林登·约翰逊和“伟大社会”改革研究
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摘要
战后美国物质丰裕，经济繁荣，然而，繁华的表象下潜伏着深刻危机，主要表现为经济发展缺乏持续的动力、种族隔离与歧视导致种族对抗加剧、教育和就业机会不平等、贫富差距扩大和公共服务“缺失”等矛盾凸现，保守的艾森豪威尔并没有有效地运用自己的威望和权力进行必要改革，积重难返的社会危机蕴藏着改革的动力。
50年代中期之后，自由派很好地解读了这个时代的特性，史蒂文森、加尔布雷斯、小施莱辛格、汉佛莱等民主党人在50年代对自由主义精神的阐释、宣传和政治实践，对保守主义的攻击，使人耳目一新，自由主义改革精神复兴。1960年11月，肯尼迪成为美国历史上最年轻的总统，在“新边疆”的口号下，自由的行动主义者聚集在肯尼迪周围，在国家经济政策、民权、教育、医疗和反贫困等方面进行了大量的尝试性改革。但在政府内部保守势力仍然十分强大的情况下，肯尼迪的许多改革计划在国会就被搁置了。
1963年11月22日，肯尼迪在达拉斯被暗杀，林登·约翰逊继任总统，接过了自由主义改革大旗。他继承了肯尼迪自由主义改革遗产，并发扬光大。1964年5月22日，约翰逊在密歇根大学发表了关于“伟大社会”的演讲，在随后18个月的重要讲话和提交国会的立法建议中，约翰逊明确地表达了“伟大社会”改革目标：第一，全力以赴消灭贫困；第二，消除种族歧视，追求社会平等；第三，改善生活质量。约翰逊希望通过改革结束贫困和不公平，使所有人都有机会平等进入美国主流政治经济生活，有机会分享美国的富裕，使每一个美国人都能过上充实、富裕、安详的生活。围绕着这些目标，约翰逊在民权、反贫困、医疗和教育、城市改造和建设、改善生活质量等领域发动了全面改革。
“伟大社会”改革是基于这样约翰逊的许多假设的基础上：第一，经济持续快速增长产生改革所需要的“红利”，在不牺牲中产阶级利益的前提下，使所有美国人都有机会共享社会经济繁荣；第二，贫困和不平等等社会邪恶并不是由人的劣根性造成的，而是文化、社会制度等外部环境的影响；第三，人性都是向善的，帮助穷人和弱势群体是文明社会政府和所有公民的责任；第四，为了实现共同目标，善意的权力集中是所有人都能够理解和支持的……。改革的进展并不以约翰逊的主观意志为转移，在改革中，许多计划在具体实施的过程中涉及到联邦、州和地方的权力分配、阶级和集团利益、国家的财力、文化传统、意识形态等等诸多现实问题。另外，约翰逊的承诺激起了黑人和其他少数民族弱势群体对“结果平等”社会的期待，种族问题和贫困问题交织在一起，黑人试图通过暴力和激进的手段来发泄他们对社会不公的不满，表达对“结果平等”社会的诉求，骚乱、
There are abundance products and flourishing economy in Postwar American, however, under lively representation lays dormant profound crisis. It mainly appeared as economic advance absented standing power, the racial segregation and the discrimination which caused the race resistance intensively, the opportunity of education and the employment was not equality, the gap of the rich and the poor had been enlarged, the community service was lacunae, and so on. The conservative Eisenhower had not effectively taken advantage of his own prestige and power to carry on the essential reform. The unpenetrable social crisis was containing the power of reform.
After interim of the 50's, the liberals well unscrambled the era characteristic, the Democratic such as Stevenson, John Kenneth Galbraith, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Hubert Humphrey, who explained, propagandized, and practiced the spirit of liberalism ,and attacked the conservatism in the 50's, had made people find everything new and fresh. The spirit of liberalism reform is reviving.
In November, 1960, Kennedy became the youngest president in American history, Under the slogan of New Frontier, the liberal actionist gathered around Kennedy. They carried through the massive attemptive reform in the economic policy, the civil rights, the education, the medical service and counter-poverty and so on. But the conservatives are still formidable in the government interior. Many reforms plan of Kennedy government are put aside in Congress.
On November 22, 1963, Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas; Lyndon Johnson succeeded the president, received the liberalism reform flag. He has inherited the Kennedy liberalism reform inheritance, and carries it forward. On May 22, 1964, Johnson gave the lecture about Great Society in the University of Michigan. Johnson explicitly expressed the goal of Great Society in the important speeches and legislation to the Congress in later 18 months. The first is to perish the poverty by whole-heartedly; the second is to eliminate the racial discrimination, and pursue the society equality; the third is to improve the quality of life. Johnson hoped to end the poverty and unfair through the reform which enable everyone have the equal opportunity to enter the American mainstream politics economic life, have the opportunity to share the American wealth, to enjoy enrich, abundant, and serene life. Surrounding these goals, Johnson launched the comprehensive reform in the field of
50年代中期之后，自由派很好地解读了这个时代的特性，史蒂文森、加尔布雷斯、小施莱辛格、汉佛莱等民主党人在50年代对自由主义精神的阐释、宣传和政治实践，对保守主义的攻击，使人耳目一新，自由主义改革精神复兴。1960年11月，肯尼迪成为美国历史上最年轻的总统，在“新边疆”的口号下，自由的行动主义者聚集在肯尼迪周围，在国家经济政策、民权、教育、医疗和反贫困等方面进行了大量的尝试性改革。但在政府内部保守势力仍然十分强大的情况下，肯尼迪的许多改革计划在国会就被搁置了。
1963年11月22日，肯尼迪在达拉斯被暗杀，林登·约翰逊继任总统，接过了自由主义改革大旗。他继承了肯尼迪自由主义改革遗产，并发扬光大。1964年5月22日，约翰逊在密歇根大学发表了关于“伟大社会”的演讲，在随后18个月的重要讲话和提交国会的立法建议中，约翰逊明确地表达了“伟大社会”改革目标：第一，全力以赴消灭贫困；第二，消除种族歧视，追求社会平等；第三，改善生活质量。约翰逊希望通过改革结束贫困和不公平，使所有人都有机会平等进入美国主流政治经济生活，有机会分享美国的富裕，使每一个美国人都能过上充实、富裕、安详的生活。围绕着这些目标，约翰逊在民权、反贫困、医疗和教育、城市改造和建设、改善生活质量等领域发动了全面改革。
“伟大社会”改革是基于这样约翰逊的许多假设的基础上：第一，经济持续快速增长产生改革所需要的“红利”，在不牺牲中产阶级利益的前提下，使所有美国人都有机会共享社会经济繁荣；第二，贫困和不平等等社会邪恶并不是由人的劣根性造成的，而是文化、社会制度等外部环境的影响；第三，人性都是向善的，帮助穷人和弱势群体是文明社会政府和所有公民的责任；第四，为了实现共同目标，善意的权力集中是所有人都能够理解和支持的……。改革的进展并不以约翰逊的主观意志为转移，在改革中，许多计划在具体实施的过程中涉及到联邦、州和地方的权力分配、阶级和集团利益、国家的财力、文化传统、意识形态等等诸多现实问题。另外，约翰逊的承诺激起了黑人和其他少数民族弱势群体对“结果平等”社会的期待，种族问题和贫困问题交织在一起，黑人试图通过暴力和激进的手段来发泄他们对社会不公的不满，表达对“结果平等”社会的诉求，骚乱、
There are abundance products and flourishing economy in Postwar American, however, under lively representation lays dormant profound crisis. It mainly appeared as economic advance absented standing power, the racial segregation and the discrimination which caused the race resistance intensively, the opportunity of education and the employment was not equality, the gap of the rich and the poor had been enlarged, the community service was lacunae, and so on. The conservative Eisenhower had not effectively taken advantage of his own prestige and power to carry on the essential reform. The unpenetrable social crisis was containing the power of reform.
After interim of the 50's, the liberals well unscrambled the era characteristic, the Democratic such as Stevenson, John Kenneth Galbraith, Arthur M. Schlesinger, Hubert Humphrey, who explained, propagandized, and practiced the spirit of liberalism ,and attacked the conservatism in the 50's, had made people find everything new and fresh. The spirit of liberalism reform is reviving.
In November, 1960, Kennedy became the youngest president in American history, Under the slogan of New Frontier, the liberal actionist gathered around Kennedy. They carried through the massive attemptive reform in the economic policy, the civil rights, the education, the medical service and counter-poverty and so on. But the conservatives are still formidable in the government interior. Many reforms plan of Kennedy government are put aside in Congress.
On November 22, 1963, Kennedy is assassinated in Dallas; Lyndon Johnson succeeded the president, received the liberalism reform flag. He has inherited the Kennedy liberalism reform inheritance, and carries it forward. On May 22, 1964, Johnson gave the lecture about Great Society in the University of Michigan. Johnson explicitly expressed the goal of Great Society in the important speeches and legislation to the Congress in later 18 months. The first is to perish the poverty by whole-heartedly; the second is to eliminate the racial discrimination, and pursue the society equality; the third is to improve the quality of life. Johnson hoped to end the poverty and unfair through the reform which enable everyone have the equal opportunity to enter the American mainstream politics economic life, have the opportunity to share the American wealth, to enjoy enrich, abundant, and serene life. Surrounding these goals, Johnson launched the comprehensive reform in the field of
引文
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[1] Andrews, Theodore Howard, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, and the politics of poverty, 1960-1967, (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, 1998)
[2] Carcasson, Martin, B.A., "Negotiating the Paradoxes of Poverty: Presidential Rhetoric on Welfare from Johnson to Clinton", (Ph.D. diss., Texas A&M University, 2004).
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[4] Hopkins, Michael J., "The Influence of Lyndon Johnson on the Origins and Politics of the War on Poverty: A Study of Presidential Strengths and Weaknesses"??(Ph.D. diss., The California State State University, 2003.
[5] FIamm, Michael W., "Law and Order": Street Crime, Civil Disorder, and the Crisis of Liberalism (PH.D., diss., 1998, Columbia University.)
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约翰逊总统图书馆：http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/
兰开斯特大学历史系：http://www.lancs.ac.uk/users/history/histwebsite/homepage.htm.
弗吉尼亚大学：http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/uvaonline.html
美国历史：http://www.questia.com/library/history/united-states-history/contemporary-u.s
[2] (美)H·N·沙伊贝H·U·瓦特H·U·福克纳：《近百年美国经济史》，中国社会科学出版社，1983年。
[3] (美)阿瑟·小施莱辛格：《美国民主党史》《美国共和党史》，复旦大学国际政治系编译，上海人民出版社，1977年。
[4] (美)埃里克·方纳：《美国自由的故事》，王希译，商务印书馆，2003年。
[5] (美)艾捷尔：《美国赖以立国的文本》，海南出版社，2000年。
[6] (美)鲍德温·大卫：《新现实主义和新自由主义》，浙江人民出版社，2001年。
[7] (美)彼得·沃尔：《美国政府内幕》，李洪徐昕译，中国社科文献出版社，1992年。
[8] (美)查里斯·R·吉斯特，《美国垄断史：帝国的缔造者和他们的敌人》，傅浩等译，经济科学出版社，2004年。
[9] (美)戴维·凯瑟：《美国悲剧：肯尼迪约翰逊导演的越南战争》邵文实 王爱松译，北京：昆仑出版社，2001年。
[10] (美)戴维·斯泰格沃德：《六十年代与现代美国的终结》，周朗新港译，商务印书馆，2002年。
[11] (美)丹尼尔·贝尔：《后工业社会》，彭强编译，科学普及出版社，1985年。
[12] (美)弗里德里克·普赖尔：《美国资本主义的未来》，黄胜强等译，中国社会科学出版社，2004年。
[13] (美)福克纳：《美国经济史》，商务印书馆，1989年。
[14] (美)赫伯特·斯坦：《美国总统经济史》，吉林人民出版社，1996年。
[15] (美)加里·沃塞曼：《美国政治基础》，陆震纶等译，中国社会科学出版社，1994年。
[16] (美)拉尔夫·德·贝茨：《1933～1973美国史》，南京大学历史系译，人民出版社，1984年。
[17] (美)林登·约翰逊：《约翰逊回忆录》，复旦大学资本主义国家经济研究所编译组节译，上海人民出版社，1973年。[18] (美)罗伯特·达莱克：《肯尼迪传》，曹建海译，中信出版社，2005年。
[19] (美)罗伯特·肖甘：《双刃剑：性格如何塑造和毁灭美国总统》，张峰译，北京出版社，2001年。
[20] (美)迈克尔·哈林顿，《另一个美国：美国的贫困》，世界知识出版社，1963年。
[21] (美)迈克尔·麦德维德：《影子总统：总统及其高级助手的秘史》，辛耀文译，新华出版社，1986年。
[22] (美)梅里亚姆：《美国政治思想》，商务印书馆，1988年
[23] (美)米尔顿·弗里德曼：《资本主义与自由》，张瑞玉译，商务印书馆，1986年。
[24] (美)纳尔逊·曼弗雷德·布莱克：《美国社会生活与思想史》，许季鸿等译，商务印书馆，1997年。
[25] (美)尼克松：《尼克松回忆录》，下册，裘克安等译，北京：商务印书馆，1979年。
[26] (美)乔安妮·格兰特：《美国黑人斗争史》，中国社会科学出版社，1987年。
[27] (美)乔恩·谢泼德哈文·沃斯：《美国社会问题》，乔寿宁译，山西人民出版社，1987年。
[28] (美)斯蒂芬·斯科夫罗内克：《总统政治》，黄云等译，北京：新华出版社，2003年。
[29] (美)威廉·曼彻斯特：《光荣与梦想——1932～1972年美国实录》 第四册，朱协译，商务印书馆，1980年。
[30] (美)文森特·奥斯特罗姆：《美国联邦主义》，王建勋译，上海三联书店，2003年。
[31] (美)西摩·马丁·李普塞特：《一致与冲突》，张华青等译，上海人民出版社，1995年。
[32] (美)亚历克斯·卡利尼克斯：《平等》，徐朝友译，江苏人民出版社，2003年。
[33] (美)约翰·F·沃克哈罗德·G·瓦特：《美国大政府的兴起》，刘进、毛喻原译，重庆出版社，2001年。
[34] (美)詹姆斯·戴维·巴伯：《总统的性格》，胡杰等译，四川人民出版社，1991年。
[35] (英)诺曼·巴里：《福利》，储建国译，吉林人民出版社，2005年。
[36] (英)约翰·格雷：《自由主义》，曹海军、刘训练译，吉林人民出版社，??2005年
[37] 《美国研究》《世界历史》等刊物上的相关文章。
[38] 阿瑟·林克威廉·卡顿：《1900年以来的美国史》，刘绪贻等译，中国社会科学出版社，1983年。
[39] 陈宝森、侯玲：《美国总统与经济智囊》，世界知识出版社，1996年。
[40] 陈宝森：《美国经济与政府政策——从罗斯福到里根》，世界知识出版社，1988年
[41] 陈共、昌忠泽著：《美国财政政策的政治经济分析》，中国财政经济出版社，2002年。
[42] 董小川：《20世纪美国宗教与政治》，人民出版社，2002年1月。
[43] 顾朝林、甄峰、张京祥：《积聚与扩散——城市空间结构新论》，东南大学出版社，2002年。
[44] 顾肃：《自由主义基本理念》，中央编译出版社，2003年。
[45] 黄安年：《当代美国的社会保障政策》，中国社会科学出版社，1998年。
[46] 李道揆：《美国政府和美国政治》，商务印书馆，1999年。
[47] 李强：《自由主义》，北京：中国社会科学出版社，1997年。
[48] 刘绪贻、杨生茂总主编：《美国通史》第六卷《战后美国史1945—2000》，人民出版社，2002年。
[49] 梅孜编译：《美国政治统计手册》，时事出版社，1992年。
[50] 梅孜编译：《美国总统国情咨文选编》，时事出版社，1994年。
[51] 齐锡玉：《金元王朝与帝国》，当代世界出版社，2000年。
[52] 石元康：《当代西方自由主义理论》，上海三联书店，2000年。
[53] 时殷弘：《美国在越南的干涉和战争(1954—1968)》，世界知识出版社，1993年。
[54] 宿景祥编著：《美国经济统计手册》，时事出版社，1995年。
[55] 唐小松：《遏制的困境：肯尼迪和约翰逊政府的对华政策》，中山大学出版社，2002年。
[56] 王波：《肯尼迪总统的黑人民权政策研究》，上海人民出版社，2002年。
[57] 王浦劬：《政治学基础》，北京：北京大学出版社，1995年。
[58] 王斯德主编，余伟民、郑寅达著：《世界通史》第三编《现代文明的发展与选择：20世纪的世界史》，华东师范大学出版社，2001年。
[59] 王希：《原则与妥协：美国宪法的精神与实践》，北京大学出版社，2000年
[60] 王旭：《美国城市史》，中国社会科学出版社，2000年。[61] 杨冠琼：《当代美国社会保障制度》，法律出版社，2001年。
[62] 杨鲁军：《论里根经济学》，学林出版社，1987年。
[63] 叶普万：《贫困经济学研究》，中国社会科学出版社，2004年。
[64] 张友伦李剑鸣：《美国历史上的社会运动和政府改革》，天津教育出版社，1992年。
[65] 庄锡昌：《二十世纪的美国文化》，浙江人民出版社，1993年。
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[2] Congressional Quarterly Publications, Congress and the Nation, Vol. Ⅱ 1965-1968. (Washington, 1969) .
[3] Economic Report of the President, Washington D. C.: U. S. Govt. Print. Off, 1963—1969.
[4] George H. Gallup, ed., The Gallup Poll, 1935-1971, vol. Ⅲ(Wilmington, Del., Scholarly Resources Inc., 1972).
[5] Public Papers of the President: Lyndon B. Johnson, 1963-1969 (United States Government Printing Office) .
[6] Nixon, Public Papers of the Presidents, Richard M. Nixon, 1969 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970)
[7] Social Security Bulletin: 1963—1969(Washington: Social Security Administration.)
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[1] Abramovitz, Thinking about growth and other essays on economic growth and welfare, New York : Cambridge University Press, 1989.
[2] Andrew, John, Lyndon Johnson and Great Society (Chicago: Ivan R. Dec, 1998).
[3] Baumgartner, Frank R. and Jones, Bryan D., Agendas and Instability in American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993)[4] Beatty, Barbara, Preschool Education in America: The Culture of Young Children from the Colonial Era to the Present, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995)
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[7] Bernstein, Irving, Guns or Butter: The Presidency of Lyndon Johnson (1996).
[8] Bertram M. Gross, Ed, A Great Society? (New York: Basic books, 1968.)
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[10] Boesel, David and Rossi, Peter H., ed., Cities Under Siege: Anatomy of the Ghetto Riots, 1964-1968(New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers, 1971)
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[14] Caro, Robert, The Years of Lyndon Johnson: The Path to Power (New York, 1982).
[15] Caro, Robert A. The Years of Lyndon Johnson: Master of the Senate. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Inc., 2002.
[16] Chafe, William, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (1980).
[17] Clark, Kenneth and Hopkins, Jearjnette, A Relevant War Against Poverty (New York: Harpar & Row, 1969)
[18] Clark, Robert F., The war on poverty: history, selected programs, and ongoing impact University (Press of America Inc. 2002.)
[19] Cloward, Richard and Ohlin, Lloyd Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs, (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1960)
[20] Conkin, Paul K., Big Daddy from the Pedernales: Lyndon Baines Johnson(Boston, Mass., 1986.)
[21] Cook, Robert, The African-American Struggle for Civil Rights in??Twentieth-Century America (1998).
[22] Coming, Peter A., The Evolution of Medicare: From Idea to Law, Washington D. C., Government Printing Office, 1969.
[23] Dallek, Robert, Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961-1973(1998).
[24] Dallek, Robert, Lone Star Rising: Lyndon Johnson and His Time (New York: 1992.)
[25] Daniel Patrick Moynihan, Maximum Feasible Misunderstanding: Community Action in the War on Poverty (1969).
[26] Downs, Anthony, Opening Up the Suburbs: An Urban Strategy for America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973)
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