中国大学生英语词汇磨蚀研究
|
摘要
语言磨蚀,意指双语或多语使用者由于某种语言或语言某一方面使用的减少或停止,其运用该语言的能力随着时间的推移而逐渐减退。1980年“语言技能磨蚀会议”在美国宾夕法尼亚大学召开。这次会议之后,语言磨蚀被正式确立为语言研究的一个新窗口。本研究所讨论的语言磨蚀指的是外语学习者在接受语言教学后经过一段时间不使用或使用减少而产生的外语知识,技能丧失或退化的现象。
语言磨蚀和语言习得是语言研究的两个面,二者密切相关,忽视任何一面都不可能了解语言学习的全过程。语言磨蚀的研究为语言习得的研究提供了全新的视角。语言磨蚀研究在国外已有近三十年的历史,然而与国外如火如荼的实证研究相比,我国在这一领域仍属空白,虽有几篇介绍性质的文章,但都未能系统地展现语蚀研究全貌。基于此,在缺乏相应外语输入的汉语语言环境下,如何有效地避免和克服语言磨蚀就显得极为重要,对语言磨蚀的研究将对我国外语教学有着重大启示。
词汇是语言学习的基础,词汇习得是语言习得的一个重要环节,以往对词汇的研究大都关注的是词汇习得的研究,对词汇磨蚀的研究较少。基于此,本文通过对中国四年制大学本科学生在完成两年英语学习的一年后及两年后的词汇能力的磨蚀研究,探讨大学三四年级学生的词汇磨蚀程度及哪些词汇更容易发生磨蚀,并讨论相关因素对词汇磨蚀的影响。期望研究结果能帮助了解汉语背景下中国大学生的英语词汇磨蚀状况,进而指导英语的教与学。
本研究采取定量研究与定性研究相结合的方法,从昆明理工大学电力学院电气自动化专业抽取三个年级(每个年级50名学生)150名学生作为受试对象,即三组受试对象。定量研究的材料来自于对研究对象的词汇测试,定性研究主要分析对三年级50名学生所进行的问卷调查。采集数据使用MATLAB统计工具箱进行分析。
本次研究的发现可以归结如下：1)第二组和第三组受试对象(大三学生和大四学生)在结束两年大学英语学习后都经历了词汇磨蚀,并且大三学生的词汇磨蚀程度比大四学生的词汇磨蚀程度更高；2)《大学英语课程教学要求》中的参考词汇表里的更高要求的词汇最易发生磨蚀,其次是较高要求的词汇,一般要求的词汇在受试对象的词汇体系中相对稳定。消极词汇比积极词汇更容易发生磨蚀;3)不同要求以及词汇本身的特性是影响受试对象词汇磨蚀的首要因素,其次是受试对象自身的因素,如受试对象对英语学习的态度,英语学习的动机以及与英语接触的时间,外部因素也对受试对象的词汇磨蚀有影响,如教师在课堂教学中的输入方式。
以上研究成果对大学英语词汇的教与学有着现实意义。首先教师应从诸多词汇教学方式中挑选出实时教学和抗磨蚀远期效果均好的方式用于教学。其次,外语学习者应有个体的外语学习规划,通过不同的途径增加外语接触机会来防止词汇磨蚀。
The term language attrition has commonly been understood to refer to the loss of any language or any portion of language by an individual or speech community. It was not until after a conference held at the University of Pennsylvania in May 1980 that the processes of language loss or attrition gained an organized focus, and the study of attrition began to become a better known field. In the present study, language attrition refers to the loss of FL skills in the college students after the termination of their formal English language learning program.
Language attrition is the coproduct of language acquisition and interwoven with it, thus, in the course of studying language acquisition, the study of language attrition should not be neglected. However, compared with the study on language attrition abroad, scant attention has been paid to it in China and almost no empirical research has been reported on EFL attrition under Chinese context by Chinese scholars. There are only a few domestic introductory essays. Thus, it is important to study language attrition, to discuss its implication to FL teaching and learning in China.
Vocabulary is the foundation of learning a foreign language, and words are of great importance to a language learner. Up till now, significant research has been devoted to the study of vocabulary acquisition; however, little research effort has been addressed to the loss of lexical skills. The present study is mainly designed to make a tentative study of lexical attrition of Chinese EFL college students after they have completed their formal English learning program. The purpose of this study was to explore how lexical skill was maintained or lost by Chinese EFL college students. In addition, the study endeavored to discover what variables affect the attrition process of lexical skills among Chinese EFL college students.
For this purpose, three groups of non-English major subjects were selected from among thousands of students in a university. The three groups were sophomores, junior students and senior students respectively, and each group was composed of fifty students. Two devices were employed to collect data, namely, the vocabulary test and the students' English learning questionnaire. Data collected from the vocabulary test were put into computer and MATLAB(?) Statistics Toolbox was used to run the analysis. Data collected from the students' English learning questionnaires were analyzed through qualitative analysis.
Through the comparison of three groups of data, the main findings can be summarized as follows. (1) College Junior students and senior students all undergo lexical attrition after the termination of two-year formal English learning program. Junior students suffer more lexical attrition than senior students. (2) The recommended vocabulary in Advanced Requirements is more vulnerable to attrition than the recommended vocabulary in Intermediate Requirements. The recommended vocabulary in Basic Requirements is the lowest in lexical attrition. Passive words are more subject to attrition than active words. (3) Many factors affect lexical attrition of college students, the most obvious ones are the different levels of college English teaching requirements and the attributes of words themselves. Other individual factors also influence the students' lexical attrition, which are attitudes and motivation, time exposure to English learning, and there are also some external factors such as the way of input in formal classroom instruction.
The above findings have several pedagogical implications, especially for vocabulary teaching and learning in college English teaching. On one hand, English teachers are supposed to adopt qualified methods of vocabulary teaching, which should be good at both real-time teaching and maintaining of the competence acquired in the future. On the other hand, it is essential for students to make a long-term English leaning program and to create opportunities for language practice in order to avoid and overcome lexical attrition.
语言磨蚀和语言习得是语言研究的两个面,二者密切相关,忽视任何一面都不可能了解语言学习的全过程。语言磨蚀的研究为语言习得的研究提供了全新的视角。语言磨蚀研究在国外已有近三十年的历史,然而与国外如火如荼的实证研究相比,我国在这一领域仍属空白,虽有几篇介绍性质的文章,但都未能系统地展现语蚀研究全貌。基于此,在缺乏相应外语输入的汉语语言环境下,如何有效地避免和克服语言磨蚀就显得极为重要,对语言磨蚀的研究将对我国外语教学有着重大启示。
词汇是语言学习的基础,词汇习得是语言习得的一个重要环节,以往对词汇的研究大都关注的是词汇习得的研究,对词汇磨蚀的研究较少。基于此,本文通过对中国四年制大学本科学生在完成两年英语学习的一年后及两年后的词汇能力的磨蚀研究,探讨大学三四年级学生的词汇磨蚀程度及哪些词汇更容易发生磨蚀,并讨论相关因素对词汇磨蚀的影响。期望研究结果能帮助了解汉语背景下中国大学生的英语词汇磨蚀状况,进而指导英语的教与学。
本研究采取定量研究与定性研究相结合的方法,从昆明理工大学电力学院电气自动化专业抽取三个年级(每个年级50名学生)150名学生作为受试对象,即三组受试对象。定量研究的材料来自于对研究对象的词汇测试,定性研究主要分析对三年级50名学生所进行的问卷调查。采集数据使用MATLAB统计工具箱进行分析。
本次研究的发现可以归结如下：1)第二组和第三组受试对象(大三学生和大四学生)在结束两年大学英语学习后都经历了词汇磨蚀,并且大三学生的词汇磨蚀程度比大四学生的词汇磨蚀程度更高；2)《大学英语课程教学要求》中的参考词汇表里的更高要求的词汇最易发生磨蚀,其次是较高要求的词汇,一般要求的词汇在受试对象的词汇体系中相对稳定。消极词汇比积极词汇更容易发生磨蚀;3)不同要求以及词汇本身的特性是影响受试对象词汇磨蚀的首要因素,其次是受试对象自身的因素,如受试对象对英语学习的态度,英语学习的动机以及与英语接触的时间,外部因素也对受试对象的词汇磨蚀有影响,如教师在课堂教学中的输入方式。
以上研究成果对大学英语词汇的教与学有着现实意义。首先教师应从诸多词汇教学方式中挑选出实时教学和抗磨蚀远期效果均好的方式用于教学。其次,外语学习者应有个体的外语学习规划,通过不同的途径增加外语接触机会来防止词汇磨蚀。
The term language attrition has commonly been understood to refer to the loss of any language or any portion of language by an individual or speech community. It was not until after a conference held at the University of Pennsylvania in May 1980 that the processes of language loss or attrition gained an organized focus, and the study of attrition began to become a better known field. In the present study, language attrition refers to the loss of FL skills in the college students after the termination of their formal English language learning program.
Language attrition is the coproduct of language acquisition and interwoven with it, thus, in the course of studying language acquisition, the study of language attrition should not be neglected. However, compared with the study on language attrition abroad, scant attention has been paid to it in China and almost no empirical research has been reported on EFL attrition under Chinese context by Chinese scholars. There are only a few domestic introductory essays. Thus, it is important to study language attrition, to discuss its implication to FL teaching and learning in China.
Vocabulary is the foundation of learning a foreign language, and words are of great importance to a language learner. Up till now, significant research has been devoted to the study of vocabulary acquisition; however, little research effort has been addressed to the loss of lexical skills. The present study is mainly designed to make a tentative study of lexical attrition of Chinese EFL college students after they have completed their formal English learning program. The purpose of this study was to explore how lexical skill was maintained or lost by Chinese EFL college students. In addition, the study endeavored to discover what variables affect the attrition process of lexical skills among Chinese EFL college students.
For this purpose, three groups of non-English major subjects were selected from among thousands of students in a university. The three groups were sophomores, junior students and senior students respectively, and each group was composed of fifty students. Two devices were employed to collect data, namely, the vocabulary test and the students' English learning questionnaire. Data collected from the vocabulary test were put into computer and MATLAB(?) Statistics Toolbox was used to run the analysis. Data collected from the students' English learning questionnaires were analyzed through qualitative analysis.
Through the comparison of three groups of data, the main findings can be summarized as follows. (1) College Junior students and senior students all undergo lexical attrition after the termination of two-year formal English learning program. Junior students suffer more lexical attrition than senior students. (2) The recommended vocabulary in Advanced Requirements is more vulnerable to attrition than the recommended vocabulary in Intermediate Requirements. The recommended vocabulary in Basic Requirements is the lowest in lexical attrition. Passive words are more subject to attrition than active words. (3) Many factors affect lexical attrition of college students, the most obvious ones are the different levels of college English teaching requirements and the attributes of words themselves. Other individual factors also influence the students' lexical attrition, which are attitudes and motivation, time exposure to English learning, and there are also some external factors such as the way of input in formal classroom instruction.
The above findings have several pedagogical implications, especially for vocabulary teaching and learning in college English teaching. On one hand, English teachers are supposed to adopt qualified methods of vocabulary teaching, which should be good at both real-time teaching and maintaining of the competence acquired in the future. On the other hand, it is essential for students to make a long-term English leaning program and to create opportunities for language practice in order to avoid and overcome lexical attrition.
引文
Andersen, R. W. (1982). Determining the linguistic attributes of language attrition. In R.Lambert & B.Freed (Eds.), The loss of language skills (pp.83-118). Rowley,MA:Newbury House.
Bahrick, H. P. (1984). Fifty years of second language attrition:Implications for programmatic research. MLJ,68(2),105-118.
Berko-Gleason, J. (1982). Insights from child language acquistion for second language loss. In R. D. Lambert & B. F. Freed (Eds.), The loss of language skills (pp.12-23). Rowley, MA:Newbury House.
Berman, R. A.,& Olshtain, E. (1983). Features of first language transfer in second lanuage attrition. Applied Linguistics,4(3),222-234.
Brown,& Graham, R. (2001, March 27). Second language vocabulary acquisition and attrition. Paper presented at the TESOL 91 annual meeting, New York.
Bshrick, H. P. (1984). Associations and organization in cognitive psychology:A reply to Neisser. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,113(1),36-37.
Cai, H.,& Zhou, R. (2004). A survey of language attrition studies. Psychological Science 27(4),924-926.
Clark, J. L. D.,& Jorden, E. H. (1984). A study of language attrition informer U.S. students of Japanese and implications for design of curriculum and teaching materials. Final Project Report: Washington, DC:Centre for Applied Linguistics.
Coady, J.,& Huckin, T. (Eds.). (1997). second language vocabulary acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, A. (1975). Forgetting a second language. Language Learning(25),127-138.
Cohen, A. (1986). Forgetting foreign language vocabulary. In B. Weltens, K. de Bot & T. van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress (pp.143-158). Dordrecht:Foris.
Cohen, A. (1989). Attrition in the productive lexicon of two Portuguese third language speakers. SSLA, 11(2),135-150.
de Bot, K. (2001). language use as an interface between sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic processes in language attrtition and language shift. In J. Klatter-Folmer & P. v. Avermaet (Eds.), Theories on maintenance and loss of minority languages:towards a more integrated explanatory framework (pp.65-82). Munster:Waxmann.
de Bot, K.,& Weltens, B. (1991). Recapitulation, regression, and language loss. In H. Seliger & R. Vago(Eds.),(pp.31-52).
de Bot, K.,& Weltens, B. (1995). Foreign language attrition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics,15, 151-164.
Gardner, R. C. (1982). Social factors in language retention. In R. D. Lambert & B. freed (Eds.), The loss of language skills Rowley, Mass:Newbury House.
Gardner, R. C, Lalonde, R. N.,& MacPherson, J. (1985). Social factors in second language attriton. Language Learning,35(4),519-540.
Gardner, R. C., Lalonde, R. N., Moorcroft, R.,& Evers, F. T. (1987). Second language attrition:The role of motivation and use. Journal of Language and Social Psychology,6(1),29-47.
Godsall-Myers, J. E. (1981). The atttrition of language skills in German classroom bilinguals-A case study. Dissertation Abstracts International 43,157A.
Graham, C. R. (1990). What is lost and why:Astudy of language attrition among fluent adult speakers of Spanish as a second language. Paper presented at the Deseret Language and Linguistics Symposium, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.
Grendel, M. (1993). Attrition and recovery of lexical knowledge. Ph.D. thesis, University of Nijmegen.
Hansen, L. (1980). Learning and forgetting a second language:The acquistion, loss and reacquisition of Hindi-Urdu negative structures by English-speaking children. Dissertation Abstracts International,43,193A.
Hansen, L. (2001). Language attrition:The fate of the start In M. McGroarty (Ed.), Annual Review of the Applied Linguistics Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Hansen, L. (Ed.). (1999). Second language attrition in Japanese contexts. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Hedgcock, J. (1991). Foreign language retention and attrition:A study of regression models. Foreign Language Annals,249(1),43-53.
Hideyuki, T. (1998). Bilingual dual coding in Japanese returnee students. Language,culture and curriculum,11(1).
Jakobson. (1941). Kindersprache, Aphasie und allegemeine lautgesetze(Child language aphasia and phonological universal). The Hague:Mouton.
Kopke, B.,& Schmid, M. (2004). Language attrition:the next phase. In M. Schmid & e. al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on First Language Attrition:Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Methodological Issues. Amsterdam:John Benjamins.
Kopke, B., Schmidj M. S., Keijzer, M.,& Dostert, S. (Eds.). (2007). Language attrition-theoretical perspectives. Amsterdam:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Kuhberg, H. (1992). Longitudinal L2-attrition versus L2-acquisition in three Turkish children Empirical findings Second Language Research,8(2),138-154.
Lambert, R. D.,& Freed, B. (Eds.). (1982). The loss of language skills. Rowley, MA:Newbury House Publishers.
Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. Hove and London, England:Language Teaching Publications.
McMahon, N. (1946). The effects of summer vacation on retention of Latin vocabulary. Unpublished master's thesis, Fordham University, New York.
Messelink, J.,& Verkuylen, H. (1984). Het verlies van woordenkennis van het Frans (doctoral project): Nijmegen:KUN.
Nagasawa, S. (1999). Learing and losing Japanese as a second language:A multiple case study of American university student. In L.Hansen (Ed.), Second Language Attrition in Japanese Context (pp.169-200). Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Nation, P.,& Newton, J. (1997). Teaching vocabulary. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp.238-254). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Neisser, U. (1984). Interpreting Harry Bahrick's discovery:What confers immunity against forgetting? Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,113(1),32-35.
Olshtain, E. (1986). The attrition of English as a second language with speakers of Hebrew. In B. Weltens, K. de Bot & T. van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress (pp.187-204). Dordrecht: Foris.
Olshtain, E. (1989). Is second language attrition the reversal of second language acquistion? SSLA, 11(2),151-165.
Olshtain, E.,& Barzelay, M. (1991). Lexical retrieval difficulties in adult language attrition. In H. Seliger & R. Vago (Eds.), First language attrition (pp.139-150). Cambridge:Cambridge Uni. Press.
Reetz, A. (1999). A re Japanese returnees keeping their English? In L.Hansen (Ed.), Second Language Attrition in Japanese Contexts. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Russell, R. (1999). Measuring attrition in L2 Japanese syntactic competence Representation and process:Proceedings of the 3th Pacific second language reasearch forum,1,297-308.
Scherer, G. A. C. (1957). The forgetting rate of learning German. German Quarterly(30),275-277.
Schmid, M. S. (2004). First language attrition:The methodology revised. International Journal of Bilingualism,8(3),239-255.
Schmid, M. S., Kopke, B., Keijzer, M.,& Weilemar, L. (Eds.). (2004). First language attrition-interdisciplinary perspectives on methodological issues. Amsterdam:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Schmitt, N.,& McCarthy, M. (Eds.). (1997). Vocabulary:description, acquisition and pedagogy. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Smythe, P. C.,& Jutras, G. R. (1973). Second language retention over varying time intervals. Modern Language Journal(57),400-405.
Sokmen, A. J. (1997). Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary:description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp.237-257). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tomiyama, M. (1999). The first stage of second language attrition:A case study of a Japanese returnee. In L. Hansen (Ed.), Second language attrition:Evidence from Japanese contexts (pp.59-79).
Tomiyama, M. (2000). Child language attrition:A longitudinal case study. Applied Linguistics,21(3), 304-332.
Vago, R. M. (1991). Paradigmatic regularity in first language attrition. In H. W. Seliger & R. M. Vago (Eds.), First Language Attrition. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
van Els, T. (1986). An overview of European research on language attrition. In B. Weltens, K. d. Bot & T. van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress. Dordrecht:Foris Publications.
Van Els, T.,& Weltens, B. (1989). Foreign language loss research form a European point of view. JTL Review of Applied Linguistics(83-84),19-35.
Vechter, P., Lapkin, S.,& Argue, V. (1990). Second language retention:a summary of the issues. The Canadian Modern Language Review,46(2),189-203.
Weltens, B. (1987). The attrition of foreign-language skills:A literature review. Applied Linguistics(8), 22-37.
Weltens, B. (1989). The attrition of French as a foreign language. Dordrecht:Foris Publications.
Weltens, B.,& Crendel, M. (1993). Attrition of vocabulary knowledge. In R.Schreuder & B.Weltens (Eds.), The Bilingual Lexicon (pp.135-156). Amsterdam:John Benjamin.
Weltens, B., de Bot, K.,& Van Els, T. (1986). Language attrition in progress. Dordrecht:Foris.
Weltens, B.,& van Els, T. (1986). The attrition of French as a foreign language:interim results. In B. Weltens, K. d. Bot & T. van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress (pp.205-221). Dordrecht: Foris.
Weltens, B., van Els, T.,& E.Schils. (1989). The long-term retention of French by Dutch students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,11(2),205-216.
Yamamoto. (2001). Language use in interlingual families:A Japanese-English sociolinguistic study. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters, Ltd.
Yoshitomi, A. (1992). Towards a model of language attrition:Neurobiological and psychological contributions. Issues in Applied Linguistics,3(2),293-318.
Yukawa, E. (1998). LI Japanese attrition and regaining:Three case studies of two early bilingual children. Tokyo:Kurosio.
何婧媛.(2006,).汉语环境下的第二语言耗损及其对外语教学的启示.西华师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)(4),39-41.
李萍,郑树棠.(2004).外语损耗与保持.山东外语教学(5).
倪传斌,延俊荣.(2006).外语“磨蚀”的影响因素分析.外语教学与研究，38(1),50-55.
倪传斌,刘治.(2007).二语习得与磨蚀的基本目标水平对比分析.外语与外语教学(5),28-31.
倪传斌,刘治.(2008).基于外语“磨蚀”的教育学反思.外语与外语教学(3),38-40.
教育部高等教育司.(2007).大学英语教学要求.北京：外语教学与研究出版社.
蔡寒松,周榕.(2004).语言耗损研究述评.心理科学，27(4),924-926.
杨晋.(2006).关于系统教育结束后中国英语学习者英语语言能力流损研究的必要性.山东外语教学(6),13-17.
杨连瑞,潘克菊.(2007).语言损耗研究的理论框架及途径.中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版)(3),77-81.
钟书能.(2003).语言流损研究对我国外语教学与研究的启示.外语教学.24(1),66-70.
Bahrick, H. P. (1984). Fifty years of second language attrition:Implications for programmatic research. MLJ,68(2),105-118.
Berko-Gleason, J. (1982). Insights from child language acquistion for second language loss. In R. D. Lambert & B. F. Freed (Eds.), The loss of language skills (pp.12-23). Rowley, MA:Newbury House.
Berman, R. A.,& Olshtain, E. (1983). Features of first language transfer in second lanuage attrition. Applied Linguistics,4(3),222-234.
Brown,& Graham, R. (2001, March 27). Second language vocabulary acquisition and attrition. Paper presented at the TESOL 91 annual meeting, New York.
Bshrick, H. P. (1984). Associations and organization in cognitive psychology:A reply to Neisser. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,113(1),36-37.
Cai, H.,& Zhou, R. (2004). A survey of language attrition studies. Psychological Science 27(4),924-926.
Clark, J. L. D.,& Jorden, E. H. (1984). A study of language attrition informer U.S. students of Japanese and implications for design of curriculum and teaching materials. Final Project Report: Washington, DC:Centre for Applied Linguistics.
Coady, J.,& Huckin, T. (Eds.). (1997). second language vocabulary acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cohen, A. (1975). Forgetting a second language. Language Learning(25),127-138.
Cohen, A. (1986). Forgetting foreign language vocabulary. In B. Weltens, K. de Bot & T. van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress (pp.143-158). Dordrecht:Foris.
Cohen, A. (1989). Attrition in the productive lexicon of two Portuguese third language speakers. SSLA, 11(2),135-150.
de Bot, K. (2001). language use as an interface between sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic processes in language attrtition and language shift. In J. Klatter-Folmer & P. v. Avermaet (Eds.), Theories on maintenance and loss of minority languages:towards a more integrated explanatory framework (pp.65-82). Munster:Waxmann.
de Bot, K.,& Weltens, B. (1991). Recapitulation, regression, and language loss. In H. Seliger & R. Vago(Eds.),(pp.31-52).
de Bot, K.,& Weltens, B. (1995). Foreign language attrition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics,15, 151-164.
Gardner, R. C. (1982). Social factors in language retention. In R. D. Lambert & B. freed (Eds.), The loss of language skills Rowley, Mass:Newbury House.
Gardner, R. C, Lalonde, R. N.,& MacPherson, J. (1985). Social factors in second language attriton. Language Learning,35(4),519-540.
Gardner, R. C., Lalonde, R. N., Moorcroft, R.,& Evers, F. T. (1987). Second language attrition:The role of motivation and use. Journal of Language and Social Psychology,6(1),29-47.
Godsall-Myers, J. E. (1981). The atttrition of language skills in German classroom bilinguals-A case study. Dissertation Abstracts International 43,157A.
Graham, C. R. (1990). What is lost and why:Astudy of language attrition among fluent adult speakers of Spanish as a second language. Paper presented at the Deseret Language and Linguistics Symposium, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah.
Grendel, M. (1993). Attrition and recovery of lexical knowledge. Ph.D. thesis, University of Nijmegen.
Hansen, L. (1980). Learning and forgetting a second language:The acquistion, loss and reacquisition of Hindi-Urdu negative structures by English-speaking children. Dissertation Abstracts International,43,193A.
Hansen, L. (2001). Language attrition:The fate of the start In M. McGroarty (Ed.), Annual Review of the Applied Linguistics Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Hansen, L. (Ed.). (1999). Second language attrition in Japanese contexts. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Hedgcock, J. (1991). Foreign language retention and attrition:A study of regression models. Foreign Language Annals,249(1),43-53.
Hideyuki, T. (1998). Bilingual dual coding in Japanese returnee students. Language,culture and curriculum,11(1).
Jakobson. (1941). Kindersprache, Aphasie und allegemeine lautgesetze(Child language aphasia and phonological universal). The Hague:Mouton.
Kopke, B.,& Schmid, M. (2004). Language attrition:the next phase. In M. Schmid & e. al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference on First Language Attrition:Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Methodological Issues. Amsterdam:John Benjamins.
Kopke, B., Schmidj M. S., Keijzer, M.,& Dostert, S. (Eds.). (2007). Language attrition-theoretical perspectives. Amsterdam:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Kuhberg, H. (1992). Longitudinal L2-attrition versus L2-acquisition in three Turkish children Empirical findings Second Language Research,8(2),138-154.
Lambert, R. D.,& Freed, B. (Eds.). (1982). The loss of language skills. Rowley, MA:Newbury House Publishers.
Lewis, M. (1993). The lexical approach. Hove and London, England:Language Teaching Publications.
McMahon, N. (1946). The effects of summer vacation on retention of Latin vocabulary. Unpublished master's thesis, Fordham University, New York.
Messelink, J.,& Verkuylen, H. (1984). Het verlies van woordenkennis van het Frans (doctoral project): Nijmegen:KUN.
Nagasawa, S. (1999). Learing and losing Japanese as a second language:A multiple case study of American university student. In L.Hansen (Ed.), Second Language Attrition in Japanese Context (pp.169-200). Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Nation, P.,& Newton, J. (1997). Teaching vocabulary. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition (pp.238-254). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Neisser, U. (1984). Interpreting Harry Bahrick's discovery:What confers immunity against forgetting? Journal of Experimental Psychology:General,113(1),32-35.
Olshtain, E. (1986). The attrition of English as a second language with speakers of Hebrew. In B. Weltens, K. de Bot & T. van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress (pp.187-204). Dordrecht: Foris.
Olshtain, E. (1989). Is second language attrition the reversal of second language acquistion? SSLA, 11(2),151-165.
Olshtain, E.,& Barzelay, M. (1991). Lexical retrieval difficulties in adult language attrition. In H. Seliger & R. Vago (Eds.), First language attrition (pp.139-150). Cambridge:Cambridge Uni. Press.
Reetz, A. (1999). A re Japanese returnees keeping their English? In L.Hansen (Ed.), Second Language Attrition in Japanese Contexts. Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Russell, R. (1999). Measuring attrition in L2 Japanese syntactic competence Representation and process:Proceedings of the 3th Pacific second language reasearch forum,1,297-308.
Scherer, G. A. C. (1957). The forgetting rate of learning German. German Quarterly(30),275-277.
Schmid, M. S. (2004). First language attrition:The methodology revised. International Journal of Bilingualism,8(3),239-255.
Schmid, M. S., Kopke, B., Keijzer, M.,& Weilemar, L. (Eds.). (2004). First language attrition-interdisciplinary perspectives on methodological issues. Amsterdam:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Schmitt, N.,& McCarthy, M. (Eds.). (1997). Vocabulary:description, acquisition and pedagogy. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Smythe, P. C.,& Jutras, G. R. (1973). Second language retention over varying time intervals. Modern Language Journal(57),400-405.
Sokmen, A. J. (1997). Current trends in teaching second language vocabulary. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary:description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp.237-257). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tomiyama, M. (1999). The first stage of second language attrition:A case study of a Japanese returnee. In L. Hansen (Ed.), Second language attrition:Evidence from Japanese contexts (pp.59-79).
Tomiyama, M. (2000). Child language attrition:A longitudinal case study. Applied Linguistics,21(3), 304-332.
Vago, R. M. (1991). Paradigmatic regularity in first language attrition. In H. W. Seliger & R. M. Vago (Eds.), First Language Attrition. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
van Els, T. (1986). An overview of European research on language attrition. In B. Weltens, K. d. Bot & T. van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress. Dordrecht:Foris Publications.
Van Els, T.,& Weltens, B. (1989). Foreign language loss research form a European point of view. JTL Review of Applied Linguistics(83-84),19-35.
Vechter, P., Lapkin, S.,& Argue, V. (1990). Second language retention:a summary of the issues. The Canadian Modern Language Review,46(2),189-203.
Weltens, B. (1987). The attrition of foreign-language skills:A literature review. Applied Linguistics(8), 22-37.
Weltens, B. (1989). The attrition of French as a foreign language. Dordrecht:Foris Publications.
Weltens, B.,& Crendel, M. (1993). Attrition of vocabulary knowledge. In R.Schreuder & B.Weltens (Eds.), The Bilingual Lexicon (pp.135-156). Amsterdam:John Benjamin.
Weltens, B., de Bot, K.,& Van Els, T. (1986). Language attrition in progress. Dordrecht:Foris.
Weltens, B.,& van Els, T. (1986). The attrition of French as a foreign language:interim results. In B. Weltens, K. d. Bot & T. van Els (Eds.), Language attrition in progress (pp.205-221). Dordrecht: Foris.
Weltens, B., van Els, T.,& E.Schils. (1989). The long-term retention of French by Dutch students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,11(2),205-216.
Yamamoto. (2001). Language use in interlingual families:A Japanese-English sociolinguistic study. Clevedon:Multilingual Matters, Ltd.
Yoshitomi, A. (1992). Towards a model of language attrition:Neurobiological and psychological contributions. Issues in Applied Linguistics,3(2),293-318.
Yukawa, E. (1998). LI Japanese attrition and regaining:Three case studies of two early bilingual children. Tokyo:Kurosio.
何婧媛.(2006,).汉语环境下的第二语言耗损及其对外语教学的启示.西华师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)(4),39-41.
李萍,郑树棠.(2004).外语损耗与保持.山东外语教学(5).
倪传斌,延俊荣.(2006).外语“磨蚀”的影响因素分析.外语教学与研究，38(1),50-55.
倪传斌,刘治.(2007).二语习得与磨蚀的基本目标水平对比分析.外语与外语教学(5),28-31.
倪传斌,刘治.(2008).基于外语“磨蚀”的教育学反思.外语与外语教学(3),38-40.
教育部高等教育司.(2007).大学英语教学要求.北京：外语教学与研究出版社.
蔡寒松,周榕.(2004).语言耗损研究述评.心理科学，27(4),924-926.
杨晋.(2006).关于系统教育结束后中国英语学习者英语语言能力流损研究的必要性.山东外语教学(6),13-17.
杨连瑞,潘克菊.(2007).语言损耗研究的理论框架及途径.中国海洋大学学报(社会科学版)(3),77-81.
钟书能.(2003).语言流损研究对我国外语教学与研究的启示.外语教学.24(1),66-70.