,城市积蓄的热量持续输出,维持夜间近地面较高的热岛强度；与白天相比,夜间城市大气相对稳定,热岛在近地面分布范围更广且强度更大,热岛发展高度较低为100m。
Urban heat island effect, which is an important issue related to urban environment, urban development planning, local climate changing and even global climate warming, is acting as a hot topic in urban meteorological research.By using the data of2010Nanjing Summer heat island three-dimensional observation test, temporal and spatial distribution of summer heat island in Nanjing and its causes were analyzed in methods of data analysis and numerical simulation. The results showed that:
(1) Daily UHI intensity on typically sunny day was above1℃in summer2010in Nanjing. UHI was stronger and more stable in nighttime than it was in daytime, with average UHI intensity reaching1.63℃and UHI intensity&distribution corresponding well to urban land use status at night. The strong heat island existed in sunny, windless weather conditions. In case that wind speed was small in summer, UHI intensity was weakened with increasing wind speed. Wind direction had significant influence on geographical distribution of UHI when the leeward of city was warming by the tail flow of city, resulting in the thermal region extending to down wind direction.
(2) During daytime, mixed layer in urban developed faster and higher than that in suburb. During nighttime, unstable stratification of the urban atmosphere was easy to form a mixed layer. The strong convective mixing in urban atmosphere exacerbated the development of boundary layer, so that the night inversion layer and gale area uplifted. Urban mixed layer height was estimated as300m in nighttime and1300m in daytime in summer2010in Nanjing. Due to the strong heat island at night, mixing layer height in nighttime was growing rapidly in recent years. Owing to high heat storage and strong turbulent transport of urban underlying surface, heat island took shape in urban boundary layer, with UHI intensity decreasing with height. Heat island in boundary layer extended up to900m in daytime and maintained at300m in nighttime.
(3) Simulation results showed that:In the summer time when the weather was fine, heat island took shape in boundary layer all day in Nanjing. In02:00pm, sensible heat flux reached350W/m2in city, twice as that in suburbs, and soil heat flux reached200W/m2in city as four times that of the suburbs. Urban underlying surface stored a lot of heat, providing the heat base of UHI. At the same time, TKE in city reached the higher value of1.2m2/s2in200-700m, twice as that in suburbs. Strong turbulent motion in daytime promoted the development of urban mixed layer, and UHI in boundary layer formed within the height700m, which was higher than that at night. In02:00am, sensible heat flux and TKE reduced significantly both in urban and suburban, when urban soil heat flux was up to30-35W/m2, twice as that in suburbs. Urban surface continuously released heat storage, to maintain higher groud UHI intensity in nighttime. Compared with daytime, urban atmosphere at night was relatively stable, so that groud UHI was of wider distribution and greater strength and UHI developped at low altitudes of100m.
引文
[1]Jin Menglin, Shephero J. Inclusion of urban landscape in a climate model[J]. Bulletin of the AMS,2005, (5):681-689.
[2]彭少麟,周凯,叶有华,等.城市热岛效应研究进展[J].生态环境,2005,14(4)：574-579.
[3]Landsberg H E. The urban climate[M]. New York:Academic Press,1981:21-22.
[4]Manley G. On the frequency of snowfall in metropolitan England[J]. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc.,1958,84:70-72.
[5]胡嘉骢,朱启疆.城市热岛研究进展[J].北京师范大学学报：自然科学版,2010：186-193.
[6]Oke T R. The surface energy budgets of urban areas. Modeling the Urban Boundary Layer[M]. Boston:Amer Meteor Soc,1987:1-52.
[7]王成刚.城市边界层微物理过程的观测与分析研究[D].南京大学,2007.
[8]李微.热岛效应：“发烧”的城市呼唤“绿岛”[Z]http://www.weather.com.cn/climate/ qhbhyw/06/1384561.shtml.
[9]Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change[Z]. http://www.ipcc.ch/index.htm.
[10]Katsoulis B D, Theoharatos G A. Indications of the urban heat island in Athens, Greece[J]. J Climate Appl Meteor,1985,24:1296-1302.
[11]Arnfield AJ. Two decades of urban climate research:a review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island[J]. International Journal of Climatology,2003, 23:1-26.
[12]Godowich J M, Ching J K S, Clark J F. Evolution of the nocturnal inversion layer at an urban and non-urban location[J]. J Appl Meteor,1985,24:791-804.
[13]Garrant J R. The Atmospheric Boundary Layer[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992.
[14]Roth M. Review of atmospheric turbulence over cities[J]. Q J R Meteorol Soc,2000,126: 941-990.
[15]Mestayer P D, Augustin P, Bastin S, et al. The urban boundarylayer field campaign in marseille (UBL/CLU-ESCOMPTE):Setup and first results[J]. Journal of Boundary Layer Meteorology,2005,114:315-365.
[16]Rotach M W. Profiles of turbulence statistics in and above on urban street canyon[J]. Atmos Euniton,1995,29:1473-1486.
[17]Grimmond C S B, Oke T R. Turbulent heat fluxes in urban areas:Observation and a local-scale urban meteorological parameterization scheme (LUMPS) [J]. J Appl Meteor, 2002,41:792-810.
[18]Mikami T, A. Kannan. Investigation of urban heat islands in Tokyo metropolis based on the ground monitoring system[C]. International Congress of Biometeorology and International Conference on Urban Climatology Sydney,1999:491-495.
[19]Taha H, Akbari H. Albedo, evapotraspiration and anthro-pogenic heat energy and buildings special issue on urban heat islands and cool communities[J]. Urban Climates and Heat Islands,1997,25 (2):99-103.
[20]Zhang DaLin, Shou YiXuan, Russell R. Dickerson. Upstream urbanization exacerbates urban heat island effects[J]. Geophysical Research Letters,2009,36:L241-L244.
[21]Christopher P. Loughner, Dale J. Allen, Russell R. Dickerson, et al. Investigating the use of a high resolution WRF-urban canopy model simulation with CMAQ[C]. Chapel Hill, NC: the 8 Annual CMAS Conference,2009:19-21.
[22]Shou YiXuan, Zhang DaLin. Impact of environmental flows on the daytime urban boundary layer structures over the Baltimore metropolitan region [J]. Atmospheric Science Letters, 2010,11(1):1-6.
[23]Zhang DaLin, Shou YiXuan, Dickerson Russell R., et al. Impact of Upstream Urbanization on the Urban Heat Island Effects along the Washington-Baltimore Corridor [J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,2011,50 (10):2012-2029.
[24]谢庄,崔继良,陈大刚,等.北京城市热岛效应的昼夜变化特征分析[J].气候与环境研究,2006,11(1)：69-75.
[25]邓莲堂,束炯,李朝颐.上海城市热岛的变化特征分析[J].热带气象学报,2001,17(3)：273-280.
[26]杨德保,王式功,王玉玺.兰州城市气候变化及热岛效应分析[J].兰州大学学报(自然科学版),1994,30(4)：161-167.
[27]何泽能,李永华,陈志军,等.重庆市2006年夏季城市热岛分析[J].热带气象学报,2008,24(5)：527-532.
[28]季崇萍,刘伟东,轩春怡.北京城市化进程对城市热岛的影响研究[J].地球物理学报,2006,49(1)：69-77.
[29]李兴荣,胡非,舒文军.北京春季城市热岛特征及强热岛影响因子[J].南京气象学院学报,2008,31(1)：129-134.
[30]韩素芹,郭军,黄岁樑,等.天津城市热岛效应演变特征研究[J].生态环境,2007,16(2)：280-284.
[31]陈燕,蒋维楣,吴涧,等.利用区域边界层模式对杭州市热岛的模拟研究[J].高原气象,2004,23(4)：519-528.
[32]桑建国,刘万军.冬季城市边界层风场和温度场结构分析[J].气象学报,1990,48(4)：459-468.
[33]王金星,卞林根,高志球,等.城市边界层湍流和下垫面空气动力学参数观测研究[J].气象科技,2002,30(2)：65-73.
[34]周明煜,曲绍厚,李玉英,等.北京地区热岛和热岛环流特征[J].环境科学,1980,5：1-17.
[35]卞林根,程彦杰,王欣,等.北京大气边界层中风和温度廓线的观测研究[J].应用气象学报,2002,13(特刊)：13-25.
[36]王郁,胡非.近10年来北京夏季城市热岛的变化及环境效应的分析研究[J].地球物理 学报,2006,49(1)：61-68.
[37]刘熙明,胡非,李磊.北京市夏季城市热岛特征及其近地层气象场分析[J].中国科学院研究生院学报,2006,23(1)：70-76.
[38]刘熙明,胡非,等.北京地区夏季城市气候趋势和环境效应的分析研究[J].地球物理学报,2006,49(3)：689-697.
[39]Wang XiQuan, Wang ZiFa, et al. Seasonal variation of the temperature profile and its characteristics within urban roughness sub-layer[J]. Chinese Science Bulletin,2009,54(3): 486-473.
[40]徐祥德,汤绪.城市化环境气象学引论[M].北京：气象出版社,2002.
[41]李兴荣,胡非,舒文军.近15年北京夏季城市热岛特征及其演变[J].气象,2006,32(8)：42-46.
[42]初子莹,任国玉.北京地区城市热岛强度对区域温度序列的影响[J].气象学报,2005,63(4)：534-540.
[43]邱新法,顾丽华,曾燕,等.南京城市热岛效应研究[J].气候与环境研究,2008,13(6)：807-814.
[44]杨英宝,苏伟忠,江南,等.南京市热岛效应变化时空特征及其与土地利用变化的关系[J].地理研究,2007,26(5)：877-886.
[45]刘红年,蒋维楣,孙鉴泞,等.南京城市边界层微气象特征观测与分析[J].南京大学学报：自然科学版,2008,44(1)：99-106.
[46]张礼春,朱彬,牛生杰,等.南京市冬季市区和郊区晴天大气边界层结构对比分析[J].南京信息工程大学学报：自然科学版,2009,1(4)：329-337.
[47]姜金华,胡非,刘熙明,等.水、陆不均匀条件下大气边界层结构的模拟研究[J].南京气象学院学报,2007,30(1)：162-169.
[48]Kanda M. Progress in the scale modeling of urban climate:Review[J]. Theoretical and Applied Climatology,2006,84:23-33.
[49]Masson V. Urban surface modeling and the meso-scale impact of cities [J]. Theoretical and Applied Climatology,2006,84:35-45.
[50]蒋维楣,周荣卫,刘红年,等.精细城市边界层模式的建立及应用研究[J].南京大学学报：自然科学版,2009,45(6)：42-51.
[51]Masson V. A physically based scheme for the urban energy budget in atmospheric models[J]. Journal of Boundary Layer Meteorology,2000,94:357-397.
[52]Masson V, Grimmond C S B, Oke T R. Evaluation of the town energy balance (TEB) Scheme with direct measurements from dry districts in two cities[J]. Applied Meteorology,2002,41:1011-1026.
[53]Kusaka H, Kondo H, Kikegawa, et al. A simple single-layer u ban canopy model for atmospheric models:Comparison with multilayer and slab model[J]. Journal of Boundary Layer Meteorology,2004,101:329-358.
[54]Lemonsu A, Grimmond C S B, Masson V. Modeling the surface energy balance of the core of an old Mediterranean city:Marseille[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,2004,43: 312-327.
[55]Myrup L D. A numerical model of the urban heat island[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 1969,8(6):908-918.
[56]Tapper N J, Tyson P D, Owens I F, et al. Modeling the winter urban heat island over Christchurch, New Zealand[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1981,20:365-376.
[57]Oke T R, Johnson G T, Steyn D G, et al. Simulation of surface urban heat islands under 'ideal'conditions at night Part 2:Diagnosis of causation[J]. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 1991,56:339-358.
[58]Vukovich F M. A study of the atmospheric response due to a diurnal heating function haracteristic of an urban complex[J]. Monthly Weather Review,1973,101:467.
[59]Bomstein R D. The 22D URBMET urban boundary layer model[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1975,14:1459-1477.
[60]Yoshikado H. Numerical study of the daytime urban effect and it s interaction with the sea breeze[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1992,31:1146-1164.
[61]Sailor, David J.Simulated. Urban Climate Response to Modifications in Surface Albedo and Vegetative Cover[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1995,34(7):1694-1704.
[62]Taha H. Modifying a mesoscale meteorological model to better incorporate urban heat storage:bulk parameterization approach[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1999,38: 466-473.
[63]Zehnder, Joseph A. Simple Modifications to Improve Fifth-Generation Pennsylvania State University-National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model Performance for the Phoenix, Arizona, Metropolitan Area[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,2002,41: 971-979.
[64]Christopher M, Rozoff, William R, et al. Simulation of St. Louis, Missouri, landuse impacts on thunderstorms [J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,2003,42:716-738.
[65]Kusaka H F, Chen J W. Bao, et al. Simulation of the urban heat island effects over the Greater Houston Area with the high resolution WRF/LSM/Urban coupled system[C].// Symposium on "Planning, Nowcasting, and Forecasting in the Urban Zone", Seattle, WA, 2004:101-107.
[66]Martilli A. On the derivation of input parameters for urban canopy models from urban morphological datasets[J]. Journal of Boundary-Layer Meteorology,2009,130:301-306.
[67]Grimmond C S B, Blaekett M, Best M, et al. The international urban energy balance models comparison project:First results from Phase 1 [J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,2010, doi:10.1175/20101 JAMC23541.
[68]边海,铁学熙.天津市夜间城市热岛的数值模拟[J].地理学报,1999,43(2)：150-158.
[69]孙旭东,孙孟伦,李兆元,等.西安市城市边界层热岛的数值模拟[J].地理研究,1994,13(2)：49-54.
[70]叶卓佳,关虹.夜间城市边界层发展的数值模拟[J].大气科学,1986,10(1)：80-88.
[71]李兴生,朱翠娟.坡地对城市热岛影响的数值研究[J].气象学报,1990,48(3)：293-302.
[72]桑建国,张治坤,张伯寅.热岛环流的动力学分析[J].气象学报,2000,58(3)：321-327.
[73]杨梅学,陈长和.复杂地形上城市热岛的数值模拟[J].兰州大学学报：自然科学版,1998,34(3)：117-124.
[74]李维亮,刘洪利,周秀骥,等.长江三角洲城市热岛与太湖对局地环流影响的分析研究[J].中国科学：D辑,2003,33(2)：97-104.
[75]杨玉华,徐祥德,翁永辉.北京城市边界层热岛的日变化周期模拟[J].应用气象学报,2003,14(1)：61-68.
[76]佟华,陈仲良,桑建国.城市边界层数值模式研究以及在香港地区复杂地形下的应用[J].大气科学,2004,28(6)：957-978.
[77]佟华,刘辉志,李延明,等.北京夏季城市热岛现状及楔形绿地规划对缓解城市热岛的作用[J].应用气象学报,2005,16(3)：357-366.
[78]李晓莉,毕宝贵,李泽椿.北京冬季城市边界层结构形成机制的初步数值研究[J].气象学报,2005,63(6)：889-902.
[79]Zhang H, Sate N, Izumi T, et al. Modified RAMS-urban canopy model for heat island simulation in Chongqing, China[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,2008, 47:509-524.
[80]缪国军,张镭,舒红.利用WRF对兰州冬季大气边界层的数值模拟[J].气象科学,2007,27(2)：169-175.
[81]Miao S G, Chen F, Lemone M A, et al. An observational and modeling study of characteristics of urban heat island and boundary layer structures in Beijing[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,2009,48:484-501.
[82]陈炯,王建捷.北京地区夏季边界层结构日变化的高分辨模拟对比[J].应用气象学报,2006,17(4)：403-411.
[83]陈炯,郑永光,邓莲堂.城市建筑物对城市边界层三维结构影响的数值模拟[J].北京大学学报：自然科学版,2007,43(3)：343-350.
[84]陈燕,蒋维楣,吴涧,等.利用区域边界层模式对杭州市热岛的模拟研究[J].高原气象,2004,23(4)：519-528.
[85]何晓凤,蒋维楣,刘红年,等.应用城市地表能量平衡方案研究城市冠层结构对城市热岛的热力影响[J].大气科学,2008,32(6)：1445-1457.
[86]何晓凤,蒋维楣,周荣卫.一种单层城市冠层模式的建立及数值试验研究[J].大气科学,2009,33(5)：981-993.
[87]王咏薇,蒋维楣,刘红年.大气数值模式中城市效应参数化方案研究进展[J].地球科学进展,2008,23(4)：371-381.
[88]王咏薇,蒋维楣.多层城市冠模式的建立及数值试验研究[J].气象学报,2009,67(6)：1013-1024.
[89]蒋维楣,苗世光,等.城市气象与边界层数值模拟研究[J].地球科学进展,2010,25(5)： 463-473.
[90]Oke T R, East C. The urban boundary layer in Montreal[J]. Boundary Layer Meteorology, 1971,1:411-437.
[91]姚学祥.中尺度对流复合体的动力诊断与数值模拟研究[D].南京气象学院博士论文,2004.
[92]章国材.美国WRF模式的进展和应用前景[J].气象,2004,30(12)：27-31.
[93]Introduction to the WRF Modeling System[Z]. http://www.mmm.ucar.edu/wrf/tutorial/ 2003/WRF-Tutorial/Introduction/Slide2.html.
[94]邓莲堂,王建捷.新一代中尺度天气预报模式—WRF模式简介[J].天气与气候,2003.
[95]李毅,潘晓滨.新一代天气研究预报模式WRF简介[J].教学与研究,2003,24(1)：54-59.
[96]安兴琴,吕世华.金塔绿洲大气边界层特征的数值模拟研究[J].高原气象,2004,23(2)：200-207.
[97]何萍,李宏波,束炯,等.楚雄市城市气候特征分析—兼谈中国主要城市热岛强度对比分析[J].地理学报,2003,58(5)：712-720.
[98]景元书,谢济善.城市热岛效应影响因素分析[J].中国科技信息,2006,21：215-216.
[99]陈燕,蒋维楣.城市建筑物对边界层结构影响的数值试验研究[J].高原气象,2006,25(5)：824-833.
[100]陈燕,蒋维楣.南京城市化进程对大气边界层的影响研究[J].地球物理学报,2007,50(1)：66-73.
[101]Uno I, Ueda H, Wakamatsu S. Numerical modeling of nocturnal urban boundary layer[J]. Boundary Layer Meteorology,1989,49 (1):77-98.
[102]卞林根,程彦杰,王欣,等.北京大气边界层中风和温度廓线的观测研究[J].应用气象学报,2002：13-25.
[103]Kidder S Q, O M Essenwanger. The effect of clouds and wind on the difference in nocturnal cooling rates between urban and rural areas[J]. Appl. Meteor.,1995,34: 2440-2448.
[104]王伟民,周祖刚,李海民.大气对NOAA通道辐射透过率的影响研究[J].气象科学,2004,24(3)：285-293.
[105]李景林,郑玉萍,李悦,等.乌鲁木齐—昌吉地区城市化对温度的影响及热岛效应分析[J].高原气象,2010,29(6)：1609-1618.
[106]戎春波,刘红年,朱焱.苏州夏季城市热岛现状及影响因子分析研究[J].气象科学,2009,29(1)：84-87.
[107]黄良美,黄海霞,项东云,等.南京市四种下垫面气温日变化规律及城市热岛效应[J].生态环境,2007,16(5)：1411-1420.
[2]彭少麟,周凯,叶有华,等.城市热岛效应研究进展[J].生态环境,2005,14(4)：574-579.
[3]Landsberg H E. The urban climate[M]. New York:Academic Press,1981:21-22.
[4]Manley G. On the frequency of snowfall in metropolitan England[J]. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc.,1958,84:70-72.
[5]胡嘉骢,朱启疆.城市热岛研究进展[J].北京师范大学学报：自然科学版,2010：186-193.
[6]Oke T R. The surface energy budgets of urban areas. Modeling the Urban Boundary Layer[M]. Boston:Amer Meteor Soc,1987:1-52.
[7]王成刚.城市边界层微物理过程的观测与分析研究[D].南京大学,2007.
[8]李微.热岛效应：“发烧”的城市呼唤“绿岛”[Z]http://www.weather.com.cn/climate/ qhbhyw/06/1384561.shtml.
[9]Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change[Z]. http://www.ipcc.ch/index.htm.
[10]Katsoulis B D, Theoharatos G A. Indications of the urban heat island in Athens, Greece[J]. J Climate Appl Meteor,1985,24:1296-1302.
[11]Arnfield AJ. Two decades of urban climate research:a review of turbulence, exchanges of energy and water, and the urban heat island[J]. International Journal of Climatology,2003, 23:1-26.
[12]Godowich J M, Ching J K S, Clark J F. Evolution of the nocturnal inversion layer at an urban and non-urban location[J]. J Appl Meteor,1985,24:791-804.
[13]Garrant J R. The Atmospheric Boundary Layer[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1992.
[14]Roth M. Review of atmospheric turbulence over cities[J]. Q J R Meteorol Soc,2000,126: 941-990.
[15]Mestayer P D, Augustin P, Bastin S, et al. The urban boundarylayer field campaign in marseille (UBL/CLU-ESCOMPTE):Setup and first results[J]. Journal of Boundary Layer Meteorology,2005,114:315-365.
[16]Rotach M W. Profiles of turbulence statistics in and above on urban street canyon[J]. Atmos Euniton,1995,29:1473-1486.
[17]Grimmond C S B, Oke T R. Turbulent heat fluxes in urban areas:Observation and a local-scale urban meteorological parameterization scheme (LUMPS) [J]. J Appl Meteor, 2002,41:792-810.
[18]Mikami T, A. Kannan. Investigation of urban heat islands in Tokyo metropolis based on the ground monitoring system[C]. International Congress of Biometeorology and International Conference on Urban Climatology Sydney,1999:491-495.
[19]Taha H, Akbari H. Albedo, evapotraspiration and anthro-pogenic heat energy and buildings special issue on urban heat islands and cool communities[J]. Urban Climates and Heat Islands,1997,25 (2):99-103.
[20]Zhang DaLin, Shou YiXuan, Russell R. Dickerson. Upstream urbanization exacerbates urban heat island effects[J]. Geophysical Research Letters,2009,36:L241-L244.
[21]Christopher P. Loughner, Dale J. Allen, Russell R. Dickerson, et al. Investigating the use of a high resolution WRF-urban canopy model simulation with CMAQ[C]. Chapel Hill, NC: the 8 Annual CMAS Conference,2009:19-21.
[22]Shou YiXuan, Zhang DaLin. Impact of environmental flows on the daytime urban boundary layer structures over the Baltimore metropolitan region [J]. Atmospheric Science Letters, 2010,11(1):1-6.
[23]Zhang DaLin, Shou YiXuan, Dickerson Russell R., et al. Impact of Upstream Urbanization on the Urban Heat Island Effects along the Washington-Baltimore Corridor [J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,2011,50 (10):2012-2029.
[24]谢庄,崔继良,陈大刚,等.北京城市热岛效应的昼夜变化特征分析[J].气候与环境研究,2006,11(1)：69-75.
[25]邓莲堂,束炯,李朝颐.上海城市热岛的变化特征分析[J].热带气象学报,2001,17(3)：273-280.
[26]杨德保,王式功,王玉玺.兰州城市气候变化及热岛效应分析[J].兰州大学学报(自然科学版),1994,30(4)：161-167.
[27]何泽能,李永华,陈志军,等.重庆市2006年夏季城市热岛分析[J].热带气象学报,2008,24(5)：527-532.
[28]季崇萍,刘伟东,轩春怡.北京城市化进程对城市热岛的影响研究[J].地球物理学报,2006,49(1)：69-77.
[29]李兴荣,胡非,舒文军.北京春季城市热岛特征及强热岛影响因子[J].南京气象学院学报,2008,31(1)：129-134.
[30]韩素芹,郭军,黄岁樑,等.天津城市热岛效应演变特征研究[J].生态环境,2007,16(2)：280-284.
[31]陈燕,蒋维楣,吴涧,等.利用区域边界层模式对杭州市热岛的模拟研究[J].高原气象,2004,23(4)：519-528.
[32]桑建国,刘万军.冬季城市边界层风场和温度场结构分析[J].气象学报,1990,48(4)：459-468.
[33]王金星,卞林根,高志球,等.城市边界层湍流和下垫面空气动力学参数观测研究[J].气象科技,2002,30(2)：65-73.
[34]周明煜,曲绍厚,李玉英,等.北京地区热岛和热岛环流特征[J].环境科学,1980,5：1-17.
[35]卞林根,程彦杰,王欣,等.北京大气边界层中风和温度廓线的观测研究[J].应用气象学报,2002,13(特刊)：13-25.
[36]王郁,胡非.近10年来北京夏季城市热岛的变化及环境效应的分析研究[J].地球物理 学报,2006,49(1)：61-68.
[37]刘熙明,胡非,李磊.北京市夏季城市热岛特征及其近地层气象场分析[J].中国科学院研究生院学报,2006,23(1)：70-76.
[38]刘熙明,胡非,等.北京地区夏季城市气候趋势和环境效应的分析研究[J].地球物理学报,2006,49(3)：689-697.
[39]Wang XiQuan, Wang ZiFa, et al. Seasonal variation of the temperature profile and its characteristics within urban roughness sub-layer[J]. Chinese Science Bulletin,2009,54(3): 486-473.
[40]徐祥德,汤绪.城市化环境气象学引论[M].北京：气象出版社,2002.
[41]李兴荣,胡非,舒文军.近15年北京夏季城市热岛特征及其演变[J].气象,2006,32(8)：42-46.
[42]初子莹,任国玉.北京地区城市热岛强度对区域温度序列的影响[J].气象学报,2005,63(4)：534-540.
[43]邱新法,顾丽华,曾燕,等.南京城市热岛效应研究[J].气候与环境研究,2008,13(6)：807-814.
[44]杨英宝,苏伟忠,江南,等.南京市热岛效应变化时空特征及其与土地利用变化的关系[J].地理研究,2007,26(5)：877-886.
[45]刘红年,蒋维楣,孙鉴泞,等.南京城市边界层微气象特征观测与分析[J].南京大学学报：自然科学版,2008,44(1)：99-106.
[46]张礼春,朱彬,牛生杰,等.南京市冬季市区和郊区晴天大气边界层结构对比分析[J].南京信息工程大学学报：自然科学版,2009,1(4)：329-337.
[47]姜金华,胡非,刘熙明,等.水、陆不均匀条件下大气边界层结构的模拟研究[J].南京气象学院学报,2007,30(1)：162-169.
[48]Kanda M. Progress in the scale modeling of urban climate:Review[J]. Theoretical and Applied Climatology,2006,84:23-33.
[49]Masson V. Urban surface modeling and the meso-scale impact of cities [J]. Theoretical and Applied Climatology,2006,84:35-45.
[50]蒋维楣,周荣卫,刘红年,等.精细城市边界层模式的建立及应用研究[J].南京大学学报：自然科学版,2009,45(6)：42-51.
[51]Masson V. A physically based scheme for the urban energy budget in atmospheric models[J]. Journal of Boundary Layer Meteorology,2000,94:357-397.
[52]Masson V, Grimmond C S B, Oke T R. Evaluation of the town energy balance (TEB) Scheme with direct measurements from dry districts in two cities[J]. Applied Meteorology,2002,41:1011-1026.
[53]Kusaka H, Kondo H, Kikegawa, et al. A simple single-layer u ban canopy model for atmospheric models:Comparison with multilayer and slab model[J]. Journal of Boundary Layer Meteorology,2004,101:329-358.
[54]Lemonsu A, Grimmond C S B, Masson V. Modeling the surface energy balance of the core of an old Mediterranean city:Marseille[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,2004,43: 312-327.
[55]Myrup L D. A numerical model of the urban heat island[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 1969,8(6):908-918.
[56]Tapper N J, Tyson P D, Owens I F, et al. Modeling the winter urban heat island over Christchurch, New Zealand[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1981,20:365-376.
[57]Oke T R, Johnson G T, Steyn D G, et al. Simulation of surface urban heat islands under 'ideal'conditions at night Part 2:Diagnosis of causation[J]. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 1991,56:339-358.
[58]Vukovich F M. A study of the atmospheric response due to a diurnal heating function haracteristic of an urban complex[J]. Monthly Weather Review,1973,101:467.
[59]Bomstein R D. The 22D URBMET urban boundary layer model[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1975,14:1459-1477.
[60]Yoshikado H. Numerical study of the daytime urban effect and it s interaction with the sea breeze[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1992,31:1146-1164.
[61]Sailor, David J.Simulated. Urban Climate Response to Modifications in Surface Albedo and Vegetative Cover[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1995,34(7):1694-1704.
[62]Taha H. Modifying a mesoscale meteorological model to better incorporate urban heat storage:bulk parameterization approach[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,1999,38: 466-473.
[63]Zehnder, Joseph A. Simple Modifications to Improve Fifth-Generation Pennsylvania State University-National Center for Atmospheric Research Mesoscale Model Performance for the Phoenix, Arizona, Metropolitan Area[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,2002,41: 971-979.
[64]Christopher M, Rozoff, William R, et al. Simulation of St. Louis, Missouri, landuse impacts on thunderstorms [J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology,2003,42:716-738.
[65]Kusaka H F, Chen J W. Bao, et al. Simulation of the urban heat island effects over the Greater Houston Area with the high resolution WRF/LSM/Urban coupled system[C].// Symposium on "Planning, Nowcasting, and Forecasting in the Urban Zone", Seattle, WA, 2004:101-107.
[66]Martilli A. On the derivation of input parameters for urban canopy models from urban morphological datasets[J]. Journal of Boundary-Layer Meteorology,2009,130:301-306.
[67]Grimmond C S B, Blaekett M, Best M, et al. The international urban energy balance models comparison project:First results from Phase 1 [J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,2010, doi:10.1175/20101 JAMC23541.
[68]边海,铁学熙.天津市夜间城市热岛的数值模拟[J].地理学报,1999,43(2)：150-158.
[69]孙旭东,孙孟伦,李兆元,等.西安市城市边界层热岛的数值模拟[J].地理研究,1994,13(2)：49-54.
[70]叶卓佳,关虹.夜间城市边界层发展的数值模拟[J].大气科学,1986,10(1)：80-88.
[71]李兴生,朱翠娟.坡地对城市热岛影响的数值研究[J].气象学报,1990,48(3)：293-302.
[72]桑建国,张治坤,张伯寅.热岛环流的动力学分析[J].气象学报,2000,58(3)：321-327.
[73]杨梅学,陈长和.复杂地形上城市热岛的数值模拟[J].兰州大学学报：自然科学版,1998,34(3)：117-124.
[74]李维亮,刘洪利,周秀骥,等.长江三角洲城市热岛与太湖对局地环流影响的分析研究[J].中国科学：D辑,2003,33(2)：97-104.
[75]杨玉华,徐祥德,翁永辉.北京城市边界层热岛的日变化周期模拟[J].应用气象学报,2003,14(1)：61-68.
[76]佟华,陈仲良,桑建国.城市边界层数值模式研究以及在香港地区复杂地形下的应用[J].大气科学,2004,28(6)：957-978.
[77]佟华,刘辉志,李延明,等.北京夏季城市热岛现状及楔形绿地规划对缓解城市热岛的作用[J].应用气象学报,2005,16(3)：357-366.
[78]李晓莉,毕宝贵,李泽椿.北京冬季城市边界层结构形成机制的初步数值研究[J].气象学报,2005,63(6)：889-902.
[79]Zhang H, Sate N, Izumi T, et al. Modified RAMS-urban canopy model for heat island simulation in Chongqing, China[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,2008, 47:509-524.
[80]缪国军,张镭,舒红.利用WRF对兰州冬季大气边界层的数值模拟[J].气象科学,2007,27(2)：169-175.
[81]Miao S G, Chen F, Lemone M A, et al. An observational and modeling study of characteristics of urban heat island and boundary layer structures in Beijing[J]. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology,2009,48:484-501.
[82]陈炯,王建捷.北京地区夏季边界层结构日变化的高分辨模拟对比[J].应用气象学报,2006,17(4)：403-411.
[83]陈炯,郑永光,邓莲堂.城市建筑物对城市边界层三维结构影响的数值模拟[J].北京大学学报：自然科学版,2007,43(3)：343-350.
[84]陈燕,蒋维楣,吴涧,等.利用区域边界层模式对杭州市热岛的模拟研究[J].高原气象,2004,23(4)：519-528.
[85]何晓凤,蒋维楣,刘红年,等.应用城市地表能量平衡方案研究城市冠层结构对城市热岛的热力影响[J].大气科学,2008,32(6)：1445-1457.
[86]何晓凤,蒋维楣,周荣卫.一种单层城市冠层模式的建立及数值试验研究[J].大气科学,2009,33(5)：981-993.
[87]王咏薇,蒋维楣,刘红年.大气数值模式中城市效应参数化方案研究进展[J].地球科学进展,2008,23(4)：371-381.
[88]王咏薇,蒋维楣.多层城市冠模式的建立及数值试验研究[J].气象学报,2009,67(6)：1013-1024.
[89]蒋维楣,苗世光,等.城市气象与边界层数值模拟研究[J].地球科学进展,2010,25(5)： 463-473.
[90]Oke T R, East C. The urban boundary layer in Montreal[J]. Boundary Layer Meteorology, 1971,1:411-437.
[91]姚学祥.中尺度对流复合体的动力诊断与数值模拟研究[D].南京气象学院博士论文,2004.
[92]章国材.美国WRF模式的进展和应用前景[J].气象,2004,30(12)：27-31.
[93]Introduction to the WRF Modeling System[Z]. http://www.mmm.ucar.edu/wrf/tutorial/ 2003/WRF-Tutorial/Introduction/Slide2.html.
[94]邓莲堂,王建捷.新一代中尺度天气预报模式—WRF模式简介[J].天气与气候,2003.
[95]李毅,潘晓滨.新一代天气研究预报模式WRF简介[J].教学与研究,2003,24(1)：54-59.
[96]安兴琴,吕世华.金塔绿洲大气边界层特征的数值模拟研究[J].高原气象,2004,23(2)：200-207.
[97]何萍,李宏波,束炯,等.楚雄市城市气候特征分析—兼谈中国主要城市热岛强度对比分析[J].地理学报,2003,58(5)：712-720.
[98]景元书,谢济善.城市热岛效应影响因素分析[J].中国科技信息,2006,21：215-216.
[99]陈燕,蒋维楣.城市建筑物对边界层结构影响的数值试验研究[J].高原气象,2006,25(5)：824-833.
[100]陈燕,蒋维楣.南京城市化进程对大气边界层的影响研究[J].地球物理学报,2007,50(1)：66-73.
[101]Uno I, Ueda H, Wakamatsu S. Numerical modeling of nocturnal urban boundary layer[J]. Boundary Layer Meteorology,1989,49 (1):77-98.
[102]卞林根,程彦杰,王欣,等.北京大气边界层中风和温度廓线的观测研究[J].应用气象学报,2002：13-25.
[103]Kidder S Q, O M Essenwanger. The effect of clouds and wind on the difference in nocturnal cooling rates between urban and rural areas[J]. Appl. Meteor.,1995,34: 2440-2448.
[104]王伟民,周祖刚,李海民.大气对NOAA通道辐射透过率的影响研究[J].气象科学,2004,24(3)：285-293.
[105]李景林,郑玉萍,李悦,等.乌鲁木齐—昌吉地区城市化对温度的影响及热岛效应分析[J].高原气象,2010,29(6)：1609-1618.
[106]戎春波,刘红年,朱焱.苏州夏季城市热岛现状及影响因子分析研究[J].气象科学,2009,29(1)：84-87.
[107]黄良美,黄海霞,项东云,等.南京市四种下垫面气温日变化规律及城市热岛效应[J].生态环境,2007,16(5)：1411-1420.