区域海洋污染应急合作制度的利益层次化分析
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摘要
第一章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的历史嬗变。本章是对区域海洋污染应急合作制度(以下均简称为应急制度)历史发展足迹的追寻。通过对制度源头的反观,可以发现,突发性的海上溢油事故是产生应急制度的直接诱因。但是,若作更深层次的探析,则可以发现,海洋环境利益和经济发展利益的相互平衡需要,是应急制度产生、发展和壮大的根本原因。二战后,经济发展深受各国重视,这带动了海上石油运输业的发展,由此,也招致了一些大规模的海上石油污染事故。在惨痛的教训面前,国际社会开始注意到海洋环境的利益诉求。这在国际法上的最直接表现,就是区域海洋项目在全球范围的全面铺开。早期应急制度的支持者,多是强调以海洋环境利益来限制经济发展利益。但是,自1992年《里约环境与发展宣言》后,可持续发展理念开始被纳入到海洋环境保护规范中,海洋环境也被看作是“为了发展的环境”。如今,应急制度不但能够以一种较成熟的姿态来平衡海洋环境利益和经济发展利益,而且,其在基础性法律框架、适用对象和具体内容等多方面都获得了较大的发展。从总体上看,应急制度产生与发展的历史,就是海洋环境利益与经济发展利益斗争与妥协的历史。
第二章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的利益分析视角。顾名思义,本章力图借助利益分析的方法来剖析应急制度。利益具有和人类不可分的品质,它和人类的生存和生存方式紧密相关。因此,利益分析方法在社会科学领域一直有着广泛的使用。本章则更进一步,提出了利益的层次化分析方法,将那些维持人类生存的利益称为生存性利益,将那些改善人类生存方式的利益称为发展性利益。应急制度所直接保护的海洋环境利益,属于生存性利益;而那些影响应急制度构建和实施的区域内各方的经济和政治利益,则更多地属于发展性利益。一般情况而言,当这两种利益发生冲突时,对生存性利益的保护应当优先于对发展性利益的保护。
此外,本章也探讨了可以支撑应急制度的各种一般理论和具体理论。在一般理论方面,综合吸收了自然法学、实证法学和社会法学的有益成分;在具体理论方面,则是分析了应急制度中风险预防原则、合作原则和有限主权原则的合理性。这也为本文第四章提出的西北太平洋区域和东亚海区域海洋环境保护公约草案以及应急制度草案,奠定了理论基础。
第三章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的构建模式。本章尽览了现有应急制度的构建模式:北海—东北大西洋区域的分立模式、波罗的海区域的综合模式和以地中海区域为代表的综合—分立模式。通过对三种模式的考察,可以发现,是否建立应急制度,是由海洋环境利益的基础性地位所决定的,但是,关于更为具体的事项:诸如应急制度应采取什么模式加以构建、谁来主导保护、用什么方式保护、保护的合作范围和深度等问题,则会深受区域内各方政治和经济利益格局的影响。北海—东北大西洋区域分立模式的成功,很大程度上取决于区域内各方政治经济利益的一致性;波罗的海区域的综合模式,则是“东西方”因素所导致的政治利益根本分歧使然;地中海区域为代表的综合—分立模式,更多地是借助于区域内经济主导方主导性力量的发挥。此外,本章也总结了各区域应急制度的一些具体经验和教训。
第四章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的扩展。本章探讨了西北太平洋区域和东亚海区域的应急制度构建问题。在全球18个区域海洋中,除了南北极区域之外,只有这两个区域尚未形成应急制度。并且,中国恰好也处于这两个区域之中。近年来,中国经济结构和经济增长方式的调整、海洋环境保护法律制度的改革和应急能力的发展,都已经使得中国有条件也有能力去推动这两个区域的应急制度构建。但是,为了避免加深政治利益的分歧,不可以“主导”来代替“推动”。通过对这两个区域自身特点和相关经济、政治利益格局的分析,作者认为,西北太平洋区域更适合借鉴波罗的海区域的综合模式,东亚海区域则更适合借鉴地中海区域的综合—分立模式。此外,本章还分析了中国的推动进路,提出了这两个区域应急制度构建的具体建议,并针对这两个区域分别拟出了海洋环境保护和应急合作方面的具体草案。
第五章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的改进。在应急制度的改进问题上,本章着重考察了那些能够影响各区域海洋环境利益和经济发展利益的重要因素。这些重要因素中,可以分为全球化的因素和区域化的因素。全球化的因素,主要是指国际经济自由化、WTO和国际海洋环境保护法律的发展。区域化的因素,主要是指经济区域化和政治区域化的发展趋势。不论是全球化的因素,还是区域化的因素,都会对应急制度的发展带来正反两方面的影响。因此,应急制度的改进,关键在于如何利用全球化和区域化中的有利因素,有效地化解个中的不利因素,从而达成海洋环境利益和经济发展利益的平衡。这其中,区域间和区域内的合作至关重要。在大方向上,如果能够推动各区域中的政治利益格局、经济利益格局和海洋环境利益格局尽可能地重叠,将有利于应急制度的改进;在具体方向上,则应当坚持三个方面的改进:一是合作深广度的推进;二是各区域应急合作模式的改进;三是制度价值取向从“应急”向“防急”的转变。
Chapter 1 is Development History of the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas (herein after as the emergency regime). This chapter is to trace back the course of the emergency regime. With tracing back the origin, it is to be found that the pollution incident of oil spillage at seas was the direct inducement of the creation of the emergency regime. Whereas, with deeper research, it is to be found that the need to balance economic development interest with marine environmental interest was the intrinsic cause to the creation and development of the emergency regime. Post World War II, economic development was the primary mission for states, which incurred some grave pollution incidents of oil spillage at seas. Facing with the grave pollution, the international community began to take notice of the interest of marine environment, to which the most direct reflection in international law was the rapid spread of Regional Seas Programmes under the auspices of United Nations Environmental Programme (herein after as UNEP). The advocates of the emergency regime in the beginning favored the interest of economic development being limited by that of marine environment. While with the adoption of the Rio Declaration in 1992, the concept of sustainable development began to be brought into the marine environmental protection regimes. Marine environment is also taken as“environment for development”. Nowadays, the emergency regime is not only to balance the interests of economic development and marine environment, but gets developed with respect to its legal framework, application objects and provisions. In general, the history of the creation and development of the emergency regime is the course of the contending and compromise between interests of economic development and marine environment.
Chapter 2 is Interest analysis of the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas. As understood from the title, this chapter attempts to analyze the emergency regime with the method of interest analysis. Interest is undividedly related to human nature, which came into the field of social science with the needs of human living and ways of human living. Whereas the method of interest analysis has always been applied in the field of social science. This chapter furthers with bringing forward the method of classification of interests, which classifies interests related with the sustaining of human living as living-sustaining interest, and those related with the promotion of ways of living as developing interests. Marine environmental interests protected by the emergency regime belong to the classification of living-sustaining ones; and those affecting the establishment and application of the emergency regime belong to the classification of developing ones. Generally speaking, the protection of living-sustaining interests overwhelms the protection of developing ones when those contending with each other. Furthermore, this chapter also explores the general and specific theories and principles which underpin the emergency regime. In general theories, the author synthesizes the useful parts of natural, positive and social jurisprudences. In specific principles, the author analyzes the ration of preventive principle, cooperative principle and limited sovereignty principle, which lays the theoretic foundation the two drafts for the Northwest Pacific Region and the East Asia Seas Region in chapter 4.
Chapter 3 is Patterns of the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas. This chapter makes a review of the patterns of the existing emergency regimes, which may be described as the independent pattern in the North Sea and the Northeast Atlantic Region, the synthesis pattern in the Baltic Region and the typical synthesis-independent pattern in the Mediterranean Sea Region. By examination of these three patterns, the establishment of the emergency regime is determined by the fundamental status of marine environmental interests, while the situations of political and economic interests in the region affect those more specific aspects of the emergency regime, i.e. the pattern of the establishment of the regime, the leading role of the regime, the methods used, the extent of the cooperation in the regime. The success in the North Sea and Northeast Atlantic Region, to a great degree, rests with the consistency the political and economic interests in the region; the synthesis pattern in the Baltic Region was due to the fundamental divergence of political interests between the“Eastern and Western”systems; the synthesis-independent pattern in the Mediterranean Sea Region, is determined by the leading role played by France in that region. Further, this chapter makes a summary on the lessons learned from the existing regimes.
Chapter 4 is Extension of the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas. This chapter studies on the situation of cooperation in combating pollution in cases of emergency in the Northwest Pacific Region and the East Asian Seas Region. Among the 18 regional seas in the world, these are the only two regions without the emergency regime, while China is a partner to both of these regions. Recently, the adjustments within Chinese economic structure and economic developing pattern, the reform of Chinese marine environmental protection regime and the rapid development of its response capability make China to be adequate with the capabilities to push the establishment of emergency regime in these two regions. Whereas, to avoid the deepening of divergence of political interests between different parties in these regions, it’s preferable to“push”instead to“lead”the regime establishing course. With analysis of the characteristics and political and economic interests situations within the two regions, the author proposes that the regime establishment in Northwest Pacific Region should learn more from the Baltic Region, while the regime establishment in East Asian Seas Region should learn more from the Mediterranean Sea. Furthermore, the author raises more specific suggestions on the establishment of emergency regimes in these two regions, and on the approaches how China may push forward the establishment. Finally, the author proposes two drafts on marine protection and emergency regime for the two regions respectively.
Chapter 5 is Promotion on the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas. On how to promote the emergency regime, this chapter attempts to realize this goal by making studies on those factors which affect the elements of the emergency regime. Those factors are to be further classified as those on global level and regional level. Factors on global level are primarily the liberalization of international economy and the development of international marine environmental protection law. Factors on regional level are primarily the trend of economic region as well as of political region. Both global and regional factors will bring about positive and negative impacts on the development of emergency regime. Whereas the promotion of the emergency regime lies with how to make use of the positive impacts when dispelling the negative ones, for which cooperation is the most critical factor. Generally speaking, the more overlapping between the political and economic interests with the marine environment interest in the same region, the more favorable to the promotion of the emergency regime. With the specific aspects of how to promote the emergency regime, there are three dimensions to be taken into consideration, one is to promote the cooperation pattern, the other is to promote the cooperation extent, and another is to change the guideline from“response”to pollution incident to“preventing”pollution incident.
第二章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的利益分析视角。顾名思义,本章力图借助利益分析的方法来剖析应急制度。利益具有和人类不可分的品质,它和人类的生存和生存方式紧密相关。因此,利益分析方法在社会科学领域一直有着广泛的使用。本章则更进一步,提出了利益的层次化分析方法,将那些维持人类生存的利益称为生存性利益,将那些改善人类生存方式的利益称为发展性利益。应急制度所直接保护的海洋环境利益,属于生存性利益;而那些影响应急制度构建和实施的区域内各方的经济和政治利益,则更多地属于发展性利益。一般情况而言,当这两种利益发生冲突时,对生存性利益的保护应当优先于对发展性利益的保护。
此外,本章也探讨了可以支撑应急制度的各种一般理论和具体理论。在一般理论方面,综合吸收了自然法学、实证法学和社会法学的有益成分;在具体理论方面,则是分析了应急制度中风险预防原则、合作原则和有限主权原则的合理性。这也为本文第四章提出的西北太平洋区域和东亚海区域海洋环境保护公约草案以及应急制度草案,奠定了理论基础。
第三章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的构建模式。本章尽览了现有应急制度的构建模式:北海—东北大西洋区域的分立模式、波罗的海区域的综合模式和以地中海区域为代表的综合—分立模式。通过对三种模式的考察,可以发现,是否建立应急制度,是由海洋环境利益的基础性地位所决定的,但是,关于更为具体的事项:诸如应急制度应采取什么模式加以构建、谁来主导保护、用什么方式保护、保护的合作范围和深度等问题,则会深受区域内各方政治和经济利益格局的影响。北海—东北大西洋区域分立模式的成功,很大程度上取决于区域内各方政治经济利益的一致性;波罗的海区域的综合模式,则是“东西方”因素所导致的政治利益根本分歧使然;地中海区域为代表的综合—分立模式,更多地是借助于区域内经济主导方主导性力量的发挥。此外,本章也总结了各区域应急制度的一些具体经验和教训。
第四章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的扩展。本章探讨了西北太平洋区域和东亚海区域的应急制度构建问题。在全球18个区域海洋中,除了南北极区域之外,只有这两个区域尚未形成应急制度。并且,中国恰好也处于这两个区域之中。近年来,中国经济结构和经济增长方式的调整、海洋环境保护法律制度的改革和应急能力的发展,都已经使得中国有条件也有能力去推动这两个区域的应急制度构建。但是,为了避免加深政治利益的分歧,不可以“主导”来代替“推动”。通过对这两个区域自身特点和相关经济、政治利益格局的分析,作者认为,西北太平洋区域更适合借鉴波罗的海区域的综合模式,东亚海区域则更适合借鉴地中海区域的综合—分立模式。此外,本章还分析了中国的推动进路,提出了这两个区域应急制度构建的具体建议,并针对这两个区域分别拟出了海洋环境保护和应急合作方面的具体草案。
第五章:区域海洋污染应急合作制度的改进。在应急制度的改进问题上,本章着重考察了那些能够影响各区域海洋环境利益和经济发展利益的重要因素。这些重要因素中,可以分为全球化的因素和区域化的因素。全球化的因素,主要是指国际经济自由化、WTO和国际海洋环境保护法律的发展。区域化的因素,主要是指经济区域化和政治区域化的发展趋势。不论是全球化的因素,还是区域化的因素,都会对应急制度的发展带来正反两方面的影响。因此,应急制度的改进,关键在于如何利用全球化和区域化中的有利因素,有效地化解个中的不利因素,从而达成海洋环境利益和经济发展利益的平衡。这其中,区域间和区域内的合作至关重要。在大方向上,如果能够推动各区域中的政治利益格局、经济利益格局和海洋环境利益格局尽可能地重叠,将有利于应急制度的改进;在具体方向上,则应当坚持三个方面的改进:一是合作深广度的推进;二是各区域应急合作模式的改进;三是制度价值取向从“应急”向“防急”的转变。
Chapter 1 is Development History of the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas (herein after as the emergency regime). This chapter is to trace back the course of the emergency regime. With tracing back the origin, it is to be found that the pollution incident of oil spillage at seas was the direct inducement of the creation of the emergency regime. Whereas, with deeper research, it is to be found that the need to balance economic development interest with marine environmental interest was the intrinsic cause to the creation and development of the emergency regime. Post World War II, economic development was the primary mission for states, which incurred some grave pollution incidents of oil spillage at seas. Facing with the grave pollution, the international community began to take notice of the interest of marine environment, to which the most direct reflection in international law was the rapid spread of Regional Seas Programmes under the auspices of United Nations Environmental Programme (herein after as UNEP). The advocates of the emergency regime in the beginning favored the interest of economic development being limited by that of marine environment. While with the adoption of the Rio Declaration in 1992, the concept of sustainable development began to be brought into the marine environmental protection regimes. Marine environment is also taken as“environment for development”. Nowadays, the emergency regime is not only to balance the interests of economic development and marine environment, but gets developed with respect to its legal framework, application objects and provisions. In general, the history of the creation and development of the emergency regime is the course of the contending and compromise between interests of economic development and marine environment.
Chapter 2 is Interest analysis of the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas. As understood from the title, this chapter attempts to analyze the emergency regime with the method of interest analysis. Interest is undividedly related to human nature, which came into the field of social science with the needs of human living and ways of human living. Whereas the method of interest analysis has always been applied in the field of social science. This chapter furthers with bringing forward the method of classification of interests, which classifies interests related with the sustaining of human living as living-sustaining interest, and those related with the promotion of ways of living as developing interests. Marine environmental interests protected by the emergency regime belong to the classification of living-sustaining ones; and those affecting the establishment and application of the emergency regime belong to the classification of developing ones. Generally speaking, the protection of living-sustaining interests overwhelms the protection of developing ones when those contending with each other. Furthermore, this chapter also explores the general and specific theories and principles which underpin the emergency regime. In general theories, the author synthesizes the useful parts of natural, positive and social jurisprudences. In specific principles, the author analyzes the ration of preventive principle, cooperative principle and limited sovereignty principle, which lays the theoretic foundation the two drafts for the Northwest Pacific Region and the East Asia Seas Region in chapter 4.
Chapter 3 is Patterns of the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas. This chapter makes a review of the patterns of the existing emergency regimes, which may be described as the independent pattern in the North Sea and the Northeast Atlantic Region, the synthesis pattern in the Baltic Region and the typical synthesis-independent pattern in the Mediterranean Sea Region. By examination of these three patterns, the establishment of the emergency regime is determined by the fundamental status of marine environmental interests, while the situations of political and economic interests in the region affect those more specific aspects of the emergency regime, i.e. the pattern of the establishment of the regime, the leading role of the regime, the methods used, the extent of the cooperation in the regime. The success in the North Sea and Northeast Atlantic Region, to a great degree, rests with the consistency the political and economic interests in the region; the synthesis pattern in the Baltic Region was due to the fundamental divergence of political interests between the“Eastern and Western”systems; the synthesis-independent pattern in the Mediterranean Sea Region, is determined by the leading role played by France in that region. Further, this chapter makes a summary on the lessons learned from the existing regimes.
Chapter 4 is Extension of the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas. This chapter studies on the situation of cooperation in combating pollution in cases of emergency in the Northwest Pacific Region and the East Asian Seas Region. Among the 18 regional seas in the world, these are the only two regions without the emergency regime, while China is a partner to both of these regions. Recently, the adjustments within Chinese economic structure and economic developing pattern, the reform of Chinese marine environmental protection regime and the rapid development of its response capability make China to be adequate with the capabilities to push the establishment of emergency regime in these two regions. Whereas, to avoid the deepening of divergence of political interests between different parties in these regions, it’s preferable to“push”instead to“lead”the regime establishing course. With analysis of the characteristics and political and economic interests situations within the two regions, the author proposes that the regime establishment in Northwest Pacific Region should learn more from the Baltic Region, while the regime establishment in East Asian Seas Region should learn more from the Mediterranean Sea. Furthermore, the author raises more specific suggestions on the establishment of emergency regimes in these two regions, and on the approaches how China may push forward the establishment. Finally, the author proposes two drafts on marine protection and emergency regime for the two regions respectively.
Chapter 5 is Promotion on the Regime of Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency in Regional Seas. On how to promote the emergency regime, this chapter attempts to realize this goal by making studies on those factors which affect the elements of the emergency regime. Those factors are to be further classified as those on global level and regional level. Factors on global level are primarily the liberalization of international economy and the development of international marine environmental protection law. Factors on regional level are primarily the trend of economic region as well as of political region. Both global and regional factors will bring about positive and negative impacts on the development of emergency regime. Whereas the promotion of the emergency regime lies with how to make use of the positive impacts when dispelling the negative ones, for which cooperation is the most critical factor. Generally speaking, the more overlapping between the political and economic interests with the marine environment interest in the same region, the more favorable to the promotion of the emergency regime. With the specific aspects of how to promote the emergency regime, there are three dimensions to be taken into consideration, one is to promote the cooperation pattern, the other is to promote the cooperation extent, and another is to change the guideline from“response”to pollution incident to“preventing”pollution incident.
引文
① ?STERGAARD, JOHN. Oil Spill Contingency Planning and Technical Cooperation of the Black Sea Region [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.International Energy Policy, The Arctic and the Law of the Sea [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005. 189.
① Encyclopedia Britannica,Vol. 9, p. 1003.
② 参见樊亚明. “区域景观规划初探”, http://plansky.cn/showarticle.php?id=381&class=5, 2005-12-30. response; (d). Related interests. means the interests of a coastal State directly affected or threatened and concerning, among others: (i) maritime activities in coastal areas, in ports or estuaries, including fishing activities; (ii) the historical and tourist appeal of the area in question, including water sports and recreation; (iii) the health of the coastal population; (iv) the cultural, aesthetic, scientific and educational value of the area; (v) the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of marine and coastal biological resources.
① 1982 年《联合国海洋法公约》第 1 条第 1 款第(4)项。
② Wm. Windelband,Introduction to Philosophy. 转引自[美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译, 贵阳:贵州人民出版社, 2003. 15.
③ [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译, 贵阳:贵州人民出版社, 2003. 15.
① 转引自[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼,法律与革命——西方法律传统的形成 [M]. 贺卫方等译, 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社, 1993. 序言Ⅰ.
② THARPES, YVONNE L.. International Environmental Law: Turning the Tide on Marine Pollution [J]. Miami Inter-Am. L. Rev, 1989, 20 (U): 579.
③ See Accidental Discharge of Oil. SPILLS FORM SHIPS, para 2. http://oils.gpa.unep.org/facts /oilspills.htm, 2007-2-25.
① 在 20 世纪初期,就开始了国际法上的社会化立法,也即 1919 年建立的国际劳工组织所主持订立的有关劳工标准的国际公约等。参见徐崇利. 经济全球化与国际法中社会立法的勃兴 [J]. 中国法学, 2004,(1):142. 而环境问题或者说生态问题被认为是社会问题,也是很多人的观点。
② [美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼.法律与革命——西方法律传统的形成 [M]. 贺卫方等译, 北京:中国大百科全书出版社, 1993. 57.
③ MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Oil on Water [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. National Energy Policy and the Oceans [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992. 204. 作者是美国海洋法协会海洋法分会副主席(Vice Chairman of the Maritime Law Association’s Subcommittee on the Law of the Sea)。在该文中,作者对于海洋油污历史有着详细的叙述。
④ See EDNA, BRADLOW & FRANK, BRADLOW. Here Comes the Alabama [M]. Cape Town: A. A. Balkema, 1958. 32-33, 38; IRWIN, SHAPIRO. The Story of Yankee Whaling [M]. New York: American Heritage Pub. Co., 1959. 114-117.
⑤ See MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Pre-UNCLOS Marine Scientific Research: An Introductory Survey of Law and Policy [J]. Sea Change, 1991, (13): 35, 37-38; MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Benjamin Franklin and the Freedom of Scientific Research [J]. Sea Change, 1986, (4): 58.
⑥ PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE. Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 1.
① 当时的石油污染问题,主要是港口内油类泄露所导致的问题。根据 Mangone 的观点,一战之前也有关于油污的投诉,但他认为“战争(一战)期间,装运石油的船舶数目急剧增长,加剧了港口内水质条件的恶化”。See MANGONE, GERARD J.. Marine Policy for America [M]. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1977. 229. 为此,许多港口,例如纽约,还有南非港口、百慕大港和南澳大利亚港,都有禁止在港口区域内排放油类水的规定。See PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE. Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 207. 英国于 1922 年颁布了《航行水域石油法案》(the United Kingdom’s Oil in Navigable Waters Act of 1922),这是“有关油污的第一个真正的国家立法”。See MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Oil on Water [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. National Energy Policy and the Oceans [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992. 204.
② http://www.itopf.com/stats.html, 2007-5-7.
① 相对而言,此次事故溢油量虽然并不是特别多,但是,此次的溢油属于极持久并且极难消散的重油,因而非常难以清理。并且,埃瑞克号沉没的地点离岸相对较远,距离最近的海岸大约有三十英里,这导致了受污染影响的区域非常大。其时凌厉的冬季风暴袭击了这个区域并为事故带来了更为严重的后果,使得为减轻这些区域损失的一切努力终显徒劳。最终,法国大西洋沿岸超过 400 公里的海岸线被埃瑞克号的重油所污染。See RINGBOM, HENRIK. Erika and Its Impact on E.U. Maritime Regulation [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Current Marine Environmental Issues and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001. 265.
② See ITOPF, Major Oil Spills Since 1967, http://www.itopf.com/stats.html, 2007-2-24.
① See http://oils.gpa.unep.org/, 2007-2-6.
② See http://www.itopf.com/casehistories.html, 2007-5-8.
③ See http://academic.bowdoin.edu/chemistry/resources/exxon/html/chapter4.shtml, 2007-5-8.
① http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/hu/ergsinhu/aboutergs/torrey.html, 2007-2-24.
② ITOPF, CASE HISTORIES, See http://www.itopf.com/casehistories.html#torreycanyon, 2007-2-24.
③ A review of long-term research in the western English Channel, p. 10. See http://www.defra.gov.uk/science/ Project_Data/DocumentLibrary/ME3105/ME3105_1308_GEN.pdf, 2007-2-24.
④ Integrated Regional Assessment, p. 91. See http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/water/marine/uk/stateofsea/ chartprogress-5.pdf, 2007-2-24.
⑤ IMO, Prevention of Pollution by Oil, Torrey Canyon disaster. See http://www.imo.org/Environment/mainframe. asp?topic_id=231#2, 2007-2-24.
⑥ The Torrey Canyon’s Last Voyage, the end-game. See http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/hu/ergsinhu/ aboutergs/lasttrip.html, 2007-2-24.
① 参见白平则. 人与自然和谐关系的构建——环境法基本问题研究 [M]. 北京:中国法制出版社,2006. 7.
① 参见徐广军. 战后各国经济增长的交错性特征比较研究 [J]. 现代日本经济, 2002, (1): 36-37.
② 公元开始之时,世界人口据估算大概在 3.5 亿左右。到 1900 年,这个数字上升到 15 亿,到 1990 年是 50亿,2000 年是 60 亿。也就是说,在 20 世纪的最后十年里,世界人口的增长量差不多等同于从公元开始一直到1900年世界人口的总增长量。See BLIX, HANX. The History of Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 22.
③ SOHN, LOUIS B.& GUSTAFSON, KRISTEE. The Law of the Sea [M]. ST. Paul, Minnesota: WEST GROUP, 1984. Preface.
① 20 世纪 30-60 年代之间,人类历史上发生了影响深远的 8 大公害事件。参见万霞. 国际环境保护的法律理论与实践 [M]. 北京:经济科学出版社,2003. 23-24. 另外,20 世纪 60 年代末期开始,海洋污染问题也引起了全球关注,联合国大会 1968 年通过了“海洋问题国际合作”的 2414 号决议(ⅩⅩⅢ)、“防止开发海床所引起的海洋环境污染”的第 2467B 号决议(ⅩⅩⅢ),1969 年通过了“改善防止和控制海洋污染的有关措施”的第 2566 号决议(ⅩⅩⅣ)。还有前文提到的 1967 年托雷?坎永号溢油事故,参见[英]詹宁斯·瓦茨修订. 奥本海国际法 [M]. 第一卷 第二分册,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1998. 227.
② 英国的环保主义者通过一种经常性运动,给政客以及官员造成了一种压力,让他们发现自己处于一种永无宁日的状态,而不是可以自鸣得意的满足之中。当来自城郡的投诉信送至相关机构,几乎就可以确定,随之而来的就是议会、新闻报道、或甚至有时候是由 18,000 名居民签名的请愿书的质询…… See PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE . Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 42.
③ Id., p. 12.
④ MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Oil on Water [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. National Energy Policy and the Oceans [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992. 204.
⑤ PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE . Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 50. League of Nations A.Ⅱ/P.V.2.1934, 15th Ordinary Session of the Assembly, 2d Comm., 2d Meeting, Sept. 12, 1934.
① [英]詹宁斯·瓦茨修订. 奥本海国际法 [M]. 第一卷 第二分册,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1998. 226-227.
② 有关各国在 1926 年对海洋环境保护的态度,see MANGONE, GERARD J.. Marine Policy for America [M]. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1977. 231.
③ 英国以及其它国家所面临国内压力以及污染的危险,使他们不得不采取对抗石油及船运利益的单边措施,也并非就缺乏说服力……葡萄牙(曾经)利用石油污染,当作其拓展领海要求的契机。在 1930 年的海牙国际法会议上,美国代表团也表述了在领海之外,对石油污染区域实行沿海国管辖的可能效果。英国官员则希望避开此类措施,因为他们认为这是对其航运利益的一种威胁。正如外交部汤普森(Geoffrey Thompson)所说的:“我们欢迎国际行动……来平息鸟类协会的抗议,并保证我们的商船,不会突然受到独裁、而且可能是恶意、或者行不通的法律的规制,这些可能是葡萄牙或其它国家对外国船只所施加的规范。” PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE. Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 44. 关于葡萄牙 1927 年法案的更深入的讨论,see id., p.27.
① [英]詹宁斯·瓦茨修订. 奥本海国际法 [M]. 第一卷 第二分册,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1998. 227.
② The International-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization at its third extraordinary session in May, 1967, decided to include among the matters requiring study as a matter of urgency, inter alia: “Procedures whereby States, regionally or interregionally where applicable, can co-operate at short notice to provide manpower, supplies, equipment and scientific advice to deal with discharge of oil or other noxious or hazardous substances including consideration of the possibility of patrols to ascertain the extent of the discharge and the manner of treating it both on sea and land”. See http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/texts/BH539.txt, 2007-2-25.
③ Agreement for Co-operation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil (with annex), signed Bonn on 9 June, 1969. See http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/marine.html, 2007-2-25.
④ 此公约从缔结到生效,速度之快,在国际法历史上也是鲜见能出其右者。公约规定,其生效应在 6 国政府签署且无须批准、或交存其批准文件2个月后生效。See Agreement for Co-operation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil (with annex). Art. 9.(4).而公约缔结 2 个月后即生效,也说明了沿海各国签署、批准速度之快。与此相对照,1983 年签署的取代该公约的新协议,其从签署到生效则用了近乎 6 年的时间。See http://fletcher.tufts.edu/ multi/texts/BH834.txt, 2007-2-25.
⑤ Agreement for Co-operation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil and Other Harmful Substances (13 September, 1983). See http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/marine.html, 2007-2-25.
① 联合国大会 1968 年通过了“海洋问题国际合作”的 2414 号决议(ⅩⅩⅢ),“防止开发海床所引起的海洋环境污染”的第 2467B 号决议(ⅩⅩⅢ),1969 年通过了“改善防止和控制海洋污染的有关措施”的第 2566号决议(ⅩⅩⅣ)。
② 即有关一般污染的建议为第 70-85 条,有关海洋污染的建议为第 86-94 条。See http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/bt/cassese/cases/part3/ch17/1204.pdf, 2007-2-27.
③ 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译,北京:法律出版社,2000. 34.
④ 关于该决议,see http://habitat.igc.org/open-gates/a27r2997.htm, 2007-2-27.
⑤ 即充当联合国政府间环境组织的联合国环境规划署管理理事会(the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme);负责联合国系统内部环保行动与协调的秘书处,以保障有效管理;为新的环保动议提供资金支持的自愿性质的环境基金;以及确保参与环境项目的各联合国部门间协调合作的环境协调机构(Environment Coordination Board)。See ESSAM, EL-HINNAWI. UNEP: Two Decades of Achievement and Challenge [M]. Nairobi: UNEP, 1992. 7.
① 这些工作重点(priorities)分别是:人类定居、生活环境、健康与福利(human settlements, habitat, health and well-being),陆地、淡水以及沙漠化(land, water and desertification),贸易、经济以及技术转移(trade, economies and the transfer of technology),海洋(ocean),自然、野生物种以及遗传资源的养护(conservation of nature, wildlife and genetic resources),以及能源(energy)。See ESSAM, EL-HINNAWI. UNEP: Two Decades of Achievement and Challenge [M]. Nairobi: UNEP, 1992. 9.
② See ESSAM, EL-HINNAWI. UNEP: Two Decades of Achievement and Challenge [M]. Nairobi: UNEP, 1992. 9.
③ 详见 http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/Programmes/Non-UNEP_administered_Programmes, 2006-6-30.
① 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译,北京:法律出版社,2000. 11.
② 详见后文论述。
③ [法]亚历山大?基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译,北京:法律出版社,2000. 158.
① 1954 年《油污公约》所要解决的问题,主要是关于人为操作对近海海域的污染。它根据三条原则确立相关的制度:禁止在近海排放油类;禁止含有大量油类的物质流入海洋;对超过一定吨位的散装商船也适用这些限制。参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 158-159.
① 有学者认为,1972 年《斯德哥尔摩宣言》的原则 3 和原则 5,虽然并未以“可持续发展”的名义提出,但已经体现了可持续发展的内容。See BLIX, HANS. The History of Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 20. 而且,“可持续发展”的时间要素,在原则 1 和 2 当中也都有体现。原则 1 和 2 都规定,为了“这一代和将来的子孙后代”。KISS, ALEXANDRE. The Destiny of the Principles of the Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 59-60. 至于为何要考虑到将来的子孙后代,并非没有人对此表示怀疑,“Groucho Marx 曾经质问过,为什么我们必须为我们的后代着想,他们什么都没有替我们做过。” See BLIX, HANS. The History of Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 20.
② 世界环境和发展委员会.我们共同的未来 [M].北京:世界知识出版社,1989. 19.
③ UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1.
④ 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 45.
⑤ 《里约环境与发展宣言》原则 7 规定:“各国应本着全球伙伴关系的精神进行合作,以养护、保护和恢复地球生态系统的健康和完整。”原则 27 则规定了各国的合作义务。
⑥ See BRUNNEE, JUTTA. The Stockholm Declaration and the Structure and Process of International Environmental Law [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 71.
① P. BIRNIE & A. E. BOYLE. International Law and the Environment [M]. 2nd ed., Oxford : Clarendon Press, 2002. 86-95.
① GAVOUNELI, MARIA. New Forms of Cooperation in the Mediterranean System of Environmental Protection [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 223.
② 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 180-182.
③ LAGONI, RAINER. Protection of the Marine Environment in the Northeast Atlantic Under the OSPAR Convention of 1992 [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 184-185.
① See Regional Profile, Mediterranean Sea Region, p. 4.
② 20 世纪 80 年代,中美地区的政治经济危机导致其 GDP 下降了 18.3%,再加上冷战结束后遗留下的贫困问题,这些都成为该区域开展海洋环境保护所面临的重大障碍。See Regional Profile, North East Pacific Region, p. 2.
③ 这 8 个国家分别是:哥伦比亚、哥斯达黎加、萨尔瓦多、瓜地马拉、洪都拉斯、墨西哥、尼加拉瓜和巴拿马(Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama)。其中,哥伦比亚和墨西哥两国尚未签署该条约。See Regional Profile, North East Pacific Region, p. 13.
④ 里海作为独立的区域海洋项目,并不受 UNEP 的领导。但是,基于 UNEP 区域海洋项目的影响,在里海第八次政府专家会议的建议下,先由 UNEP 召集各方对框架公约进行讨论,其后各方才正式签署了该区域公约。UNEP 以观察员身份参加了 2004 年的会议。 See http://www.caspianenvironment.org/newsite/Convention- FinalAct.htm, 2007-3-7.
① The UN and the Environment, http://www.unep.org/un-env/, 2007-1-18.
① [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M] . 刘培峰 刘骁军译,贵阳:贵州人民出版社,2003. 14.
② 同上,第 51 页.
① 王伟光. 利益论 [M]. 北京:人民出版社, 2001. 11.
② [英]韦恩·莫里森. 法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 77.
① 参见高鹏程. 斯宾诺莎的政治利益分析方法 [J]. 湖南师范大学社会科学学报, 2006, (1): 50.
② [英]韦恩·莫里森. 法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 79-80.
③ [美]E·博登海默. 法理学:法律哲学与法律方法 [M]. 邓正来译, 北京: 中国政法大学出版社, 2004. 51.
④ 同本页注②,第 210-212 页。
① HANNS, J. BUCHOLZ. The Baltic Sea: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 17.
② [英]霍布斯. 利维坦(西方伦理学名著选译)(上)[M].黎思复 黎廷弼译 杨昌裕校,北京:商务印书馆,1964. 667.
① [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译,贵阳:贵州人民出版社,2003. 57.
① [意]马基雅维利. 君王论 [M]. 徐继业译,北京:西苑出版社,2004. 57.
② [荷]斯宾诺莎. 神学政治论 [M]. 温锡增译,北京:商务印书馆,1963. 57.
③ 参见高鹏程. 斯宾诺莎的政治利益分析方法 [J]. 湖南师范大学社会科学学报, 2006, (1): 50.
④ 参见祝灵君. 试论政治学研究中的利益分析方法 [J]. 北京行政学院学报, 2003, (3): 16.
⑤ 参见林宏宇. 利益分析:国际问题研究的重要方法 [J]. 国际关系学院学报, 2000, (2): 10.
① 参见[美]罗斯科·庞德. 法理学 [M] . 邓正来译, 北京: 中国政法大学出版社,2004. 505.
② [美]E·博登海默. 法理学:法律哲学与法律方法 [M]. 邓正来译, 北京: 中国政法大学出版社, 2004. 109.
③ [英]韦恩·莫里森. 法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 197.
④ 同本页注②,第 113 页。
① Jhering, The Struggle for Law, transl. J. Lalor ( Chicago, 1915), pp. 8-9. 参见[美] E·博登海默. 法理学:法律哲学与法律方法 [M]. 邓正来译, 北京: 中国政法大学出版社, 2004. 116.
② [德]伯恩·魏德士. 法理学 [M]. 丁小春 吴越译, 北京: 法律出版社, 2003. 239.
③ Ph. Heck, Gesetzesauslegung und Interessenjurisprudenz. AcP 112 (1914), S. 1 ff, 17. 引注同本页注②,第 241页。
① See R.J. Deputy. Soft Law and the International Law of the Environment [J]. Michigan Journal of International Law 1991, (12):420; G. Handl. Environmental Security and Global Change: The Challenge to International Law [J]. Yearbook of International Environmental Law 1990, (1): 3.
① [英]韦恩·莫里森. 法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 18.
② 参见张文显. 二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究 [M]. 北京:法律出版社,2006. 41-45.
① BRUNNEE, JUTTA. The Stockholm Declaration and the Structure and Process of International Environmental Law [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 71.
② Gaius, Justinian’s Digest, I.1.9.
③ “第十一:你要作为一个诚实的托管者接管这个神圣的地球,世世代代都要保护它的资源和活力。你应护卫土地,使土地免遭侵蚀;护卫生命之水,使之永不干涸;护卫森林,使之免遭毁坏;护卫山岳,使之免遭牧群的践踏。这样,你的后代才能永远丰衣足食。如果对土地的管理失败了,那么,肥沃的土地将变得荒芜贫瘠,沟壑纵横,你的后代将减少并生活在贫困中,或从地球上消失。” 1939 年 6 月,W.C. Lowdermilk. 转引自杨通进. 走向深层的环保 [M]. 成都:四川人民出版社, 2002. 23.
④ 关于这一点,可以从各区域海洋防治污染的公约用语中看出,例如:“意识到其经济、文化、健康价值”、“为了现代及之后各代人的利益”和“共同遗产”等等用词。
① 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 176-178.
② 参见张文显.二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究 [M].北京:法律出版社,2006. 48-50.
① [英]韦恩·莫里森.法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 435.
② [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐.法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译,贵阳:贵州人民出版社,2003. 49.
① 参见[英]韦恩·莫里森.法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 6.
② 早期实证主义认为,经验观察和非经验陈述是截然不同的两回事,哲学或形而上学的理论(理智)问题对于经验性科学实践基本上是无意义的。针对此,有学者指出,这种极端的实证主义信念使得社会科学的想像力日渐枯竭,由此缩小了经验分析的领域。参见张文显. 二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究 [M]. 北京:法律出版社,2006. 66.
① [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译,贵阳:贵州人民出版社,2003. 19.
② 同上,第 49 页。
① 张文显. 二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究 [M]. 北京:法律出版社,2006. 90.
② 同上,第 104 页。
① HENKIN, LOUIS. How Nations Behave-Law and Foreign Policy [M]. 2nd ed, New York: Columbia University Press, 1979. Preface.
① See http://www.fzu.edu.cn/h19/cqspring/article/article-033.htm, 2005-12-20.
② 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 281.
① GURUSWAMY, LAKSHMAN D.. International Environmental Law [M]. 2nd ed., St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Co., 2003. 346.
② 参见 IMO 网站:http://www.imo.org/Conventions/contents.asp?doc_id=678&topic_id =258#2003, 2006-11-4.
③ 最明显的就是西德以及瑞典法律体系中对此原则的规定。See MARR, SIMON. The Precautionary Principle in the Law of the Sea: Modern Decision Making in International Law [M]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2003. 5.
④ EHLERS, PETER. The History of the International North Sea Conferences [A]. FREESTONE, DAVID & IJLST, TON RA.The North Sea: Basic Legal Documents on Regional Environmental Co-operation [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1991. 3-14.
⑤ OSCOM. 1989. Convention for the Prevention of Maritime Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft. 15th Meeting of the Oslo Commission, “On the Reduction and Cessation of Dumping Industrial Wastes at Sea,” Decision 89/1, Dublin, Ireland, 14 June 1989.
⑥ See FREESTONE, DAVID & HEY, ELLEN. Origins and Development of the Precautionary Principle [A]. FREESTONE, DAVID. The Precautionary Principle and International Law: The Challenge of Implementation [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1996. 3.
⑦ See SANDS, PHILIPPE. Principles of International Environmental Law [M]. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995. 212; CAMERON, JAMES & ABOUCHAR, JULI. The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law [A]. FREESTONE, DAVID. The Precautionary Principle and International Law: The Challenge of Implementation [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1996. 36-50.
① See http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/W1238E/W1238E04.htm, 2007-3-20.
② 目前国际社会虽然尚未对预警原则形成统一的表述方式,但其共通之处在于均强调某些行为的风险成本过高,超出社会目前的承受能力,因而根据成本效益规则来看,应采取预警。See O’RIORDAN, TIMOTHY & CAMERON, JAMES. The History and Contemporary Significance of the Precautionary Principle [A]. O’RIORDAN, TIMOTHY & CAMERON, JAMES. Interpreting the Precautionary Principle [C]. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd., 1994. 18; JORDAN, ANDREW & O’RIORDAN, TIMOTHY. The Precautionary Principle in Contemporary Environmental Policy and Politics [A]. BERGER, RAFFENS & TICKNER. Protecting Public Health and the Environment [C]. Washington: Island Press, 1999. 30.
③ GRANT, HEWISON. The Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management: an Environmental Perspective [J]. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 1996, (11): 301-332; CAMERON, JAMES & ABOUCHAR, JULI. The Precautionary Principle [J]. Boston College International & Comparative Law Review, 1991, (14): 1-27.
① 陈安,主编. 国际经济法学专论(上编)[M]. 北京:高等教育出版社, 2002. 264.
② 转引自[英]约翰·霍夫曼. 主权 [M]. 陆彬译, 长春:吉林人民出版社, 2005. (序言)1.
① See BLIX, HANS. The History of Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 18.
② 有关国际环境法概念起源和发展的进一步探讨,参见 J. BRUNNEE. Toward Effective International Environmental Law_Trends and Developments [A]. S. A. Jennett. Law and Process in Environmental Management [C]. Calgary:Canadian Institute of Resources Law, 1993. 217.
③ 有关共同关注的概念,see P. BIRNIE & A. E. BOYLE. International Law and the Environment[M]. 2nd ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002. 97-100; see also J. BRUNNEE. A Conceptual Framework for an International Forests Convention: Customary Law and Emerging Principal [A]. Canadian Council on International Law. Global Forests and International Environmental Law [C].Berlin: Springer Publishing, 1996. 55-62. 另外,共同关注的概念与另一个概念也密切相关,即共同但有所区别的责任。这一概念是对共同关注的进一步发展,体现了基于共同利益和不同能力的基础上,对责任的分配。See BRUNNEE, JUTTA. The Stockholm Declaration and the Structure and Process of International Environmental Law [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 69-70.
① BALLAH, LENNOX F.. National Interest and Establishing a Rational Order for the Oceans [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Contemprary Issues in United States Law of the Sea Policy [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1989. 99.
① [德]尤尔根·哈贝马斯. 对话伦理学与真理的问题 [M]. 沈青楷译,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2005. 3.
① 该船装载了 650 吨氯代烃类(chlorinated hydrocarbon),从鹿特丹港出发,以北海北部区域为目的地,实施海洋倾倒。这一事件立刻引起巨大舆论,并遭致欧洲数个国家的抗议。See ANDRESEN, STEINAR. The North Sea and Beyond: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 52.
② 32 ILM 1069 (1993); 另见 OSPAR 主页: http//www.ospar.org/eng/html/, 2006-12-23..
③ See LAGONI, RAINER. Regional Protection of the Marine Environment in the Northeast Atlantic Under the OSPAR Convention of 1992 [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 187.
④ http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/northeastatlantic.pdf, 2007-3-29.
① See http://ocean.dmi.dk/DMI-MERSEA/oil_spill_applications_overview_bmc_suppl_North.htm, 2007-3-29.
① http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/northeastatlantic.pdf, 2007-3-29.
① 威望号事故之后,为了避免加利西亚(Galicia)沿岸所蕴含的风险,西班牙政府即提出采取 4 航道交通分离机制(traffic separation scheme)。2003 年,IMO 通过了该提议,这也是世界上第一个 4 航道的 TSS。2004 年 6 月,该规定生效。在此之前,英吉利海峡已然通过了严格管辖的船舶 TSS,TSS 对减少此区域 的碰撞和溢油事故发挥了重要的作用。See http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/northeastatlantic.pdf, 2007-3-29.
① FITZMAUURICE, MALGOSIA. International Legal Problems of the Environmental Protection of the Baltic Sea [M]. The Hague: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992. 15.
② BUCHHOLZ, HANNS, J.. The Baltic Sea: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 22.
③ See EBBESSON, JONAS. Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area—The Impact of the Stockhlm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 155-157.
④ 同本页注②,第 21-22 页。
① Regional Profile, Baltic Sea Region, p. 25.
② http://www.helcom.fi/groups/response/en_GB/main/, 2007-3-30.
③ 同本页注①,第 15 页。
① 该演习可以测试在发生大型污染事故以及国际应急反应中,各缔约国的报警程序以及应急能力。其总体目标就是保证各缔约国都能够负责大型的应急反应行动。该演习每年进行一次,根据既定章程由各缔约国主办。See http://www.helcom.fi/groups/response/en_GB/main/, 2007-3-30.
② http://www.helcom.fi/groups/response/en_GB/recommendations/, 2007-3-30.
① BUCHHOLZ, HANNS, J.. The Baltic Sea: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building: Lessons Learned and Their Relevance for Northeast Asia [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001. 23.
② DOWNS, GEORGE W., DANISH, KYLE W. & BARSOOM, PETER N.. The Transnational Model of International Regime Design: Triumph of Hope or Experience? [J]. Colum. J. Transnat'l L., 2000, (38): 465, 470.
① 可参见 http://www.unepmap.org/html/homeeng.asp, 2007-1-17.
① See HOYOS, DEBORA DE. The United Nations Environment Program: The Mediterranean Conference [J]. HARV. INT'L L.J., 1976, (17): 639, 640 .
② See GRAY, MARK ALLAN. The United Nations Environment Programme: An Assessment [J]. ENVTL. L., 1990, (20): 302.
③ 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社, 2000. 176-178.
① http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/regionalprofiles.html, 2007-3-30.
① http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/regionalprofiles.html, 2007-3-29.
① 目前有法国、摩纳哥和意大利之间的 RAMOGE 协议;另法国和西班牙之间,法国和意大利之间,意大利和希腊之间,以及塞浦路斯、埃及和以色列之间都有协议。See http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/ profiles/mediterranean.pdf, 2007-3-30.
① See CHUNG, SUH-YONG. Is the Mediterranean Regional Cooperation Model Applicable to Northeast Asia? [J]. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 1999, (Winter): 365.
① [美]伯尔曼. 法律与宗教 [M]. 梁治平译, 上海:三联出版社, 1991. 60.
② ?STERGAARD, JOHN. Oil Spill Contingency Planning and Technical Cooperation of the Black Sea Region [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.International Energy Policy, The Arctic and the Law of the Sea [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005. 196.
③ http://www.imo.org/home.asp, 2005-4-15.
④ 2002 年的威望号事件,也有类似的情况。当威望号油轮尚未断裂之时,西班牙担心本国水域受污染,拒绝其进入领海,并用拖船将其拖至公海上。最终载有 7.7 万吨油料的威望号在西班牙西北部加利西亚省海域沉没,船体完全断裂,大量溢油随着海水潮流漂移,直接污染了法国及西班牙毗邻大西洋的沿海海岸。
① http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/20shjimo/huanji1.htm, 2001-2-2.
② 参见夏兴园 李洪斌. 中国 50 年来经济结构调整的主题 [J]. 经济纵横, 1999, (10): 9.
① 参见王璐. 树立环保意识 促进经济增长方式转变——访国家环境保护总局副局长王玉庆 [J]. 中国金融,2006,(19):12-13.
② 参见于延东. 经济结构调整中的现实思考 [J]. 财经问题研究,1999, (12): 13.
① 根据对中国经济最活跃的广东省经济增长的实证分析,广东省经济增长主要是依靠要素投入增加所推动。这也代表了中国经济的增长方式,即是一种倚重生产要素投入量的绝对增加而获得快速发展的“粗放型”增长。参见邓利方 余甫功. 广东全要素生产率的测算与分析:1980～2004 [J]. 广东社会科学, 2006,(5):39. 而中国经济发展中的能源利用率却十分低下,能源利用总效率只有 32%,单位国民生产总值能耗比先进国家高 3 倍,生产单位产品的能耗比国外高出 50%到 100%。参见袁斌 杨平.节约型社会:中国经济的必然选择 [J]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报,2006,(8):124.
② 1972 年,以美国麻省理工学院的 D.秦多斯为首的 17 人小组,向罗马俱乐部提交了一份被称为“70 年代爆炸性杰作”的报告:《增长的极限》。在该报告中,提出了“零增长”理论。该理论促成了世界范围内对环境和资源的关注。
③ 中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. 中国的环境保护(1995-2006)[R]. 2006. 4-5.
④ 长江和珠江水质相对较好,松花江轻度污染,黄河、淮河中度污染,辽河、海河重度污染。淮河、辽河和海河是全国污染防治的重点地区。
① 在 2004 年的《中国海洋环境质量公报》中,首次出现了“近岸生态系统健康状况”的报告。2004 年,国家海洋局组织沿海省(自治区、直辖市),在我国近岸海域部分生态脆弱区和敏感区建立了 15 个生态监控区。监控区总面积为 5 万平方公里。到了 2005 和 2006 年的公报中,也保持了该部分内容。生态监控区数目上升至 18 个,监控面积达 5.2 万平方公里。这显示了中国在海洋环境保护的政策上,已经开始考虑海洋环境的综合质量以及指标。参见 http://www.soa.gov.cn/hygb/2004hjgb/4.htm, 2006-12-4.
② 环境保护年度计划指标首次纳入国民经济和社会发展计划。环境统计数据首次列入国民经济与社会发展统计公报。
③ 由于河口污染,溯河性鱼虾资源遭到破坏,产量大幅度下降,有的己经消失;部分内湾渔场荒废;一些滩涂贝类遭到严重破坏。参见 1992 年《中国环境状况公报——渔业生态环境》。这也是中国环境状况公报中首次就渔业问题公布相关数据。
① 本年度环境状况公报首次就海洋环境保护予以专门叙述,本年度完成了《中国海洋保护区发展规划纲要(1996 一 2010)》、《中国海岸带湿地保护行动计划》、《中国海洋生物多样性保护行动计划》和《海洋倾倒区选划与监测指南》的编制。
② 分别占 31.5%和 28.5%。参见 1999 年《中国环境状况公报——海洋环境》。
① 参见中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. 中国的环境保护(1995-2006)[R]. 2006. 6.
② 分别是“三河”(淮河、辽河、海河),“三湖”(太湖、滇池、巢湖),国家重点工程(三峡工程、南水北调工程),“两控区”(二氧化硫控制区和酸雨控制区),“一市”(北京市),“一海”(渤海)。引注同上,第7 页。
③ 同上,第 8 页。
④ 另外还有《赤潮灾害应急预案》。参见中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. 中国的环境保护(1995-2006)[R]. 2006. 15.
⑤ 涉及中国的区域海洋项目有两项,一是东亚海区域。包括 11 个亚区域,分别是:自台湾东面的菲律宾海流向日本的黑潮海流(Kuroshio Current)、黄海(Yellow Sea,)、东海(East China Sea)、南海(South China Sea)、苏禄-西里伯斯海(Sulu-Celebes Sea)、印尼海(Indonesian Seas)、澳大利亚北坡(North Australian Shelf)、珊瑚海盆地(Coral Sea Basin)、大堡礁(Great Barrier Reef)、澳大利亚大海湾(The Great Australian Bight)和塔斯曼海(Tasman Sea)。See Regional Profile, East Asian Seas Region, p. 4.一是西北太平洋区域。包括 7 个亚区域,分别是:鄂霍次克海(Sea of Okhotsk)、 亲潮海流(Oyashio Current)、 自台湾东面的菲律宾海流向日本的黑潮海流(Kuroshio Current)、日本海(Sea of Japan)、黄海(Yellow Sea,)、渤海(Bohai Sea)和东海(East China Sea)。See Regional Profile, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 4.
① http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/2003/8.htm, 2006-12-20.
① 2006 年开始执行的《中华人民共和国国民经济和社会发展第十一个五年规划纲要》首次提出,2010 年单位 GDP 能耗比“十五”之末降低 20%。但是,其执行并不顺利。根据国家发展改革委员会所发布的信息,2006 年上半年,全国单位 GDP 能耗同比上升 0.8%。根据中国国家统计局发布的《中华人民共和国 2006年国民经济和社会发展统计公报》,2006 年中国单位 GDP 能耗降低 1.23%。参见 http://www.stats.gov.cn/ tjgb/ndtjgb/qgndtjgb/t20070228_402387821.htm, 2007-5-11.
② 全国海上船舶溢油应急计划由三个层次组成,即中国海上船舶溢油应急计划、海区(北方海区、东海海区、南海海区和特殊区域的台湾海峡水域、秦皇岛海域)溢油应急计划和港口水域溢油应急计划。此外,根据 MARPOL 73/78 的要求,我国国际航线和国内航线的船舶分别于 1995 年和 1996 年编制完成了《船上油污应急计划》。参见《中国海上船舶溢油应急计划》前言,第 8 段。
① 参见我国海上溢油事故的现状和应对措施,http://www.chinamining.com.cn/news/listnews.asp?classid= 168&siteid=107077, 2007-6-22.
② 刘功臣. 树立信心 求真务实 全面推进海事危管防污工作——在全国海事系统危管防污工作会议上的讲话,2005 年 3 月 1 日。参见 http://www.msa.gov.cn/html/2005819116359.htm, 2007-1-29.
① 巴拿马籍“玛亚 8 号”轮在老铁山水道西口与另一船相撞。由于风、流作用,溢油由西向东漂移、扩散,形成南北宽约 18 公里、东西长约 70 公里的浮油区,面积约 1,260 平方公里。在这一海域造成大面积污染,同时诱发该海域的赤潮,面积达 1,000 平方公里。
② 溢油扩散面积约 25,000 平方米,油膜厚度约 0.3～0.5 毫米,对胶州湾北部海域环境和附近的海水养殖业和盐业产生了不利影响。参见 1990 年《中国海洋环境年报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/1990.htm, 2007-1-30。
③ 参见 1990 年《中国海洋灾害公报》http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/1990.htm#(五)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
④ 1994 年 3 月 8 日,浙江温岭松门航运公司所属 250 吨级油船“浙岭油 33 号”,在上海市金山县阳乡渔码头(位于杭州湾)装油过程中,起火爆炸,造成 1 人死亡,1 人重伤。灭火后该船倾覆,当时舱内存油 60余吨。7 月 14 日,俄罗斯万吨级货轮“康斯康宁赞可夫号”(KONSTAINZANKOV/UUQF)在饶平县青屿东南方约 3.5 公里(23°30′55″N,117°06′13″E)沉没。参见 1994 年《中国海洋灾害公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/ hygb/hyzh/1994.htm#(六)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
⑤ 参见 1995 年《中国海洋环境年报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/1995.htm, 2007-1-30。
⑥ 根据 1996 年《中国海洋灾害公报》所提供的信息,1996 年,海上石油平台溢油明显增多。参见http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/1996.htm#(五)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
① 1 吨约等于 7 桶,如果油质较轻(稀)则 1 吨约等于 7.2 桶或 7.3 桶。
② http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/1997.htm, 另外,1997 年还发生了多起因油轮排污造成的溢油污染,以及石油平台溢油污染事故。参见 1997 年《中国海洋灾害公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/1997.htm#(五)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
③ 11 月 13 日上午 10 时 34 分,上海油轮公司的 13000 吨油轮“建设 5l 号”装载着 9300 吨汽油,在内伶仃洋西北水道上与装载 4000 吨零号柴油的“津油 6 号”船相撞,“津油 6 号”油仓破裂,导致柴油外泄约 1000吨,海面溢油带长约 22 公里,造成了较大范围的油污染和严重损失。参见 http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/ hyhj/1998.htm, 2007-2-2.
④ 参见 1999 年《中国海洋灾害公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/1999.htm#(六)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
⑤ 根据中国溢油防治网所公布的数据,1999 年珠海 3.24 事故造成溢油 589.7 吨,损失达 4,000 多万元。参见 http://www.osp.cn/new/shiguanlidisp.asp?nid=113&Title=事故案例, 2007-2-7. 本文采用中国国家环境保护总局所公布的数据。
⑥ 2000 年《中国海洋环境质量公报》,其中一起是东海平湖天然气海底输油管道在位于岱山登陆点 KP2.46公里处断裂所造成的溢油污染。参见 http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/2000/5.htm, 2007-2-2.
⑦ 2000 年《中国海洋灾害公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/2000/6.htm, 2007-2-7.
① 2001 年《中国海洋环境质量公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/2001/6.htm, 2007-2-7.
② 根据中国国家环境保护总局公布的《中国近岸海域环境质量公报》,自 2002 年之后,所发生的 50 吨以上的溢油以及化学品泄露事故均及时获得处理。
③ 参见 2002 年《中国近岸海域环境质量公报——海上重大污染事故》,http://www.sepa.gov.cn/tech/hjjc/jcxx/ jagb/2002/200310/t20031023_86713.htm, 2007-2-5.
④ 参见 2003 年《中国近岸海域环境质量公报——海上重大污染事故》,http://www.sepa.gov.cn/tech/hjjc/jcxx/ jagb/2003/200403/t20040325_88984.htm, 2007-2-5.
⑤ 统计到的海上溢油事件共 5 起。参见 2004 年《中国海洋灾害公布——溢油灾害》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/ hygb/hyzh/2004/6.htm, 2007-2-8.
⑥ 参见 2004 年《中国近岸海域环境质量公报》,http://www.zhb.gov.cn/download/2004jagb.pdf, pp. 23-24. 2007-2-8.
① 参见 2005 年《中国近岸海域环境质量公报》,http://www.zhb.gov.cn/download/gb2005.pdf, p. 23. 2007-2-8.
② 参见 2005 年《中国海洋灾害公布——溢油灾害》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/2005/6.htm, 2007-2-8.
① 郭伟 王颖. 马六甲海峡—南海航线与当代中国经济发展 [J]. 第四纪研究, 2006,(5):487.
② UNEP 的海洋环境保护模式之所以可以适用于不同区域海洋,主要还是因为各区域海洋所面临的海洋污染问题基本一致,大致包括未(适当)处理的生活废水排放、化学以及工业污染、农药、营养流失导致的超营养现象、赤潮,再加上废水以及溢油事故导致的石油污染、大气污染、海上以及海岸废弃物等。
① Regional Seas Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 4.
② 北朝鲜目前是观察员身份,尚未从法律程序上正式批准该区域行动计划。
① See Regional Profile, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 26.
① 中国在 20 世纪 90 年代之前对环境保护,尤其是国际环境保护并没有足够的认识。而日本,由于其历史上先是受到中国文化影响,后又有侵略中国和朝鲜半岛的历史,与俄罗斯也不乏争端,因此,日本的政治影响实在不足以使其居于主导地位。
② See Y. MUROTA & Y. YANO. Japan's Policy on Energy and the Environment, ANN. REV. ENERGY & ENV'T [J]. 1993, (18): 89 ; KAWASHIMA, SHIRO. A Survey of Environmental Law and Policy in Japan [J]. 20 N.C. J. INT'L L. & COM. REG., 1995, (20): 231, 252 n.134.
③ 日本在此期间,加大了对周边其他国家的经济援助力度。See BRIGGS, JOHN. Japanese Official Development Assistance and Energy Efficiency Projects [J]. PAC. RIM L. & POL'Y J., 1993, (2): 289. Regarding Japan's foreign aid policy in general, see GREENEN, DARIN R.. Japanese Foreign Aid: Suggested Legislation to Guide Administrative Distribution of Foreign Aid [J]. PAC. RIM L. & POL'Y J., 1992, (1): 55.
① 1993 年 8 月,时任日本首相的细川护熙(Hosokawa Morihiro)曾提到国际环境保护问题,“我希望完全以日本的经验和能力,提出新的(国际)提案”。其继任首相羽田孜(Hata Tsutomu)也表达过类似的立场,“与其坐等其他国家的提案,日本更应该依据其在和平繁荣年代所积累的知识,主动拿出提议。”之后的首相村山富市(Murayama Tomiichi)也强调过日本保护环境的意愿。See VALENCIA, MARK J.. A Maritime Regime for Northeast Asia [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 95, 113, 114.
② 业内人士:近期日本在华投资动向,参见 http://www.cnexp.net/huoyun_wuliu_yunshu/guoneiwuliu/ 39918.html, 2007-1-24.
③ See VALENCIA, MARK J.. A Maritime Regime for Northeast Asia [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 116.
④ 1993 年,俄罗斯曾将 900 吨的核废弃物倾倒入东海,经绿色和平组织披露,引发本区域以及国际上对俄罗斯长期在该海域倾倒核废料的愤懑。See LAVINE, STEVEN D.. Russian Dumping in the Sea of Japan [J]. DENV. J. INT'L L. & POL'Y, 1996, (24): 417, 418.
⑤ 传统上,前苏联所注重的是环境政策的政治导向,而非对污染控制的关注。See VALENCIA, MARK J. A Maritime Regime for Northeast Asia [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 156.
① 日本在控制污染、节约能源,以及经济增长与节约能源相结合的问题上,都有颇为成功的处理。See CHUNG, SUH-YONG. Is the Mediterranean Regional Cooperation Model Applicable to Northeast Asia? [J]. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 1999, (Winter): 365.
② 1979-2004 年,中国国内生产总值年均增长率为 9.6%。2004 年 GDP 增长率由原来年度统计公报的 9.5%修改为 10.1%。2004 年年度统计公报参见 http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/ndtjgb/qgndtjgb/t20050228_ 402231854. htm, 2007-1-22. 国家“十五”期间的 GDP 增长图表参见 http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/ndtjgb/ qgndtjgb/ t20060227_402307796.htm, 2007-1-22.
③ 参见 http://countryreport.mofcom.gov.cn/trade/qikan.asp?id=279, 2007-6-16.
④ 参见吴昊. 论中国在推动东北亚区域合作中的作用和对策 [J]. 东北亚论坛, 2006,(6):4.
① 1990-2004 年间,日本对华投资达到年均 31 亿美元。参见刘晓民. 日本在亚太发展中地区直接投资的变化与趋势 [J]. 南洋问题研究, 2005,(3):37-39. 2005 年,日本对华投资为 65.3 亿美元;2006 年,日本对华投资为 46 亿美元。
② 参见刘昌黎. 日本对华直接投资的新发展及其原因分析 [J]. 东北亚论坛, 2006,(11):72-73.
③ 参见臧新 董蓉蓉 崔岩. 日本韩国对华直接投资规模产业和影响的实证比较 [J]. 国际贸易问题, 2006,(10):44-45.
④ 同上。
⑤ ESPINOSA, DEBORAH. Environmental Regulation of Russia’s Offshore Oil and Gas Industry and its Implications for the International Petroleum Market [J]. Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal, 1997, (7): 651.
① See CHUNG, SUH-YONG. Is the Mediterranean Regional Cooperation Model Applicable to Northeast Asia? [J]. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 1999, (Winter): 385-387.
② See MERSON, JOHN. Korea Wakes Up To the Environment [J]. NEW SCIENTIST, 1991, (6): 20.
③ 另外,韩国还提出有关“沙尘暴”的问题。参见 Korea Times, ASIA: Historic Environment Talks Could Help Protect Region, GREENWIRE, Feb. 3, 1993.
④ 对依据 NOWPAP 设立的海洋环境数据和信息管理体系,韩国于 20 世纪 90 年代中期提供了 40 万美元资助。引注同本页注①,第 386 页。而对 NOWPAP 下的信托基金,中国所缴纳的费用远远低于韩国和日本。
⑤ See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 25.
① 例如,1989 年美国“埃克森·瓦迪兹号”的溢油事故,污染损害和清污费用高达 80 亿美元。1997 年,俄罗斯油轮“纳霍德卡”在日本海域断裂沉没,溢油损失费用约 270 亿日元。1999 年,在法国海域发生的“爱丽卡”溢油事故,据统计,损失大约为 1.68 亿英镑。1995 年广州港发生的“檀家号”油轮溢油事故,给国家利益造成巨大损失,不仅在国内引起了震动,IMO 也表示了关注。参见“油污赔偿 让大海更加湛蓝”,《经济参考报》,2002-12-08,http://www.china5e.com/news/huanbao/200212/200212080060.html, 2007-1-24.
② 日本 1973 年所发生的石油污染事故共 2,060 起,1998 年其数字已经下降到该数字的 1/5。See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 34.
③ 1993-1997 年五年间,韩国沿海曾发生了 1,917 起海洋污染事故。See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 34. 从 1978 年至 2000 年,发生在我国沿海的溢油量 50 吨以上的重大事故共 46 宗,溢油总量 17941吨。参见“油污赔偿 让大海更加湛蓝”,《经济参考报》, 2002-12-08,http://www.china5e.com/news/huanbao/ 200212/200212080060.html, 2007-1-24.
④ See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 34.
① See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, pp. 35-38.
① Regional Profile, East Asian Seas Region, p. 28.
② 有数据显示,2004 年起,日本每天从中东进口的石油约为 60 万吨,全年石油进口总量约为 2.4 亿吨。总量中的 80%以上从中东进口,这些石油的 70%经马六甲海峡。参见 http://news.tom.com/2007-01-05/004H/ 26667701.html, 2007-4-8. 中国从 1993 年起就已经成为纯粹的石油进口国。中国很快将超过日本成为世界第二大石油消费国,而且中国经马六甲海峡运送的石油数量约占中国石油进口总量的 70%以上。参见 http://www.gmw.cn/03pindao /lunwen/ show.asp?id=4780, 2007-4-9.
③ 1992 年 9 月,利比亚籍“长崎·灵魂号”油轮事故,引起上万吨原油泄漏;1993 年 1 月,丹麦油轮“马斯克航海家号”油轮事故,引起的原油泄漏超过 2.7 万吨。
④ 东亚海区域由安达曼海、澳大利亚海、马六甲海峡、新加坡海峡、南海、爪哇海、弗洛里斯海、班达海、阿拉弗拉海、帝汶海、西里伯斯海、苏禄海以及菲律宾海构成。包括下列亚区域:自台湾东面的菲律宾海流向日本的黑潮海流(Kuroshio Current)、黄海、东海、南海、苏禄-西里伯斯海(Sulu-Celebes Sea)、印度尼西亚海、澳大利亚北架(North Australian Shelf)、珊瑚海盆地(Coral Sea Basin)、大堡礁(Great Barrier Reef)、大澳大利亚湾(Great Australian Bight)、塔斯曼海(Tasman Sea)。See Regional Profile, East Asian Seas Region, p. 4.
① 参见 http://www.ec.com.cn/pubnews/2007_01_16/103174/1257219.jsp, 2007-5-5.
② 马晓宇 张子阳 胡利明. 中国石油在马六甲海峡运输的安全研究 [J]. 中国水运, 2007,(1):28.
③ 参见 http://www.cec.org.cn/news/showc.asp?ID=30706, 2007-5-5.
④ 参见 http://fiber.oilchem.net/news/jckwords_1_6668.html, 2007-5-5.
⑤ 参见 http://newscenter.chemall.com.cn/newsarticleg.asp?ArticleID=86524, 2007-5-5.
① 具体包括环境退化、海洋环境保护与管理(即东亚海大会)、海洋污染、生物多样性等几个方面。See Regional Profile. East Asian Seas Region, pp. 21-22.
① 项目旨在摸清南中国海的现有生态环境资源和污染破坏程度;找出海洋环境污染与破坏的原因;制定一系列海洋与海岸带环境与生态保护行动计划;通过项目各参加国之间的协调行动,使南中国海地区的社会、经济与环境得到可持续发展。广西防城港市红树林及合浦海草是其中的两个专题,于 2005 年 11 月进入实质的操作阶段。
② 邓家培. 邓小平与广东经济腾飞 [J]. 探求, 1999, (2): 14.
① 参见夏思源 李宁玉. 中国—东盟自贸区对广东渔业的影响 [J]. 海洋与渔业, 2006,(2):13-14.
② http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/, 2007-4-21.
③ 参见中华人民共和国商务部综合司所发布的数据,http://zhs.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/Nocategory/200704/ 20070404538185.html, http://zhs.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/Nocategory/200702/20070204344141.html, 2007-4-23.
① 1978 到 1992 年间,东盟区域内贸易所占的份额从 15.84%上升到 18.40%,仅仅增加了 2.5 个百分点。该贸易份额只是区域内东盟五国的数据,数据由 IMF 出版的各期 Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook 计算而来。转引自厦门大学经济学博士陈雯博士论文,东盟区域贸易合作的贸易效应研究 [D]. 21.
① Regional Profile, East Asian Seas Region, p. 29.
② Id.
① [美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼.法律与革命——西方法律传统的形成 [M]. 贺卫方等译,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1993. 序言 Ⅲ.
① See E.D. BROWN. The International Law of the Sea [M]. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 1994. 7-8.
② 在海洋环境保护问题上,传统的维护海洋国家(maritime states)权利的海洋自由原则,衍生出大量不利于海洋环境保护的问题:船旗国对船舶的管理不力、方便旗的使用以及 IMO 无力敦促每个船旗国执行已有规则等。有鉴于此,沿海国不得不自行找出解决相关问题的途径。See ROACH, J. ASHLEY. Salient Issues in the Implementation of Regimes under the Law of the Sea Convention: An Overview [A]. Vidas, Davor & ?streng, Willy. Order for the Oceans at the Turn of the Century [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1999. 435, 441.
③ Loree, Philip J.. The Law of the Sea Convention: the Preferable Approach for the U.S. Shipping Industry [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Toward Senate Consideration of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995. 185.
① 参见[法] 亚历山大·基斯. 国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译,北京:法律出版社,2000. 1.
② CATENA, JOHN G.. Environmental Policy Considerations for Ocean Mining [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Ocean Mining Development and American Industry [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988. 241.
① 《联合国海洋法公约》第 197 条-第 201 条。
① FITZMAUURICE, MALGOSIA. International Legal Problems of the Environmental Protection of the Baltic Sea [M]. The Hague: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992. 6-7.
② See WOLFF, LARRY. Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, Standford [M]. CA: Standford University Press, 1994. 232.
① 关于该区域海洋环境保护成果的论述,see ANDRESEN, STEINAR. The North Sea and Beyond: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 57.
② See Regional Profile, North-East Atlantic Region, pp. 11-16.
③ See ANDRESEN, STEINAR. The North Sea and Beyond: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 61.
① See CHIRCOP, ALDO. The Mediterranean: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 27.
② 最近西方国际法学界有关该问题(国际法的碎片化)的探讨,详见发表在 Michigan Journal of International Law, 2004 年第 25 卷夏季号上由 G.HAFNER, B.SIMMA, J.PAUWELYN, P.S.Rao, A.FISCHER-LESCANO, G.TEUBNER,K.WELLENS 等人撰写的系列专题论文, 以及 M.KOSKENNIEMI & P.LEINO. Fragmentation of International Law? Postmodern Anxieties [J]. Leiden Journal of International Law, 2002, (15): 553-579.
① See http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/reports/2006/2006report.htm, 2007-4-13.
① See D.M. JOHNSTON and L.M. ENOMOTO. Regional Approaches to the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment [A]. D.M. JOHNSTON. The Environmental Law of the Sea [C]. Berlin: E. Schmidt, Berlin, 1981. 285.
② 参见亚历山大·基斯. 国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译. 北京:法律出版社,2000. 176-178.
① 参见[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼,法律与革命——西方法律传统的形成 [M]. 贺卫方等译,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1993. 序言Ⅱ.
① 关于这两个小组所讨论的具体问题,可参见 Report of the 2006 IMO/UNEP Forum on Regional Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution, jointly organized by the International Maritime Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, 2-5 May 2005, London, United Kingdom. pp. 7-8.
① CATENA, JOHN G.. Environmental Policy Considerations for Ocean Mining [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Ocean Mining Development and American Industry [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988. 231.
① 对于国际范围内的合作或事务,根据其性质可以区分为两大类,第一类属于“高政治化”事务(High Politics),第二类属于“低政治化”事务(Low Politics)。前者包括和平与安全等重大政治事务,后者涉及经济、社会、环境、人权等事务。李强.全球化、主权国家与世界政治秩序. 参见 http://xueshu.newyouth.beida -online.com/data/ data.php3?db=xueshu&id=quanqiuhua-3, 2005-3-25.
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① Encyclopedia Britannica,Vol. 9, p. 1003.
② 参见樊亚明. “区域景观规划初探”, http://plansky.cn/showarticle.php?id=381&class=5, 2005-12-30. response; (d). Related interests. means the interests of a coastal State directly affected or threatened and concerning, among others: (i) maritime activities in coastal areas, in ports or estuaries, including fishing activities; (ii) the historical and tourist appeal of the area in question, including water sports and recreation; (iii) the health of the coastal population; (iv) the cultural, aesthetic, scientific and educational value of the area; (v) the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of marine and coastal biological resources.
① 1982 年《联合国海洋法公约》第 1 条第 1 款第(4)项。
② Wm. Windelband,Introduction to Philosophy. 转引自[美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译, 贵阳:贵州人民出版社, 2003. 15.
③ [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译, 贵阳:贵州人民出版社, 2003. 15.
① 转引自[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼,法律与革命——西方法律传统的形成 [M]. 贺卫方等译, 北京: 中国大百科全书出版社, 1993. 序言Ⅰ.
② THARPES, YVONNE L.. International Environmental Law: Turning the Tide on Marine Pollution [J]. Miami Inter-Am. L. Rev, 1989, 20 (U): 579.
③ See Accidental Discharge of Oil. SPILLS FORM SHIPS, para 2. http://oils.gpa.unep.org/facts /oilspills.htm, 2007-2-25.
① 在 20 世纪初期,就开始了国际法上的社会化立法,也即 1919 年建立的国际劳工组织所主持订立的有关劳工标准的国际公约等。参见徐崇利. 经济全球化与国际法中社会立法的勃兴 [J]. 中国法学, 2004,(1):142. 而环境问题或者说生态问题被认为是社会问题,也是很多人的观点。
② [美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼.法律与革命——西方法律传统的形成 [M]. 贺卫方等译, 北京:中国大百科全书出版社, 1993. 57.
③ MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Oil on Water [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. National Energy Policy and the Oceans [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992. 204. 作者是美国海洋法协会海洋法分会副主席(Vice Chairman of the Maritime Law Association’s Subcommittee on the Law of the Sea)。在该文中,作者对于海洋油污历史有着详细的叙述。
④ See EDNA, BRADLOW & FRANK, BRADLOW. Here Comes the Alabama [M]. Cape Town: A. A. Balkema, 1958. 32-33, 38; IRWIN, SHAPIRO. The Story of Yankee Whaling [M]. New York: American Heritage Pub. Co., 1959. 114-117.
⑤ See MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Pre-UNCLOS Marine Scientific Research: An Introductory Survey of Law and Policy [J]. Sea Change, 1991, (13): 35, 37-38; MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Benjamin Franklin and the Freedom of Scientific Research [J]. Sea Change, 1986, (4): 58.
⑥ PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE. Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 1.
① 当时的石油污染问题,主要是港口内油类泄露所导致的问题。根据 Mangone 的观点,一战之前也有关于油污的投诉,但他认为“战争(一战)期间,装运石油的船舶数目急剧增长,加剧了港口内水质条件的恶化”。See MANGONE, GERARD J.. Marine Policy for America [M]. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1977. 229. 为此,许多港口,例如纽约,还有南非港口、百慕大港和南澳大利亚港,都有禁止在港口区域内排放油类水的规定。See PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE. Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 207. 英国于 1922 年颁布了《航行水域石油法案》(the United Kingdom’s Oil in Navigable Waters Act of 1922),这是“有关油污的第一个真正的国家立法”。See MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Oil on Water [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. National Energy Policy and the Oceans [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992. 204.
② http://www.itopf.com/stats.html, 2007-5-7.
① 相对而言,此次事故溢油量虽然并不是特别多,但是,此次的溢油属于极持久并且极难消散的重油,因而非常难以清理。并且,埃瑞克号沉没的地点离岸相对较远,距离最近的海岸大约有三十英里,这导致了受污染影响的区域非常大。其时凌厉的冬季风暴袭击了这个区域并为事故带来了更为严重的后果,使得为减轻这些区域损失的一切努力终显徒劳。最终,法国大西洋沿岸超过 400 公里的海岸线被埃瑞克号的重油所污染。See RINGBOM, HENRIK. Erika and Its Impact on E.U. Maritime Regulation [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Current Marine Environmental Issues and the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001. 265.
② See ITOPF, Major Oil Spills Since 1967, http://www.itopf.com/stats.html, 2007-2-24.
① See http://oils.gpa.unep.org/, 2007-2-6.
② See http://www.itopf.com/casehistories.html, 2007-5-8.
③ See http://academic.bowdoin.edu/chemistry/resources/exxon/html/chapter4.shtml, 2007-5-8.
① http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/hu/ergsinhu/aboutergs/torrey.html, 2007-2-24.
② ITOPF, CASE HISTORIES, See http://www.itopf.com/casehistories.html#torreycanyon, 2007-2-24.
③ A review of long-term research in the western English Channel, p. 10. See http://www.defra.gov.uk/science/ Project_Data/DocumentLibrary/ME3105/ME3105_1308_GEN.pdf, 2007-2-24.
④ Integrated Regional Assessment, p. 91. See http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/water/marine/uk/stateofsea/ chartprogress-5.pdf, 2007-2-24.
⑤ IMO, Prevention of Pollution by Oil, Torrey Canyon disaster. See http://www.imo.org/Environment/mainframe. asp?topic_id=231#2, 2007-2-24.
⑥ The Torrey Canyon’s Last Voyage, the end-game. See http://www.lboro.ac.uk/departments/hu/ergsinhu/ aboutergs/lasttrip.html, 2007-2-24.
① 参见白平则. 人与自然和谐关系的构建——环境法基本问题研究 [M]. 北京:中国法制出版社,2006. 7.
① 参见徐广军. 战后各国经济增长的交错性特征比较研究 [J]. 现代日本经济, 2002, (1): 36-37.
② 公元开始之时,世界人口据估算大概在 3.5 亿左右。到 1900 年,这个数字上升到 15 亿,到 1990 年是 50亿,2000 年是 60 亿。也就是说,在 20 世纪的最后十年里,世界人口的增长量差不多等同于从公元开始一直到1900年世界人口的总增长量。See BLIX, HANX. The History of Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 22.
③ SOHN, LOUIS B.& GUSTAFSON, KRISTEE. The Law of the Sea [M]. ST. Paul, Minnesota: WEST GROUP, 1984. Preface.
① 20 世纪 30-60 年代之间,人类历史上发生了影响深远的 8 大公害事件。参见万霞. 国际环境保护的法律理论与实践 [M]. 北京:经济科学出版社,2003. 23-24. 另外,20 世纪 60 年代末期开始,海洋污染问题也引起了全球关注,联合国大会 1968 年通过了“海洋问题国际合作”的 2414 号决议(ⅩⅩⅢ)、“防止开发海床所引起的海洋环境污染”的第 2467B 号决议(ⅩⅩⅢ),1969 年通过了“改善防止和控制海洋污染的有关措施”的第 2566 号决议(ⅩⅩⅣ)。还有前文提到的 1967 年托雷?坎永号溢油事故,参见[英]詹宁斯·瓦茨修订. 奥本海国际法 [M]. 第一卷 第二分册,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1998. 227.
② 英国的环保主义者通过一种经常性运动,给政客以及官员造成了一种压力,让他们发现自己处于一种永无宁日的状态,而不是可以自鸣得意的满足之中。当来自城郡的投诉信送至相关机构,几乎就可以确定,随之而来的就是议会、新闻报道、或甚至有时候是由 18,000 名居民签名的请愿书的质询…… See PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE . Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 42.
③ Id., p. 12.
④ MENEFEE, SAMUEL PYEATT. Oil on Water [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. National Energy Policy and the Oceans [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992. 204.
⑤ PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE . Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 50. League of Nations A.Ⅱ/P.V.2.1934, 15th Ordinary Session of the Assembly, 2d Comm., 2d Meeting, Sept. 12, 1934.
① [英]詹宁斯·瓦茨修订. 奥本海国际法 [M]. 第一卷 第二分册,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1998. 226-227.
② 有关各国在 1926 年对海洋环境保护的态度,see MANGONE, GERARD J.. Marine Policy for America [M]. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1977. 231.
③ 英国以及其它国家所面临国内压力以及污染的危险,使他们不得不采取对抗石油及船运利益的单边措施,也并非就缺乏说服力……葡萄牙(曾经)利用石油污染,当作其拓展领海要求的契机。在 1930 年的海牙国际法会议上,美国代表团也表述了在领海之外,对石油污染区域实行沿海国管辖的可能效果。英国官员则希望避开此类措施,因为他们认为这是对其航运利益的一种威胁。正如外交部汤普森(Geoffrey Thompson)所说的:“我们欢迎国际行动……来平息鸟类协会的抗议,并保证我们的商船,不会突然受到独裁、而且可能是恶意、或者行不通的法律的规制,这些可能是葡萄牙或其它国家对外国船只所施加的规范。” PRITCHARD, SONIA ZAIDE. Oil Pollution Control [M]. London: Routledge Kegan & Paul, 1987. 44. 关于葡萄牙 1927 年法案的更深入的讨论,see id., p.27.
① [英]詹宁斯·瓦茨修订. 奥本海国际法 [M]. 第一卷 第二分册,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1998. 227.
② The International-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization at its third extraordinary session in May, 1967, decided to include among the matters requiring study as a matter of urgency, inter alia: “Procedures whereby States, regionally or interregionally where applicable, can co-operate at short notice to provide manpower, supplies, equipment and scientific advice to deal with discharge of oil or other noxious or hazardous substances including consideration of the possibility of patrols to ascertain the extent of the discharge and the manner of treating it both on sea and land”. See http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/texts/BH539.txt, 2007-2-25.
③ Agreement for Co-operation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil (with annex), signed Bonn on 9 June, 1969. See http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/marine.html, 2007-2-25.
④ 此公约从缔结到生效,速度之快,在国际法历史上也是鲜见能出其右者。公约规定,其生效应在 6 国政府签署且无须批准、或交存其批准文件2个月后生效。See Agreement for Co-operation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil (with annex). Art. 9.(4).而公约缔结 2 个月后即生效,也说明了沿海各国签署、批准速度之快。与此相对照,1983 年签署的取代该公约的新协议,其从签署到生效则用了近乎 6 年的时间。See http://fletcher.tufts.edu/ multi/texts/BH834.txt, 2007-2-25.
⑤ Agreement for Co-operation in Dealing with Pollution of the North Sea by Oil and Other Harmful Substances (13 September, 1983). See http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/marine.html, 2007-2-25.
① 联合国大会 1968 年通过了“海洋问题国际合作”的 2414 号决议(ⅩⅩⅢ),“防止开发海床所引起的海洋环境污染”的第 2467B 号决议(ⅩⅩⅢ),1969 年通过了“改善防止和控制海洋污染的有关措施”的第 2566号决议(ⅩⅩⅣ)。
② 即有关一般污染的建议为第 70-85 条,有关海洋污染的建议为第 86-94 条。See http://fds.oup.com/www.oup.co.uk/pdf/bt/cassese/cases/part3/ch17/1204.pdf, 2007-2-27.
③ 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译,北京:法律出版社,2000. 34.
④ 关于该决议,see http://habitat.igc.org/open-gates/a27r2997.htm, 2007-2-27.
⑤ 即充当联合国政府间环境组织的联合国环境规划署管理理事会(the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme);负责联合国系统内部环保行动与协调的秘书处,以保障有效管理;为新的环保动议提供资金支持的自愿性质的环境基金;以及确保参与环境项目的各联合国部门间协调合作的环境协调机构(Environment Coordination Board)。See ESSAM, EL-HINNAWI. UNEP: Two Decades of Achievement and Challenge [M]. Nairobi: UNEP, 1992. 7.
① 这些工作重点(priorities)分别是:人类定居、生活环境、健康与福利(human settlements, habitat, health and well-being),陆地、淡水以及沙漠化(land, water and desertification),贸易、经济以及技术转移(trade, economies and the transfer of technology),海洋(ocean),自然、野生物种以及遗传资源的养护(conservation of nature, wildlife and genetic resources),以及能源(energy)。See ESSAM, EL-HINNAWI. UNEP: Two Decades of Achievement and Challenge [M]. Nairobi: UNEP, 1992. 9.
② See ESSAM, EL-HINNAWI. UNEP: Two Decades of Achievement and Challenge [M]. Nairobi: UNEP, 1992. 9.
③ 详见 http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/Programmes/Non-UNEP_administered_Programmes, 2006-6-30.
① 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译,北京:法律出版社,2000. 11.
② 详见后文论述。
③ [法]亚历山大?基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译,北京:法律出版社,2000. 158.
① 1954 年《油污公约》所要解决的问题,主要是关于人为操作对近海海域的污染。它根据三条原则确立相关的制度:禁止在近海排放油类;禁止含有大量油类的物质流入海洋;对超过一定吨位的散装商船也适用这些限制。参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 158-159.
① 有学者认为,1972 年《斯德哥尔摩宣言》的原则 3 和原则 5,虽然并未以“可持续发展”的名义提出,但已经体现了可持续发展的内容。See BLIX, HANS. The History of Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 20. 而且,“可持续发展”的时间要素,在原则 1 和 2 当中也都有体现。原则 1 和 2 都规定,为了“这一代和将来的子孙后代”。KISS, ALEXANDRE. The Destiny of the Principles of the Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 59-60. 至于为何要考虑到将来的子孙后代,并非没有人对此表示怀疑,“Groucho Marx 曾经质问过,为什么我们必须为我们的后代着想,他们什么都没有替我们做过。” See BLIX, HANS. The History of Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 20.
② 世界环境和发展委员会.我们共同的未来 [M].北京:世界知识出版社,1989. 19.
③ UN Doc. A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1.
④ 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 45.
⑤ 《里约环境与发展宣言》原则 7 规定:“各国应本着全球伙伴关系的精神进行合作,以养护、保护和恢复地球生态系统的健康和完整。”原则 27 则规定了各国的合作义务。
⑥ See BRUNNEE, JUTTA. The Stockholm Declaration and the Structure and Process of International Environmental Law [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 71.
① P. BIRNIE & A. E. BOYLE. International Law and the Environment [M]. 2nd ed., Oxford : Clarendon Press, 2002. 86-95.
① GAVOUNELI, MARIA. New Forms of Cooperation in the Mediterranean System of Environmental Protection [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 223.
② 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 180-182.
③ LAGONI, RAINER. Protection of the Marine Environment in the Northeast Atlantic Under the OSPAR Convention of 1992 [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 184-185.
① See Regional Profile, Mediterranean Sea Region, p. 4.
② 20 世纪 80 年代,中美地区的政治经济危机导致其 GDP 下降了 18.3%,再加上冷战结束后遗留下的贫困问题,这些都成为该区域开展海洋环境保护所面临的重大障碍。See Regional Profile, North East Pacific Region, p. 2.
③ 这 8 个国家分别是:哥伦比亚、哥斯达黎加、萨尔瓦多、瓜地马拉、洪都拉斯、墨西哥、尼加拉瓜和巴拿马(Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua and Panama)。其中,哥伦比亚和墨西哥两国尚未签署该条约。See Regional Profile, North East Pacific Region, p. 13.
④ 里海作为独立的区域海洋项目,并不受 UNEP 的领导。但是,基于 UNEP 区域海洋项目的影响,在里海第八次政府专家会议的建议下,先由 UNEP 召集各方对框架公约进行讨论,其后各方才正式签署了该区域公约。UNEP 以观察员身份参加了 2004 年的会议。 See http://www.caspianenvironment.org/newsite/Convention- FinalAct.htm, 2007-3-7.
① The UN and the Environment, http://www.unep.org/un-env/, 2007-1-18.
① [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M] . 刘培峰 刘骁军译,贵阳:贵州人民出版社,2003. 14.
② 同上,第 51 页.
① 王伟光. 利益论 [M]. 北京:人民出版社, 2001. 11.
② [英]韦恩·莫里森. 法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 77.
① 参见高鹏程. 斯宾诺莎的政治利益分析方法 [J]. 湖南师范大学社会科学学报, 2006, (1): 50.
② [英]韦恩·莫里森. 法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 79-80.
③ [美]E·博登海默. 法理学:法律哲学与法律方法 [M]. 邓正来译, 北京: 中国政法大学出版社, 2004. 51.
④ 同本页注②,第 210-212 页。
① HANNS, J. BUCHOLZ. The Baltic Sea: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 17.
② [英]霍布斯. 利维坦(西方伦理学名著选译)(上)[M].黎思复 黎廷弼译 杨昌裕校,北京:商务印书馆,1964. 667.
① [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译,贵阳:贵州人民出版社,2003. 57.
① [意]马基雅维利. 君王论 [M]. 徐继业译,北京:西苑出版社,2004. 57.
② [荷]斯宾诺莎. 神学政治论 [M]. 温锡增译,北京:商务印书馆,1963. 57.
③ 参见高鹏程. 斯宾诺莎的政治利益分析方法 [J]. 湖南师范大学社会科学学报, 2006, (1): 50.
④ 参见祝灵君. 试论政治学研究中的利益分析方法 [J]. 北京行政学院学报, 2003, (3): 16.
⑤ 参见林宏宇. 利益分析:国际问题研究的重要方法 [J]. 国际关系学院学报, 2000, (2): 10.
① 参见[美]罗斯科·庞德. 法理学 [M] . 邓正来译, 北京: 中国政法大学出版社,2004. 505.
② [美]E·博登海默. 法理学:法律哲学与法律方法 [M]. 邓正来译, 北京: 中国政法大学出版社, 2004. 109.
③ [英]韦恩·莫里森. 法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 197.
④ 同本页注②,第 113 页。
① Jhering, The Struggle for Law, transl. J. Lalor ( Chicago, 1915), pp. 8-9. 参见[美] E·博登海默. 法理学:法律哲学与法律方法 [M]. 邓正来译, 北京: 中国政法大学出版社, 2004. 116.
② [德]伯恩·魏德士. 法理学 [M]. 丁小春 吴越译, 北京: 法律出版社, 2003. 239.
③ Ph. Heck, Gesetzesauslegung und Interessenjurisprudenz. AcP 112 (1914), S. 1 ff, 17. 引注同本页注②,第 241页。
① See R.J. Deputy. Soft Law and the International Law of the Environment [J]. Michigan Journal of International Law 1991, (12):420; G. Handl. Environmental Security and Global Change: The Challenge to International Law [J]. Yearbook of International Environmental Law 1990, (1): 3.
① [英]韦恩·莫里森. 法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 18.
② 参见张文显. 二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究 [M]. 北京:法律出版社,2006. 41-45.
① BRUNNEE, JUTTA. The Stockholm Declaration and the Structure and Process of International Environmental Law [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 71.
② Gaius, Justinian’s Digest, I.1.9.
③ “第十一:你要作为一个诚实的托管者接管这个神圣的地球,世世代代都要保护它的资源和活力。你应护卫土地,使土地免遭侵蚀;护卫生命之水,使之永不干涸;护卫森林,使之免遭毁坏;护卫山岳,使之免遭牧群的践踏。这样,你的后代才能永远丰衣足食。如果对土地的管理失败了,那么,肥沃的土地将变得荒芜贫瘠,沟壑纵横,你的后代将减少并生活在贫困中,或从地球上消失。” 1939 年 6 月,W.C. Lowdermilk. 转引自杨通进. 走向深层的环保 [M]. 成都:四川人民出版社, 2002. 23.
④ 关于这一点,可以从各区域海洋防治污染的公约用语中看出,例如:“意识到其经济、文化、健康价值”、“为了现代及之后各代人的利益”和“共同遗产”等等用词。
① 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 176-178.
② 参见张文显.二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究 [M].北京:法律出版社,2006. 48-50.
① [英]韦恩·莫里森.法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 435.
② [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐.法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译,贵阳:贵州人民出版社,2003. 49.
① 参见[英]韦恩·莫里森.法理学:从古希腊到后现代 [M]. 李桂林 李清伟 侯健 郑云瑞译, 武汉: 武汉大学出版社, 2003. 6.
② 早期实证主义认为,经验观察和非经验陈述是截然不同的两回事,哲学或形而上学的理论(理智)问题对于经验性科学实践基本上是无意义的。针对此,有学者指出,这种极端的实证主义信念使得社会科学的想像力日渐枯竭,由此缩小了经验分析的领域。参见张文显. 二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究 [M]. 北京:法律出版社,2006. 66.
① [美]本杰明·N·卡多佐. 法律的生长 [M]. 刘培峰 刘骁军译,贵阳:贵州人民出版社,2003. 19.
② 同上,第 49 页。
① 张文显. 二十世纪西方法哲学思潮研究 [M]. 北京:法律出版社,2006. 90.
② 同上,第 104 页。
① HENKIN, LOUIS. How Nations Behave-Law and Foreign Policy [M]. 2nd ed, New York: Columbia University Press, 1979. Preface.
① See http://www.fzu.edu.cn/h19/cqspring/article/article-033.htm, 2005-12-20.
② 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社,2000. 281.
① GURUSWAMY, LAKSHMAN D.. International Environmental Law [M]. 2nd ed., St. Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Co., 2003. 346.
② 参见 IMO 网站:http://www.imo.org/Conventions/contents.asp?doc_id=678&topic_id =258#2003, 2006-11-4.
③ 最明显的就是西德以及瑞典法律体系中对此原则的规定。See MARR, SIMON. The Precautionary Principle in the Law of the Sea: Modern Decision Making in International Law [M]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2003. 5.
④ EHLERS, PETER. The History of the International North Sea Conferences [A]. FREESTONE, DAVID & IJLST, TON RA.The North Sea: Basic Legal Documents on Regional Environmental Co-operation [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1991. 3-14.
⑤ OSCOM. 1989. Convention for the Prevention of Maritime Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft. 15th Meeting of the Oslo Commission, “On the Reduction and Cessation of Dumping Industrial Wastes at Sea,” Decision 89/1, Dublin, Ireland, 14 June 1989.
⑥ See FREESTONE, DAVID & HEY, ELLEN. Origins and Development of the Precautionary Principle [A]. FREESTONE, DAVID. The Precautionary Principle and International Law: The Challenge of Implementation [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1996. 3.
⑦ See SANDS, PHILIPPE. Principles of International Environmental Law [M]. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995. 212; CAMERON, JAMES & ABOUCHAR, JULI. The Status of the Precautionary Principle in International Law [A]. FREESTONE, DAVID. The Precautionary Principle and International Law: The Challenge of Implementation [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1996. 36-50.
① See http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/W1238E/W1238E04.htm, 2007-3-20.
② 目前国际社会虽然尚未对预警原则形成统一的表述方式,但其共通之处在于均强调某些行为的风险成本过高,超出社会目前的承受能力,因而根据成本效益规则来看,应采取预警。See O’RIORDAN, TIMOTHY & CAMERON, JAMES. The History and Contemporary Significance of the Precautionary Principle [A]. O’RIORDAN, TIMOTHY & CAMERON, JAMES. Interpreting the Precautionary Principle [C]. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd., 1994. 18; JORDAN, ANDREW & O’RIORDAN, TIMOTHY. The Precautionary Principle in Contemporary Environmental Policy and Politics [A]. BERGER, RAFFENS & TICKNER. Protecting Public Health and the Environment [C]. Washington: Island Press, 1999. 30.
③ GRANT, HEWISON. The Precautionary Approach to Fisheries Management: an Environmental Perspective [J]. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 1996, (11): 301-332; CAMERON, JAMES & ABOUCHAR, JULI. The Precautionary Principle [J]. Boston College International & Comparative Law Review, 1991, (14): 1-27.
① 陈安,主编. 国际经济法学专论(上编)[M]. 北京:高等教育出版社, 2002. 264.
② 转引自[英]约翰·霍夫曼. 主权 [M]. 陆彬译, 长春:吉林人民出版社, 2005. (序言)1.
① See BLIX, HANS. The History of Stockholm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 18.
② 有关国际环境法概念起源和发展的进一步探讨,参见 J. BRUNNEE. Toward Effective International Environmental Law_Trends and Developments [A]. S. A. Jennett. Law and Process in Environmental Management [C]. Calgary:Canadian Institute of Resources Law, 1993. 217.
③ 有关共同关注的概念,see P. BIRNIE & A. E. BOYLE. International Law and the Environment[M]. 2nd ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002. 97-100; see also J. BRUNNEE. A Conceptual Framework for an International Forests Convention: Customary Law and Emerging Principal [A]. Canadian Council on International Law. Global Forests and International Environmental Law [C].Berlin: Springer Publishing, 1996. 55-62. 另外,共同关注的概念与另一个概念也密切相关,即共同但有所区别的责任。这一概念是对共同关注的进一步发展,体现了基于共同利益和不同能力的基础上,对责任的分配。See BRUNNEE, JUTTA. The Stockholm Declaration and the Structure and Process of International Environmental Law [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 69-70.
① BALLAH, LENNOX F.. National Interest and Establishing a Rational Order for the Oceans [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Contemprary Issues in United States Law of the Sea Policy [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1989. 99.
① [德]尤尔根·哈贝马斯. 对话伦理学与真理的问题 [M]. 沈青楷译,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2005. 3.
① 该船装载了 650 吨氯代烃类(chlorinated hydrocarbon),从鹿特丹港出发,以北海北部区域为目的地,实施海洋倾倒。这一事件立刻引起巨大舆论,并遭致欧洲数个国家的抗议。See ANDRESEN, STEINAR. The North Sea and Beyond: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 52.
② 32 ILM 1069 (1993); 另见 OSPAR 主页: http//www.ospar.org/eng/html/, 2006-12-23..
③ See LAGONI, RAINER. Regional Protection of the Marine Environment in the Northeast Atlantic Under the OSPAR Convention of 1992 [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 187.
④ http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/northeastatlantic.pdf, 2007-3-29.
① See http://ocean.dmi.dk/DMI-MERSEA/oil_spill_applications_overview_bmc_suppl_North.htm, 2007-3-29.
① http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/northeastatlantic.pdf, 2007-3-29.
① 威望号事故之后,为了避免加利西亚(Galicia)沿岸所蕴含的风险,西班牙政府即提出采取 4 航道交通分离机制(traffic separation scheme)。2003 年,IMO 通过了该提议,这也是世界上第一个 4 航道的 TSS。2004 年 6 月,该规定生效。在此之前,英吉利海峡已然通过了严格管辖的船舶 TSS,TSS 对减少此区域 的碰撞和溢油事故发挥了重要的作用。See http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/northeastatlantic.pdf, 2007-3-29.
① FITZMAUURICE, MALGOSIA. International Legal Problems of the Environmental Protection of the Baltic Sea [M]. The Hague: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992. 15.
② BUCHHOLZ, HANNS, J.. The Baltic Sea: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 22.
③ See EBBESSON, JONAS. Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area—The Impact of the Stockhlm Declaration [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.The Stockholm Declaration and Law of the Marine Environment [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003. 155-157.
④ 同本页注②,第 21-22 页。
① Regional Profile, Baltic Sea Region, p. 25.
② http://www.helcom.fi/groups/response/en_GB/main/, 2007-3-30.
③ 同本页注①,第 15 页。
① 该演习可以测试在发生大型污染事故以及国际应急反应中,各缔约国的报警程序以及应急能力。其总体目标就是保证各缔约国都能够负责大型的应急反应行动。该演习每年进行一次,根据既定章程由各缔约国主办。See http://www.helcom.fi/groups/response/en_GB/main/, 2007-3-30.
② http://www.helcom.fi/groups/response/en_GB/recommendations/, 2007-3-30.
① BUCHHOLZ, HANNS, J.. The Baltic Sea: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building: Lessons Learned and Their Relevance for Northeast Asia [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001. 23.
② DOWNS, GEORGE W., DANISH, KYLE W. & BARSOOM, PETER N.. The Transnational Model of International Regime Design: Triumph of Hope or Experience? [J]. Colum. J. Transnat'l L., 2000, (38): 465, 470.
① 可参见 http://www.unepmap.org/html/homeeng.asp, 2007-1-17.
① See HOYOS, DEBORA DE. The United Nations Environment Program: The Mediterranean Conference [J]. HARV. INT'L L.J., 1976, (17): 639, 640 .
② See GRAY, MARK ALLAN. The United Nations Environment Programme: An Assessment [J]. ENVTL. L., 1990, (20): 302.
③ 参见[法]亚历山大·基斯.国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译, 北京:法律出版社, 2000. 176-178.
① http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/regionalprofiles.html, 2007-3-30.
① http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/profiles/regionalprofiles.html, 2007-3-29.
① 目前有法国、摩纳哥和意大利之间的 RAMOGE 协议;另法国和西班牙之间,法国和意大利之间,意大利和希腊之间,以及塞浦路斯、埃及和以色列之间都有协议。See http://www.itopf.com/country_profiles/ profiles/mediterranean.pdf, 2007-3-30.
① See CHUNG, SUH-YONG. Is the Mediterranean Regional Cooperation Model Applicable to Northeast Asia? [J]. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 1999, (Winter): 365.
① [美]伯尔曼. 法律与宗教 [M]. 梁治平译, 上海:三联出版社, 1991. 60.
② ?STERGAARD, JOHN. Oil Spill Contingency Planning and Technical Cooperation of the Black Sea Region [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON.International Energy Policy, The Arctic and the Law of the Sea [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2005. 196.
③ http://www.imo.org/home.asp, 2005-4-15.
④ 2002 年的威望号事件,也有类似的情况。当威望号油轮尚未断裂之时,西班牙担心本国水域受污染,拒绝其进入领海,并用拖船将其拖至公海上。最终载有 7.7 万吨油料的威望号在西班牙西北部加利西亚省海域沉没,船体完全断裂,大量溢油随着海水潮流漂移,直接污染了法国及西班牙毗邻大西洋的沿海海岸。
① http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/20shjimo/huanji1.htm, 2001-2-2.
② 参见夏兴园 李洪斌. 中国 50 年来经济结构调整的主题 [J]. 经济纵横, 1999, (10): 9.
① 参见王璐. 树立环保意识 促进经济增长方式转变——访国家环境保护总局副局长王玉庆 [J]. 中国金融,2006,(19):12-13.
② 参见于延东. 经济结构调整中的现实思考 [J]. 财经问题研究,1999, (12): 13.
① 根据对中国经济最活跃的广东省经济增长的实证分析,广东省经济增长主要是依靠要素投入增加所推动。这也代表了中国经济的增长方式,即是一种倚重生产要素投入量的绝对增加而获得快速发展的“粗放型”增长。参见邓利方 余甫功. 广东全要素生产率的测算与分析:1980～2004 [J]. 广东社会科学, 2006,(5):39. 而中国经济发展中的能源利用率却十分低下,能源利用总效率只有 32%,单位国民生产总值能耗比先进国家高 3 倍,生产单位产品的能耗比国外高出 50%到 100%。参见袁斌 杨平.节约型社会:中国经济的必然选择 [J]. 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报,2006,(8):124.
② 1972 年,以美国麻省理工学院的 D.秦多斯为首的 17 人小组,向罗马俱乐部提交了一份被称为“70 年代爆炸性杰作”的报告:《增长的极限》。在该报告中,提出了“零增长”理论。该理论促成了世界范围内对环境和资源的关注。
③ 中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. 中国的环境保护(1995-2006)[R]. 2006. 4-5.
④ 长江和珠江水质相对较好,松花江轻度污染,黄河、淮河中度污染,辽河、海河重度污染。淮河、辽河和海河是全国污染防治的重点地区。
① 在 2004 年的《中国海洋环境质量公报》中,首次出现了“近岸生态系统健康状况”的报告。2004 年,国家海洋局组织沿海省(自治区、直辖市),在我国近岸海域部分生态脆弱区和敏感区建立了 15 个生态监控区。监控区总面积为 5 万平方公里。到了 2005 和 2006 年的公报中,也保持了该部分内容。生态监控区数目上升至 18 个,监控面积达 5.2 万平方公里。这显示了中国在海洋环境保护的政策上,已经开始考虑海洋环境的综合质量以及指标。参见 http://www.soa.gov.cn/hygb/2004hjgb/4.htm, 2006-12-4.
② 环境保护年度计划指标首次纳入国民经济和社会发展计划。环境统计数据首次列入国民经济与社会发展统计公报。
③ 由于河口污染,溯河性鱼虾资源遭到破坏,产量大幅度下降,有的己经消失;部分内湾渔场荒废;一些滩涂贝类遭到严重破坏。参见 1992 年《中国环境状况公报——渔业生态环境》。这也是中国环境状况公报中首次就渔业问题公布相关数据。
① 本年度环境状况公报首次就海洋环境保护予以专门叙述,本年度完成了《中国海洋保护区发展规划纲要(1996 一 2010)》、《中国海岸带湿地保护行动计划》、《中国海洋生物多样性保护行动计划》和《海洋倾倒区选划与监测指南》的编制。
② 分别占 31.5%和 28.5%。参见 1999 年《中国环境状况公报——海洋环境》。
① 参见中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. 中国的环境保护(1995-2006)[R]. 2006. 6.
② 分别是“三河”(淮河、辽河、海河),“三湖”(太湖、滇池、巢湖),国家重点工程(三峡工程、南水北调工程),“两控区”(二氧化硫控制区和酸雨控制区),“一市”(北京市),“一海”(渤海)。引注同上,第7 页。
③ 同上,第 8 页。
④ 另外还有《赤潮灾害应急预案》。参见中华人民共和国国务院新闻办公室. 中国的环境保护(1995-2006)[R]. 2006. 15.
⑤ 涉及中国的区域海洋项目有两项,一是东亚海区域。包括 11 个亚区域,分别是:自台湾东面的菲律宾海流向日本的黑潮海流(Kuroshio Current)、黄海(Yellow Sea,)、东海(East China Sea)、南海(South China Sea)、苏禄-西里伯斯海(Sulu-Celebes Sea)、印尼海(Indonesian Seas)、澳大利亚北坡(North Australian Shelf)、珊瑚海盆地(Coral Sea Basin)、大堡礁(Great Barrier Reef)、澳大利亚大海湾(The Great Australian Bight)和塔斯曼海(Tasman Sea)。See Regional Profile, East Asian Seas Region, p. 4.一是西北太平洋区域。包括 7 个亚区域,分别是:鄂霍次克海(Sea of Okhotsk)、 亲潮海流(Oyashio Current)、 自台湾东面的菲律宾海流向日本的黑潮海流(Kuroshio Current)、日本海(Sea of Japan)、黄海(Yellow Sea,)、渤海(Bohai Sea)和东海(East China Sea)。See Regional Profile, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 4.
① http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/2003/8.htm, 2006-12-20.
① 2006 年开始执行的《中华人民共和国国民经济和社会发展第十一个五年规划纲要》首次提出,2010 年单位 GDP 能耗比“十五”之末降低 20%。但是,其执行并不顺利。根据国家发展改革委员会所发布的信息,2006 年上半年,全国单位 GDP 能耗同比上升 0.8%。根据中国国家统计局发布的《中华人民共和国 2006年国民经济和社会发展统计公报》,2006 年中国单位 GDP 能耗降低 1.23%。参见 http://www.stats.gov.cn/ tjgb/ndtjgb/qgndtjgb/t20070228_402387821.htm, 2007-5-11.
② 全国海上船舶溢油应急计划由三个层次组成,即中国海上船舶溢油应急计划、海区(北方海区、东海海区、南海海区和特殊区域的台湾海峡水域、秦皇岛海域)溢油应急计划和港口水域溢油应急计划。此外,根据 MARPOL 73/78 的要求,我国国际航线和国内航线的船舶分别于 1995 年和 1996 年编制完成了《船上油污应急计划》。参见《中国海上船舶溢油应急计划》前言,第 8 段。
① 参见我国海上溢油事故的现状和应对措施,http://www.chinamining.com.cn/news/listnews.asp?classid= 168&siteid=107077, 2007-6-22.
② 刘功臣. 树立信心 求真务实 全面推进海事危管防污工作——在全国海事系统危管防污工作会议上的讲话,2005 年 3 月 1 日。参见 http://www.msa.gov.cn/html/2005819116359.htm, 2007-1-29.
① 巴拿马籍“玛亚 8 号”轮在老铁山水道西口与另一船相撞。由于风、流作用,溢油由西向东漂移、扩散,形成南北宽约 18 公里、东西长约 70 公里的浮油区,面积约 1,260 平方公里。在这一海域造成大面积污染,同时诱发该海域的赤潮,面积达 1,000 平方公里。
② 溢油扩散面积约 25,000 平方米,油膜厚度约 0.3～0.5 毫米,对胶州湾北部海域环境和附近的海水养殖业和盐业产生了不利影响。参见 1990 年《中国海洋环境年报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/1990.htm, 2007-1-30。
③ 参见 1990 年《中国海洋灾害公报》http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/1990.htm#(五)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
④ 1994 年 3 月 8 日,浙江温岭松门航运公司所属 250 吨级油船“浙岭油 33 号”,在上海市金山县阳乡渔码头(位于杭州湾)装油过程中,起火爆炸,造成 1 人死亡,1 人重伤。灭火后该船倾覆,当时舱内存油 60余吨。7 月 14 日,俄罗斯万吨级货轮“康斯康宁赞可夫号”(KONSTAINZANKOV/UUQF)在饶平县青屿东南方约 3.5 公里(23°30′55″N,117°06′13″E)沉没。参见 1994 年《中国海洋灾害公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/ hygb/hyzh/1994.htm#(六)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
⑤ 参见 1995 年《中国海洋环境年报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/1995.htm, 2007-1-30。
⑥ 根据 1996 年《中国海洋灾害公报》所提供的信息,1996 年,海上石油平台溢油明显增多。参见http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/1996.htm#(五)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
① 1 吨约等于 7 桶,如果油质较轻(稀)则 1 吨约等于 7.2 桶或 7.3 桶。
② http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/1997.htm, 另外,1997 年还发生了多起因油轮排污造成的溢油污染,以及石油平台溢油污染事故。参见 1997 年《中国海洋灾害公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/1997.htm#(五)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
③ 11 月 13 日上午 10 时 34 分,上海油轮公司的 13000 吨油轮“建设 5l 号”装载着 9300 吨汽油,在内伶仃洋西北水道上与装载 4000 吨零号柴油的“津油 6 号”船相撞,“津油 6 号”油仓破裂,导致柴油外泄约 1000吨,海面溢油带长约 22 公里,造成了较大范围的油污染和严重损失。参见 http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/ hyhj/1998.htm, 2007-2-2.
④ 参见 1999 年《中国海洋灾害公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/1999.htm#(六)溢油灾害, 2007-2-7.
⑤ 根据中国溢油防治网所公布的数据,1999 年珠海 3.24 事故造成溢油 589.7 吨,损失达 4,000 多万元。参见 http://www.osp.cn/new/shiguanlidisp.asp?nid=113&Title=事故案例, 2007-2-7. 本文采用中国国家环境保护总局所公布的数据。
⑥ 2000 年《中国海洋环境质量公报》,其中一起是东海平湖天然气海底输油管道在位于岱山登陆点 KP2.46公里处断裂所造成的溢油污染。参见 http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/2000/5.htm, 2007-2-2.
⑦ 2000 年《中国海洋灾害公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/2000/6.htm, 2007-2-7.
① 2001 年《中国海洋环境质量公报》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyhj/2001/6.htm, 2007-2-7.
② 根据中国国家环境保护总局公布的《中国近岸海域环境质量公报》,自 2002 年之后,所发生的 50 吨以上的溢油以及化学品泄露事故均及时获得处理。
③ 参见 2002 年《中国近岸海域环境质量公报——海上重大污染事故》,http://www.sepa.gov.cn/tech/hjjc/jcxx/ jagb/2002/200310/t20031023_86713.htm, 2007-2-5.
④ 参见 2003 年《中国近岸海域环境质量公报——海上重大污染事故》,http://www.sepa.gov.cn/tech/hjjc/jcxx/ jagb/2003/200403/t20040325_88984.htm, 2007-2-5.
⑤ 统计到的海上溢油事件共 5 起。参见 2004 年《中国海洋灾害公布——溢油灾害》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/ hygb/hyzh/2004/6.htm, 2007-2-8.
⑥ 参见 2004 年《中国近岸海域环境质量公报》,http://www.zhb.gov.cn/download/2004jagb.pdf, pp. 23-24. 2007-2-8.
① 参见 2005 年《中国近岸海域环境质量公报》,http://www.zhb.gov.cn/download/gb2005.pdf, p. 23. 2007-2-8.
② 参见 2005 年《中国海洋灾害公布——溢油灾害》,http://www.coi.gov.cn/hygb/hyzh/2005/6.htm, 2007-2-8.
① 郭伟 王颖. 马六甲海峡—南海航线与当代中国经济发展 [J]. 第四纪研究, 2006,(5):487.
② UNEP 的海洋环境保护模式之所以可以适用于不同区域海洋,主要还是因为各区域海洋所面临的海洋污染问题基本一致,大致包括未(适当)处理的生活废水排放、化学以及工业污染、农药、营养流失导致的超营养现象、赤潮,再加上废水以及溢油事故导致的石油污染、大气污染、海上以及海岸废弃物等。
① Regional Seas Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 4.
② 北朝鲜目前是观察员身份,尚未从法律程序上正式批准该区域行动计划。
① See Regional Profile, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 26.
① 中国在 20 世纪 90 年代之前对环境保护,尤其是国际环境保护并没有足够的认识。而日本,由于其历史上先是受到中国文化影响,后又有侵略中国和朝鲜半岛的历史,与俄罗斯也不乏争端,因此,日本的政治影响实在不足以使其居于主导地位。
② See Y. MUROTA & Y. YANO. Japan's Policy on Energy and the Environment, ANN. REV. ENERGY & ENV'T [J]. 1993, (18): 89 ; KAWASHIMA, SHIRO. A Survey of Environmental Law and Policy in Japan [J]. 20 N.C. J. INT'L L. & COM. REG., 1995, (20): 231, 252 n.134.
③ 日本在此期间,加大了对周边其他国家的经济援助力度。See BRIGGS, JOHN. Japanese Official Development Assistance and Energy Efficiency Projects [J]. PAC. RIM L. & POL'Y J., 1993, (2): 289. Regarding Japan's foreign aid policy in general, see GREENEN, DARIN R.. Japanese Foreign Aid: Suggested Legislation to Guide Administrative Distribution of Foreign Aid [J]. PAC. RIM L. & POL'Y J., 1992, (1): 55.
① 1993 年 8 月,时任日本首相的细川护熙(Hosokawa Morihiro)曾提到国际环境保护问题,“我希望完全以日本的经验和能力,提出新的(国际)提案”。其继任首相羽田孜(Hata Tsutomu)也表达过类似的立场,“与其坐等其他国家的提案,日本更应该依据其在和平繁荣年代所积累的知识,主动拿出提议。”之后的首相村山富市(Murayama Tomiichi)也强调过日本保护环境的意愿。See VALENCIA, MARK J.. A Maritime Regime for Northeast Asia [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 95, 113, 114.
② 业内人士:近期日本在华投资动向,参见 http://www.cnexp.net/huoyun_wuliu_yunshu/guoneiwuliu/ 39918.html, 2007-1-24.
③ See VALENCIA, MARK J.. A Maritime Regime for Northeast Asia [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 116.
④ 1993 年,俄罗斯曾将 900 吨的核废弃物倾倒入东海,经绿色和平组织披露,引发本区域以及国际上对俄罗斯长期在该海域倾倒核废料的愤懑。See LAVINE, STEVEN D.. Russian Dumping in the Sea of Japan [J]. DENV. J. INT'L L. & POL'Y, 1996, (24): 417, 418.
⑤ 传统上,前苏联所注重的是环境政策的政治导向,而非对污染控制的关注。See VALENCIA, MARK J. A Maritime Regime for Northeast Asia [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. 156.
① 日本在控制污染、节约能源,以及经济增长与节约能源相结合的问题上,都有颇为成功的处理。See CHUNG, SUH-YONG. Is the Mediterranean Regional Cooperation Model Applicable to Northeast Asia? [J]. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 1999, (Winter): 365.
② 1979-2004 年,中国国内生产总值年均增长率为 9.6%。2004 年 GDP 增长率由原来年度统计公报的 9.5%修改为 10.1%。2004 年年度统计公报参见 http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/ndtjgb/qgndtjgb/t20050228_ 402231854. htm, 2007-1-22. 国家“十五”期间的 GDP 增长图表参见 http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/ndtjgb/ qgndtjgb/ t20060227_402307796.htm, 2007-1-22.
③ 参见 http://countryreport.mofcom.gov.cn/trade/qikan.asp?id=279, 2007-6-16.
④ 参见吴昊. 论中国在推动东北亚区域合作中的作用和对策 [J]. 东北亚论坛, 2006,(6):4.
① 1990-2004 年间,日本对华投资达到年均 31 亿美元。参见刘晓民. 日本在亚太发展中地区直接投资的变化与趋势 [J]. 南洋问题研究, 2005,(3):37-39. 2005 年,日本对华投资为 65.3 亿美元;2006 年,日本对华投资为 46 亿美元。
② 参见刘昌黎. 日本对华直接投资的新发展及其原因分析 [J]. 东北亚论坛, 2006,(11):72-73.
③ 参见臧新 董蓉蓉 崔岩. 日本韩国对华直接投资规模产业和影响的实证比较 [J]. 国际贸易问题, 2006,(10):44-45.
④ 同上。
⑤ ESPINOSA, DEBORAH. Environmental Regulation of Russia’s Offshore Oil and Gas Industry and its Implications for the International Petroleum Market [J]. Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal, 1997, (7): 651.
① See CHUNG, SUH-YONG. Is the Mediterranean Regional Cooperation Model Applicable to Northeast Asia? [J]. Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 1999, (Winter): 385-387.
② See MERSON, JOHN. Korea Wakes Up To the Environment [J]. NEW SCIENTIST, 1991, (6): 20.
③ 另外,韩国还提出有关“沙尘暴”的问题。参见 Korea Times, ASIA: Historic Environment Talks Could Help Protect Region, GREENWIRE, Feb. 3, 1993.
④ 对依据 NOWPAP 设立的海洋环境数据和信息管理体系,韩国于 20 世纪 90 年代中期提供了 40 万美元资助。引注同本页注①,第 386 页。而对 NOWPAP 下的信托基金,中国所缴纳的费用远远低于韩国和日本。
⑤ See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 25.
① 例如,1989 年美国“埃克森·瓦迪兹号”的溢油事故,污染损害和清污费用高达 80 亿美元。1997 年,俄罗斯油轮“纳霍德卡”在日本海域断裂沉没,溢油损失费用约 270 亿日元。1999 年,在法国海域发生的“爱丽卡”溢油事故,据统计,损失大约为 1.68 亿英镑。1995 年广州港发生的“檀家号”油轮溢油事故,给国家利益造成巨大损失,不仅在国内引起了震动,IMO 也表示了关注。参见“油污赔偿 让大海更加湛蓝”,《经济参考报》,2002-12-08,http://www.china5e.com/news/huanbao/200212/200212080060.html, 2007-1-24.
② 日本 1973 年所发生的石油污染事故共 2,060 起,1998 年其数字已经下降到该数字的 1/5。See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 34.
③ 1993-1997 年五年间,韩国沿海曾发生了 1,917 起海洋污染事故。See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 34. 从 1978 年至 2000 年,发生在我国沿海的溢油量 50 吨以上的重大事故共 46 宗,溢油总量 17941吨。参见“油污赔偿 让大海更加湛蓝”,《经济参考报》, 2002-12-08,http://www.china5e.com/news/huanbao/ 200212/200212080060.html, 2007-1-24.
④ See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, p. 34.
① See Regional Profiles, Northwest Pacific Region, pp. 35-38.
① Regional Profile, East Asian Seas Region, p. 28.
② 有数据显示,2004 年起,日本每天从中东进口的石油约为 60 万吨,全年石油进口总量约为 2.4 亿吨。总量中的 80%以上从中东进口,这些石油的 70%经马六甲海峡。参见 http://news.tom.com/2007-01-05/004H/ 26667701.html, 2007-4-8. 中国从 1993 年起就已经成为纯粹的石油进口国。中国很快将超过日本成为世界第二大石油消费国,而且中国经马六甲海峡运送的石油数量约占中国石油进口总量的 70%以上。参见 http://www.gmw.cn/03pindao /lunwen/ show.asp?id=4780, 2007-4-9.
③ 1992 年 9 月,利比亚籍“长崎·灵魂号”油轮事故,引起上万吨原油泄漏;1993 年 1 月,丹麦油轮“马斯克航海家号”油轮事故,引起的原油泄漏超过 2.7 万吨。
④ 东亚海区域由安达曼海、澳大利亚海、马六甲海峡、新加坡海峡、南海、爪哇海、弗洛里斯海、班达海、阿拉弗拉海、帝汶海、西里伯斯海、苏禄海以及菲律宾海构成。包括下列亚区域:自台湾东面的菲律宾海流向日本的黑潮海流(Kuroshio Current)、黄海、东海、南海、苏禄-西里伯斯海(Sulu-Celebes Sea)、印度尼西亚海、澳大利亚北架(North Australian Shelf)、珊瑚海盆地(Coral Sea Basin)、大堡礁(Great Barrier Reef)、大澳大利亚湾(Great Australian Bight)、塔斯曼海(Tasman Sea)。See Regional Profile, East Asian Seas Region, p. 4.
① 参见 http://www.ec.com.cn/pubnews/2007_01_16/103174/1257219.jsp, 2007-5-5.
② 马晓宇 张子阳 胡利明. 中国石油在马六甲海峡运输的安全研究 [J]. 中国水运, 2007,(1):28.
③ 参见 http://www.cec.org.cn/news/showc.asp?ID=30706, 2007-5-5.
④ 参见 http://fiber.oilchem.net/news/jckwords_1_6668.html, 2007-5-5.
⑤ 参见 http://newscenter.chemall.com.cn/newsarticleg.asp?ArticleID=86524, 2007-5-5.
① 具体包括环境退化、海洋环境保护与管理(即东亚海大会)、海洋污染、生物多样性等几个方面。See Regional Profile. East Asian Seas Region, pp. 21-22.
① 项目旨在摸清南中国海的现有生态环境资源和污染破坏程度;找出海洋环境污染与破坏的原因;制定一系列海洋与海岸带环境与生态保护行动计划;通过项目各参加国之间的协调行动,使南中国海地区的社会、经济与环境得到可持续发展。广西防城港市红树林及合浦海草是其中的两个专题,于 2005 年 11 月进入实质的操作阶段。
② 邓家培. 邓小平与广东经济腾飞 [J]. 探求, 1999, (2): 14.
① 参见夏思源 李宁玉. 中国—东盟自贸区对广东渔业的影响 [J]. 海洋与渔业, 2006,(2):13-14.
② http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/, 2007-4-21.
③ 参见中华人民共和国商务部综合司所发布的数据,http://zhs.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/Nocategory/200704/ 20070404538185.html, http://zhs.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/Nocategory/200702/20070204344141.html, 2007-4-23.
① 1978 到 1992 年间,东盟区域内贸易所占的份额从 15.84%上升到 18.40%,仅仅增加了 2.5 个百分点。该贸易份额只是区域内东盟五国的数据,数据由 IMF 出版的各期 Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook 计算而来。转引自厦门大学经济学博士陈雯博士论文,东盟区域贸易合作的贸易效应研究 [D]. 21.
① Regional Profile, East Asian Seas Region, p. 29.
② Id.
① [美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼.法律与革命——西方法律传统的形成 [M]. 贺卫方等译,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1993. 序言 Ⅲ.
① See E.D. BROWN. The International Law of the Sea [M]. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing Ltd., 1994. 7-8.
② 在海洋环境保护问题上,传统的维护海洋国家(maritime states)权利的海洋自由原则,衍生出大量不利于海洋环境保护的问题:船旗国对船舶的管理不力、方便旗的使用以及 IMO 无力敦促每个船旗国执行已有规则等。有鉴于此,沿海国不得不自行找出解决相关问题的途径。See ROACH, J. ASHLEY. Salient Issues in the Implementation of Regimes under the Law of the Sea Convention: An Overview [A]. Vidas, Davor & ?streng, Willy. Order for the Oceans at the Turn of the Century [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1999. 435, 441.
③ Loree, Philip J.. The Law of the Sea Convention: the Preferable Approach for the U.S. Shipping Industry [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Toward Senate Consideration of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995. 185.
① 参见[法] 亚历山大·基斯. 国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译,北京:法律出版社,2000. 1.
② CATENA, JOHN G.. Environmental Policy Considerations for Ocean Mining [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Ocean Mining Development and American Industry [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988. 241.
① 《联合国海洋法公约》第 197 条-第 201 条。
① FITZMAUURICE, MALGOSIA. International Legal Problems of the Environmental Protection of the Baltic Sea [M]. The Hague: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992. 6-7.
② See WOLFF, LARRY. Inventing Eastern Europe: The Map of Civilization on the Mind of the Enlightenment, Standford [M]. CA: Standford University Press, 1994. 232.
① 关于该区域海洋环境保护成果的论述,see ANDRESEN, STEINAR. The North Sea and Beyond: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 57.
② See Regional Profile, North-East Atlantic Region, pp. 11-16.
③ See ANDRESEN, STEINAR. The North Sea and Beyond: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 61.
① See CHIRCOP, ALDO. The Mediterranean: Lessons Learned [A]. VALENCIA, MARK J.. Maritime Regime Building [C]. The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001. 27.
② 最近西方国际法学界有关该问题(国际法的碎片化)的探讨,详见发表在 Michigan Journal of International Law, 2004 年第 25 卷夏季号上由 G.HAFNER, B.SIMMA, J.PAUWELYN, P.S.Rao, A.FISCHER-LESCANO, G.TEUBNER,K.WELLENS 等人撰写的系列专题论文, 以及 M.KOSKENNIEMI & P.LEINO. Fragmentation of International Law? Postmodern Anxieties [J]. Leiden Journal of International Law, 2002, (15): 553-579.
① See http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/reports/2006/2006report.htm, 2007-4-13.
① See D.M. JOHNSTON and L.M. ENOMOTO. Regional Approaches to the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment [A]. D.M. JOHNSTON. The Environmental Law of the Sea [C]. Berlin: E. Schmidt, Berlin, 1981. 285.
② 参见亚历山大·基斯. 国际环境法 [M]. 张若思编译. 北京:法律出版社,2000. 176-178.
① 参见[美]哈罗德·J·伯尔曼,法律与革命——西方法律传统的形成 [M]. 贺卫方等译,北京:中国大百科全书出版社,1993. 序言Ⅱ.
① 关于这两个小组所讨论的具体问题,可参见 Report of the 2006 IMO/UNEP Forum on Regional Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution, jointly organized by the International Maritime Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, 2-5 May 2005, London, United Kingdom. pp. 7-8.
① CATENA, JOHN G.. Environmental Policy Considerations for Ocean Mining [A]. NORDQUIST, MYRON H. & MOORE, JOHN NORTON. Ocean Mining Development and American Industry [C]. Leiden; Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1988. 231.
① 对于国际范围内的合作或事务,根据其性质可以区分为两大类,第一类属于“高政治化”事务(High Politics),第二类属于“低政治化”事务(Low Politics)。前者包括和平与安全等重大政治事务,后者涉及经济、社会、环境、人权等事务。李强.全球化、主权国家与世界政治秩序. 参见 http://xueshu.newyouth.beida -online.com/data/ data.php3?db=xueshu&id=quanqiuhua-3, 2005-3-25.
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