媒体暴力信息对不同现实暴力接触大学生生理心理的不良影响
|
摘要
大众媒体与家庭、学校和同龄群体的影响一样,已经成为影响个体社会化进程中的重要因素。青少年是各种媒体的重要消费者,电影、电视和网络中的暴力节目直接影响到青少年的暴力行为、敌意的认知和负性情绪情感等。大众媒体对于青少年的社会化过程以及生理和心理的影响一直受到社会各界的关注,大众媒体的发展特点决定了媒体对青少年的影响已不再是某一个国家的问题,而是一个世界各国普遍存在的问题。
本研究的目的是在准实验室的情境下,研究媒体与现实生活中的暴力对大学生敌意的认知、对待暴力和不良健康行为的态度(如吸烟、喝酒等)、竞争行为、负性情感和生理上唤醒程度的影响。根据被试在家庭和社区生活中所接触到的暴力量的不同,在实验室随机安排被试去看两个暴力程度不同的网络游戏视频中的一个,以观察对被试的影响程度。
本研究的主要研究内容和步骤:
A.选取西安交通大学理工类专业05级和06级大学生对家庭、社区和媒体多个情境中所接触的暴力进行测查。对每一个情境中接触暴力的可能影响进行检测;媒体暴力对于在生活中接受了更多暴力的青少年是否有更大的影响;暴力接触量的多少是否与不良的健康行为有关;暴力接触量的多少与不良的认知行为之间是否存在可能的中介因素。
B.按照大学生在家庭和社区所接触的暴力量的不同,把参加研究的学生分成三组:高暴力量接触组、中等暴力量接触组和低暴力量接触组。
C.在中等暴力量接触组抽取16名学生进行预试验,采用平衡法顺序在实验室随机让他们观看攻击内容不同的两个网络游戏视频(反恐精英:坏孩子和跑跑卡丁车:海盗追皮蛋),检测血压和脉搏的变化情况,然后对所观看的网络游戏视频的特点进行评估(如游戏的趣味性、兴奋性、内容和画面是否暴力等)。
D.在高暴力量接触组、中等暴力量接触组和低暴力量接触组抽取128名男性学生,在实验室进行准实验研究,把暴力接触量相同组别并且暴力量相同或相近的被试配成一对随机选择观看攻击内容不同的网络游戏视频中的一个(反恐精英:坏孩子和跑跑卡丁车:海盗追皮蛋),并检测血压和脉搏的变化。
E.观看完网络游戏视频后,通过测验了解被试的情绪、以及对不良健康行为和暴力的态度。
F.通过两个模糊的社会情境,测查被试的敌意认知偏见。
G.通过社会困境游戏,测查被试的攻击性。
H.用7点量表评估网络游戏视频的特点。本研究的主要研究成果:
A.大学生在生活中接触的暴力量中,社区暴力接触量大于家庭暴力接触量,间接暴力大于直接暴力。
B.家庭人口越多、父母亲的文化水平越低、来源地越不发达、家庭子女越多,在生活中所接触的暴力量越多;结交的朋友当中不良行为的朋友越多,其社区暴力接触量就越大;男性更多地与社区暴力和暴力接触总量相联系。
C.家庭人口越多、来源地越不发达、家庭子女越多,越容易出现负性情绪;父母亲的文化水平越低、与有不良行为的朋友交往越多,更容易出现有害健康的行为;玩游戏的经验越丰富,对评价具有高暴力内容和画面的游戏时其程度越低。
D.随机观看暴力游戏视频的被试比随机观看非暴力游戏视频的被试在实验结束后表现出更多的生气和负性情绪,对社会信息的处理更加的敌意、对暴力和其它不良健康行为(如喝酒、抽烟等)持更加消极的态度、有更多的竞争性行为。
E.生活中接触的暴力越多,观看游戏后对暴力和不良健康的行为持更加消极的态度;在社区接触的暴力越多,有更多的负性情绪;在家庭接触的暴力越多,对社会信息的处理更加的敌意、有更多的竞争性行为。在生活中接触的暴力和对不良健康行为的消极态度均与不良行为同辈的交往有关。
F.生活中的暴力接触与媒体暴力的实验室条件在脉搏、敌意的信息加工和对不良健康行为的消极态度上存在交互作用。观看暴力游戏视频的被试脉搏从静息期到观看游戏后的变化量、敌意信息的加工、对不良健康行为的消极态度对于在生活中接触了高暴力的人群作用更加的显著。
The effects of media, similar to those of home, school and peer groups, have become an important factor affecting the socialization of individuals. As the major consumers of various forms of media, adolescents are directly affected by violent programs in film, television and internet. The influence is associated with their violent behavior, hostile cognition and negative emotion and affects, etc. The effects of media on adolescents’socialization, physiology and psychology have always been the concern of various social groups; and the development of media has determined that its effects on adolescents have become a universal problem not confined to a particular country.
This research, under the condition of quasi-experiment, aimed to investigate the effects of violence in media and real life on college students’hostile aggression, attitudes towards violence and harmful health behavior (eg. smoking, alcohol use etc.), competitive behavior, negative affects and physiological arousal. Parallel to the fact that individuals are exposed to different levels of home and community violence, participants were randomly assigned to watch one of the two video games with different degrees of violence in order to test their effects for participants.
Major contents and steps of the research
A. Some science and engineering students among the freshmen and sophomores of Xi’an Jiaotong University were randomly chosen, and their exposure to home, community and media violence was examined respectively. The potential effects of violence exposure were tested under each condition: did media violence pose greater influence on adolescents exposed to more violence in real life? Was the quantity of violence exposure associated with harmful health behaviors? Were there any mediating factors between the quantity of violence exposure and negative cognitive behaviors?
B. The participating students were divided into three groups based on the quantity of home and community violence exposure: the high-violence exposure group, the medium-violence exposure group, and the low-violence exposure group.
C. 16 students from the medium-violence exposure group were chosen for a pre-experiment. They were asked to watch o the two video games that included different levels of violence. Then their blood pressure and heart rate were taken and recorded. And finally they were demanded to comment on the features (like their interest, excitement and whether there was violence in the content and image) of the video games.
D. 128 male students from the high-violence exposure group, the medium-violence exposure group and the low-violence exposure group were chosen for the quasi-experiment. Pairs of males were matched on lifetime violence exposure group and randomly assigned to watch of one the video games (Counterstrike and Popcart) that included different levels of violence. And changes in their blood pressure and heart rates were tested.
E. After watching the video games, the participants’emotion and attitudes towards violence and harmful health behaviors were examined.
F. The hostile cognitive bias of the participants was tested through two confusing social conditions.
G. The aggression of the participants was tested through social difficulty games.
H. The 7-point scale was used to assess the features of the video games.
The major findings of this research are:
A. Among college students, community violence exposure is higher than home violence exposure and indirect violence exposure than direct.
B. The greater is the number of family members, the lower is the level of parental education, and the more under-developed is the original place, the more violence the students are exposed to in real life. Likewise, the more friends with bad behaviors, the more community violence they are exposed to. More male students are associated with community violence.
C. The greater is the number of family members, the more under-developed is the original place, and the more children the family has, the more likely are the students to show negative emotions. Meanwhile, the lower is the level of parental education and the more friends with bad behaviors, the more likely are the students to show harmful health behaviors. Besides, the richer is the students’experience in playing video games, the lower is the level of violence reflected by them.
D. Compared with participants exposed to non-violent video games, those exposed to violent games are more likely to show anger, negative emotions, hostility in social information processing, negative attitudes towards violence and other harmful health behaviors (eg. smoking and drinking), and more competitive behaviors.
E. The more is home and community violence exposure, the more likely are the participants to show negative attitudes towards violence and harmful health behaviors; more community violence is associated with more negation emotions; and more home violence is associated with more hostility in social information processing and competitive behaviors. Besides, the negative attitudes towards harmful health behaviors are also associated with peer association.
F. Violence in real life and media violence, under laboratory conditions, interact with each other in their effects on the participants’heart rate, hostile information processing, and negative attitudes towards harmful health behaviors. Changes in heart rates (from at rest to after watching violent games), hostile importation processing, and negative attitudes towards harmful health behaviors are more significant in those belonging to the high-violence exposure group.
本研究的目的是在准实验室的情境下,研究媒体与现实生活中的暴力对大学生敌意的认知、对待暴力和不良健康行为的态度(如吸烟、喝酒等)、竞争行为、负性情感和生理上唤醒程度的影响。根据被试在家庭和社区生活中所接触到的暴力量的不同,在实验室随机安排被试去看两个暴力程度不同的网络游戏视频中的一个,以观察对被试的影响程度。
本研究的主要研究内容和步骤:
A.选取西安交通大学理工类专业05级和06级大学生对家庭、社区和媒体多个情境中所接触的暴力进行测查。对每一个情境中接触暴力的可能影响进行检测;媒体暴力对于在生活中接受了更多暴力的青少年是否有更大的影响;暴力接触量的多少是否与不良的健康行为有关;暴力接触量的多少与不良的认知行为之间是否存在可能的中介因素。
B.按照大学生在家庭和社区所接触的暴力量的不同,把参加研究的学生分成三组:高暴力量接触组、中等暴力量接触组和低暴力量接触组。
C.在中等暴力量接触组抽取16名学生进行预试验,采用平衡法顺序在实验室随机让他们观看攻击内容不同的两个网络游戏视频(反恐精英:坏孩子和跑跑卡丁车:海盗追皮蛋),检测血压和脉搏的变化情况,然后对所观看的网络游戏视频的特点进行评估(如游戏的趣味性、兴奋性、内容和画面是否暴力等)。
D.在高暴力量接触组、中等暴力量接触组和低暴力量接触组抽取128名男性学生,在实验室进行准实验研究,把暴力接触量相同组别并且暴力量相同或相近的被试配成一对随机选择观看攻击内容不同的网络游戏视频中的一个(反恐精英:坏孩子和跑跑卡丁车:海盗追皮蛋),并检测血压和脉搏的变化。
E.观看完网络游戏视频后,通过测验了解被试的情绪、以及对不良健康行为和暴力的态度。
F.通过两个模糊的社会情境,测查被试的敌意认知偏见。
G.通过社会困境游戏,测查被试的攻击性。
H.用7点量表评估网络游戏视频的特点。本研究的主要研究成果:
A.大学生在生活中接触的暴力量中,社区暴力接触量大于家庭暴力接触量,间接暴力大于直接暴力。
B.家庭人口越多、父母亲的文化水平越低、来源地越不发达、家庭子女越多,在生活中所接触的暴力量越多;结交的朋友当中不良行为的朋友越多,其社区暴力接触量就越大;男性更多地与社区暴力和暴力接触总量相联系。
C.家庭人口越多、来源地越不发达、家庭子女越多,越容易出现负性情绪;父母亲的文化水平越低、与有不良行为的朋友交往越多,更容易出现有害健康的行为;玩游戏的经验越丰富,对评价具有高暴力内容和画面的游戏时其程度越低。
D.随机观看暴力游戏视频的被试比随机观看非暴力游戏视频的被试在实验结束后表现出更多的生气和负性情绪,对社会信息的处理更加的敌意、对暴力和其它不良健康行为(如喝酒、抽烟等)持更加消极的态度、有更多的竞争性行为。
E.生活中接触的暴力越多,观看游戏后对暴力和不良健康的行为持更加消极的态度;在社区接触的暴力越多,有更多的负性情绪;在家庭接触的暴力越多,对社会信息的处理更加的敌意、有更多的竞争性行为。在生活中接触的暴力和对不良健康行为的消极态度均与不良行为同辈的交往有关。
F.生活中的暴力接触与媒体暴力的实验室条件在脉搏、敌意的信息加工和对不良健康行为的消极态度上存在交互作用。观看暴力游戏视频的被试脉搏从静息期到观看游戏后的变化量、敌意信息的加工、对不良健康行为的消极态度对于在生活中接触了高暴力的人群作用更加的显著。
The effects of media, similar to those of home, school and peer groups, have become an important factor affecting the socialization of individuals. As the major consumers of various forms of media, adolescents are directly affected by violent programs in film, television and internet. The influence is associated with their violent behavior, hostile cognition and negative emotion and affects, etc. The effects of media on adolescents’socialization, physiology and psychology have always been the concern of various social groups; and the development of media has determined that its effects on adolescents have become a universal problem not confined to a particular country.
This research, under the condition of quasi-experiment, aimed to investigate the effects of violence in media and real life on college students’hostile aggression, attitudes towards violence and harmful health behavior (eg. smoking, alcohol use etc.), competitive behavior, negative affects and physiological arousal. Parallel to the fact that individuals are exposed to different levels of home and community violence, participants were randomly assigned to watch one of the two video games with different degrees of violence in order to test their effects for participants.
Major contents and steps of the research
A. Some science and engineering students among the freshmen and sophomores of Xi’an Jiaotong University were randomly chosen, and their exposure to home, community and media violence was examined respectively. The potential effects of violence exposure were tested under each condition: did media violence pose greater influence on adolescents exposed to more violence in real life? Was the quantity of violence exposure associated with harmful health behaviors? Were there any mediating factors between the quantity of violence exposure and negative cognitive behaviors?
B. The participating students were divided into three groups based on the quantity of home and community violence exposure: the high-violence exposure group, the medium-violence exposure group, and the low-violence exposure group.
C. 16 students from the medium-violence exposure group were chosen for a pre-experiment. They were asked to watch o the two video games that included different levels of violence. Then their blood pressure and heart rate were taken and recorded. And finally they were demanded to comment on the features (like their interest, excitement and whether there was violence in the content and image) of the video games.
D. 128 male students from the high-violence exposure group, the medium-violence exposure group and the low-violence exposure group were chosen for the quasi-experiment. Pairs of males were matched on lifetime violence exposure group and randomly assigned to watch of one the video games (Counterstrike and Popcart) that included different levels of violence. And changes in their blood pressure and heart rates were tested.
E. After watching the video games, the participants’emotion and attitudes towards violence and harmful health behaviors were examined.
F. The hostile cognitive bias of the participants was tested through two confusing social conditions.
G. The aggression of the participants was tested through social difficulty games.
H. The 7-point scale was used to assess the features of the video games.
The major findings of this research are:
A. Among college students, community violence exposure is higher than home violence exposure and indirect violence exposure than direct.
B. The greater is the number of family members, the lower is the level of parental education, and the more under-developed is the original place, the more violence the students are exposed to in real life. Likewise, the more friends with bad behaviors, the more community violence they are exposed to. More male students are associated with community violence.
C. The greater is the number of family members, the more under-developed is the original place, and the more children the family has, the more likely are the students to show negative emotions. Meanwhile, the lower is the level of parental education and the more friends with bad behaviors, the more likely are the students to show harmful health behaviors. Besides, the richer is the students’experience in playing video games, the lower is the level of violence reflected by them.
D. Compared with participants exposed to non-violent video games, those exposed to violent games are more likely to show anger, negative emotions, hostility in social information processing, negative attitudes towards violence and other harmful health behaviors (eg. smoking and drinking), and more competitive behaviors.
E. The more is home and community violence exposure, the more likely are the participants to show negative attitudes towards violence and harmful health behaviors; more community violence is associated with more negation emotions; and more home violence is associated with more hostility in social information processing and competitive behaviors. Besides, the negative attitudes towards harmful health behaviors are also associated with peer association.
F. Violence in real life and media violence, under laboratory conditions, interact with each other in their effects on the participants’heart rate, hostile information processing, and negative attitudes towards harmful health behaviors. Changes in heart rates (from at rest to after watching violent games), hostile importation processing, and negative attitudes towards harmful health behaviors are more significant in those belonging to the high-violence exposure group.
引文
1. WHO Global Consultation on Violence and Health.Violence:a publichealth priority.Geneva, World Health Organization,1996.
2. 孙召路.论传媒对青少年的负面影响及其防治措施.连云港教育学院学报,2000,(49)1:5-7.
3. 赵允芳.解剖媒体暴力现象.传媒观察.2004,12:18-20.
4. 陈宪奎.美国市民社会研究.中国社科院出版社,2004 年 9 月版.
5. 欧阳艳文.家庭暴力与青少年犯罪的因果关系研究.北京青年政治学院学报. (14)4:18-22.
6. 朱作鑫.校园暴力之概念、现状及防治对策.广西青年干部学院学报.(15)5:21-26
7. 新馨.校园暴力.国外社会科学.2004,3.
8. 黄行福.校园暴力:危害学校教育的毒瘤.思想·理论·教育.2004.
9. 杨彩霞.校园暴力产生原因探析.福建公安高等专科学校学报,2004,5.
10. 李大鹏.解析校园暴力行为.思想·理论·教育.2004.
11. Bandura A, Ross D&Ross SA (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66 ,3-11.
12. Hicks DJ (1965).Imitation and retention of film-mediated aggressive peer and adult models.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,2 :97-100.
13. Joanne HS, Franco F.(2006).Informing policies in forensic settings: a review of research investigating the effects of exposure to media violence on challenging/offending behaviour. The British Tourtcal of Poretcsic Practice (8)2:31-46
14. Huesmann LR & Eron LD (1986). Television and the Aggressive Child: A Cross-National Comparison. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
15. Berkowitz L (1984). Some effects of thought on anti- and pro-social influences of media evems: a cog- neoassociation analysis. Psychological Bulletin 95 410-27.
16. Anderson CA, Anderson KB & Denser WE (1996). Examining an affective aggression framework: weapon and temperature effects on aggressive thoughts, affect, and attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22 366-76.
17. Anderson CA, Deuser WE & DeNeve KM (1995). Hot temperatures, hostile affect, hostile cognition, and arousal: tests of a general model of affective aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21 434-48.
18. Anderson CA, Benjamin AJ & Bartholow BD (1998). Does the gun pull the trigger? Automatic priming effects of weapon pictures and weapon names. Psychological Science 9 308-14.
19. Dill KE, Anderson CA, Anderson KB & Denser WE(1997). Effects of aggressive personality on social expectations and social perceptions. Journal of Research in Personality 31 272-92.
20. Lindsay JJ & Anderson CA (2000). From antecedent conditions to violent actions: a general affective aggression model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (5) 533-47.
21. Geen RG (1990). Human Aggression.Pacific Grove,CA:McG raw-Hill.
22. Zillmann D (1983). Cognition-excitation interdependencies in aggressive behaviour. Aggressive Behaviour 14 51-64.
23. Bushman BJ (1998). Priming effects of media violence on the accessibility of aggressive constructs in memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24 537-45.
24. Anderson CA & Bushman BJ (2001). Effects of violent video games onaggressive behaviour, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behaviour: a meta analytic review of the scientific literature. American Psychological Society 12 (5) 353-9.
25. Zillmann D (1972). Attribution and misattribution of excitatory reactions. In: JH Harvey,WJ Ickes & RF Kidd (Eds). New Directions in Attrihution Research 2355-68. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
26. Tannenbaum PH & Zillmann D (1975). Emotional arousal in the facilitation of aggression through communication. In: L Berkowitz (Ed). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 8 149-92. New York: Academic Press.
27. Zillman D (1979). Hostility and Aggression. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
28. Cantor J (2000). Media violence. journal of Adolescent Health 27s 30-4.
29. Griffiths M (1999) .Violent video games and aggression: a review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behaviour 4 (2) 203-12.
30. Pennell AE & Browne KD (1999). Film violence and young offenders. Aggression and Violent Behaviour 4 (1) 13-28.
31. Anderson CA, Carnagey NL & Eubanks J (2003) Exposure to violent media: the effects of songs with violent lyrics on aggressive thoughts and feelings.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (5) 960-71.
32. Guy K, Mohan D & Taylor PJ (2003). Do schizophrenic patients with a history of violence express a preference for screen violence? International journal of Forensic Mental Health 2 (2) 165-71.
33. Crick NR, Werner N, Casas J et al (1999). Childhood aggression and gender: a new look at an old problem.In: D Bernstein (Ed) Gender and Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 45 75-141. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
34. Eslea M (2004). School bullying: severity, distress and coping. Unpublished manuscript. University of Central Lancashire, Preston.
35. Coyne SM, Archer J & Eslea M (2004). Cruel intentions on television and in real life: can viewing indirect aggression increase viewers' subsequent indirect aggression? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 88 234-53.
36. Coyne SM (2004) Indirect aggression on screen: a hidden problem? The Psychologist 17 (12) 688-90.
37. Browne KD & Hamilton-Giachritsis C (2005). The influence of violent media on children and adolescents: a public-health approach. The Lancet 365 702-10.
38. Association of Chief Police Officers (1994). The link between pornographic and violent videos and young offenders and the Government's proposals to strengthen the law. Memorandum 1. In .Home Affairs Committee Fourth Report: Video Violence and Young Offenders (pp22-4). Westminster: House of Commons.
39. Bailey SM (1993). Brief communication. Criminal Justice Matters 6 (7).
40. Black SL & Beuan S (1992). At the movies with Buss and Durkee: a natural experiment on film violence. Aggressive Behaviour 18 37-45.
41. Halloran JD, Brown RL & Charley DC (1970) Television and Delinqu ency. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
42. Vine I (1995). Mass media and anti-social conduct-from moral panics to media education. Proceedings of the British Psychological Society 3 (2) 133.
43. Itzin C (1994). Pornographic and violent videos. Memorandum 15. In Home Affairs Committee Fourth Report: Video violence and Young Offenders (pp55-64). Westminster: House of Commons.
44. Walsh DA (1999) 1999 Video and Computer Game Report Card. Retrievedfrom http://www.mediafamily.org/research/vgrc/ 1999- l .shtml.
45. Lynch PL, Gentile DA, Olson AA & van Brederode TM(2001). The effects of violent video game hostile attributional bias on adolescent aggressive attitudes and behaviour. Poster session Presented at the biennial conference of the Society for Research in Child Development.
46. Kirsh SJ & Olczak PV (2000). Violent comic books and perceptions of ambiguous provocation situations. Media Psychology 2 47-62.
47. Griffiths MD & Hunt N (1993). The acquisition, development and maintenance of computer game playing in adolescence. Paper presented at the British Psychological Society London Conference, City University.
48. Griffiths MD & Hunt N (1995). Computer game playing in adolescence: prevalence and demographic indicators. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 5 189-93.
49. Lynch P (1994).Type A behaviour, hostility and cardiovascular function at rest after playing video games in teenagers. Psychosomatic Medicine 56 152.
50. McCloud S (1993). Understanding Comics. Northampton,MA: Kitchen Sink.
51. Potenza M, Verhoeff P & Weiss E (1996). Comic books and development. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35 1573-4.
52. Kirsh SJ & Olczak SJ (2002). The effects of extremely violent comic books on social informatian processing. Journal of lnterpersonal Violence 17 (11) 1160-78.
53. Funk JB (1993). Reevaluating the impact of violent video games. Clinical Pediatrics 32 86-90.
54. Feshbach S (1955). The drive-reducing function of fantasy behaviour. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 50 3-11.
55. Anderson CA & Bushman BJ (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology 53 27-51.
56. Ballard ME & Coates S (1995). The immediate effects of homicidal, suicidal, and non-violent heavy metal and rap songs on the moods of college students. Youth and Society 27 148-68.
57. Berkowitz L & Le Page A (1967). Weapons as aggression- eliciting stimuli.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7 202-7.
58. Frodi A (1975) .The effect of exposure to weapons on aggressive behaviour from a cross-cultural perspective. International Journal of Psycholoy 10 283-92.
59. Caprara GV, Renzi P, Amolitii P et al (1984). The eliciting cue value of aggressive slides reconsidered in a personological perspective: the weapons effect and irritability. British Journal of social Psychology 14.313-22.
60. Berkowitz L (1974) .Some determinants of impulsive aggression: role of mediated associations with reinforcement for aggression. Psychological Review 81 165-76.
61. Fraczek A & Macaulay J (1971). Some personality factors in reaction to aggressive stimuli.Journal of Personality 39 163-77.
62. Singer, M. I., Anglin, T. M., Song, L. Y., & Lunghofer, L. (1995). Adolescents’ exposure to violence and associated symptoms of psychological trauma. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 477-482.
63. Huston, A. C., Donnerstein, E., Fairchild, H., Feshbach, N. D., Katz, P. A., Murray, J. P., Rubinstein, E. A., Wilcox, B. L., & Zuckerman, D. (1992). Big world, small screen: The role of television in American society. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.
64. National television violence study (Vols. 1-2). (1997-1998). Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
65. Provenzo, E. F. (1991). Video kids: Making sense of Nintendo. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press.
66. Dietz, T. L. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in videogames: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38, 425-442.
67. Walsh, D. (2000). Interactive violence and children: Testimony submitted to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, March 21, 2000 68.Nielsen Media Research. (1998). 1998 Report on Television. New York, NY: Author.
68. Huntemann, N., & Morgan, M. (2001). Mass media and identify development. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 309-322). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
69. Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Videogames and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 772-790.
70. 陈昌风.电视媒体对未成年人的影响。电视专论,2004,8:30-32
71. 赵永乐,何莹,郑涌.媒体暴力及其对青少年儿童的影响.现代中小学教育,2004,4:44-46
72. Boney-McCoy, S. & Finkelhor, D. (1995). Psychosocial sequelae of violent victimization in a national youth sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 726-736.
73. 孙江平.中国 5 省市中学生危险行为现状(二):易导致意外伤害的危险行为.中国学校卫生,2001,22(4):292-293
74. 周月芳,罗春燕,彭宁宁,等.上海市青少年危险行为现状研究(二):易导致意外伤害的危险行为.中国校医,2003,17(2):100-103
75. Straus. M. A. (1992). Children as witnesses to marital violence: a risk factor of lifelong problems among a nationally representative sample of American men and women. In D. F. Schwartz (Ed.), Children and Violence: Report of the Twenty-Third Ross Roundtable on Critical Approaches to Common Pediatric Problems (pp. 98-109). Columbus: OH: Ross Lab.
76. Bell, C.C., & Jenkins, E. J. (1993). Community violence and children on Chicago’s Southside. In D. Reiss, J. E. Richters, M. Radke-Yarrow, & D. Scharff (Eds.), Children and Violence (pp. 46-54). New York: Guilford.
77. Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). Children in Danger. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
78. Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children’s symptomatology. Developmental Psychopathology, 10, 235-257.
79. Martinez, P., & Richters, J. E. (1993). The NIMH Community Violence Project. II. Children’s distress symptoms associated with violence exposure. In D. Reiss, J. E. Richters, M. Radke-Yarrow, & D. Scharff (Eds.), Children and Violence (pp. 22-35). New York: Guilford.
80. Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Saunders, B., Resnick, H., Best, C. L., & Schnurr, P. P. (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 19-30.
81. Gorman-Smith, D., & Tolan, P. (1998). The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Developmental Psychopathology, 10, 101-116.
82. Miller, L. S., Wasserman, G. A., Neugebauer, R., Gorman-Smith, D.,Kamboukos, D. (1999). Witnessed community violence and antisocial behavior in high-risk urban boys. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 2-11.
83. Farrell, A. D., & Bruce, S. E. (1997). Impact of exposure to community violence on violent behavior and emotional distress among urban adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 2-14.
84. Champion, H. L., & Durant, R. H. (2001). Exposure to violence and victimization and the use of violence by adolescents in the United States. Minerva Pediatrica, 53, 189-197.
85. Flannery, D. J., Singer, M. I., & Wester, K. (2001). Violence exposure, psychological trauma, and suicide risk in a community sample of dangerously violent adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 435-442.
86. Sullivan, T. N., Kung, E. M., & Farrell, A. D. (2004). Relation between witnessing violence and drug use initiation among rural adolescents: Parental monitoring and family support as protective factors. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 488-498.
87. Acierno, R., Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H., Saunders, B., De Arellano, M., & Best, C. (2000). Assault, PTSD, family substance use, and depression as risk factors for cigarette use in youth: Findings from the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 381-396.
88. Schwab-Stone, M. E., Ayers, T. S., Kasprow, W., Voyce, C., Barone, C., Shriver, T., & Weissberg, R. P. (1995). No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1343-1352.
89. Silverman, J. G., Raj, A., Mucci, L. A., & Hathaway, J. E. (2001). Datingviolence against adolescent girls and associated substance use, unhealthy weight control, sexual risk behavior, pregnancy, and suicidality. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, 572-579.
90. Albus, K. E., Weist, M. D., Perez-Smith, A. M. (2004). Associations between youth risk behavior and exposure to violence: Implications for the provision of mental health services in urban schools. Behavior Modification, 28, 548-564.
91. Berenson, A. B., Wiemann, C. M., & McCombs, S. (2001). Exposure to violence and associated health-risk behaviors among adolescent girls. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 155, 1238-1242.
92. White, H. R., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Farrington, D. P. (1999). Developmental associations between substance use and violence. Development & Psychopathology, 11, 785-803.
93. Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Resnick, H. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1997). A 2-year longitudinal analysis of the relationships between violent assault and substance use in women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 834-847.
94. Albus, K. E., Weist, M. D., Perez-Smith, A. M. (2004). Associations between youth risk behavior and exposure to violence: Implications for the provision of mental health services in urban schools. Behavior Modification, 28, 548-564.
95. Cook, D. E., Kestenbaum, C., Honaker, L. M., Anderson, E. R., Jr. (2000). Joint statement on the impact of entertainment violence on children: Congressional Public Health Summit, July 26, 2000.
96. Wood, W., Wong, F. Y., & Chachere, J. G. (1991). Effects of media violence on viewers’ aggression in unconstrained social interaction. PsychologicalBulletin, 109, 371-383.
97. Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Smailes, E. M., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2002). Television viewing and aggressive behavior during adolescence and adulthood. Science, 295, 2468-2471.
98. Eron, L. D., Lefkowitz, M. M., Huesmann, L. R., & Walder, L. O. (1972). Does television violence cause aggression? American Psychologist, 27, 253-263.
99. Huesmann, L. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 125-139.
100.Bushman, B. J., & Huesmann, L. R. (2001). Effects of televised violence on aggression. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 223-254). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
101.Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., Malamuth, N. M., & Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 81-110.
102.Kremar, M., & Greene, K. (2000). Connections between violent television exposure and adolescent risk taking. Media Psychology, 2, 195-217.
103.Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist, 56, 477-489.
104.Huesmann, L. R., Moise, J. F., & Podolski, C. (1997). The effects of media violence on the development of antisocial behavior. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 181-193). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
105.Berkowitz, L. (1990). On the formation and regulation of anger and aggression: A cognitive-neoassociationistic analysis. American Psychologist, 45, 494-503.
106.Bandura, A. (1986). Models of human nature and causality. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory (pp. 2-46). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
107.Dodge, K. A., & Schwartz, D. (1997). Social information processing mechanisms in aggressive behavior. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 171-180). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
108.Kirsh, S. J., & Olczak, P. V. (2000). Violent comic books and perceptions of ambiguous provocation situations. Media Psychology, 2, 47-62.
109.Schwartz, D., & Proctor, L. J. (2000). Community violence exposure and children’s social adjustment in the school peer group: The mediating roles of emotion regulation and social cognition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical psychology, 68, 670-683.
110.Shahinfar, A., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Matza, L. S. (2001). The relation between exposure to violence and social information processing among incarcerated adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 136-141.
111.Lerner, R. M. (1987). A life-span perspective for early adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & T. T. Foch (Eds.), Biological-psychosocial interactions in early adolescence (pp. 9-34). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
112.Jessor. R. (1984). Adolescent Development and Behavioral Health. In J. D. Matarazzo, S. M. Weiss, J. A. Herd, N. E. Miller, & S. M. Weiss (Eds.), Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention (pp. 69-90). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
113.Donovan, J. E., & Jessor, R. (1985). Structure of Problem Behavior in Adolescence and Young Adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 890-904.
114.Donovan, J. E., Jessor, R., & Costa, F. M. (1991). Adolescent health behavior and conventionality-unconventionality: An extension of problem-behavior theory. Health Psychology, 10, 52-61.
115.Jessor, R., Donovan, J. E., & Costa, F. (1996). Personality, perceived life chances, and adolescent behavior. In K. Hurrelmann & S. F. Hamilton, Social Problems and Social Contexts in Adolescence: Perspectives across Boundaries (pp. 219-233). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
116.Garbarino, J. (1997). Growing up in a socially toxic environment. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth, Developmental Perspectives on Trauma: Theory, Research, and Intervention, (pp.141-154). Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press.
117.Shahinfar, A., & Fox, N. A. (1997). The effects of trauma on children: Conceptual and methodological issues. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth, Developmental Perspectives on Trauma: Theory, Research, and Intervention, (pp.115-139). Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press.
118.Frankenhaeuser, M. (1986). A psychobiological framework for research on human stress and coping. In M. H. Appley & R. Trumbull (Eds.), Dynamics of stress: Physiological, psychological, and social perspectives (pp. 101-116). New York: Plenum Press.
119.Lovallo, W. R. (1997). Stress & health : biological and psychological interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
120.Sherwood, L. (1997). Human physiology: From cells to systems. (3rd ed.). New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
121.Ballard, M. E., & Wiest, J. R. (1996). Mortal Kombat ?: The effects of violent videogame play on males’ hostility and cardiovascular responding. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 717-730.
122.Bushman, B. J., & Geen, R. G. (1990). Role of cognitive-emotional mediators and individual differences in the effects of media violence on aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 156-163.
123.Gerra, G., Fertomani, G., Zaimovic, A., Caccavari, R., Reali, N., Maestri, D., Avanzini, P., Monica, C., R. Delsignore, & Brambilla, F. (1996). Neuroendocrine responses to emotional arousal in normal women. Neuropsychobiology, 33, 173-181.
124.Calvert, S. L., & Tan, S. (1994). Impact of virtual reality on young adults’ physiological arousal and aggressive thoughts: Interaction versus observation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, 125-139.
125.Gr?er, M., & Howell, M. (1990). Autonomic and cardiovascular responses of preschool children to television programs. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 3, 134-138.
126.Cooley-Quille, M., Boyd, R. C., Frantz, E., & Walsh, J. (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 199-206.
127.Cooley-Quille, M., & Lorion, R. (1999). Adolescents’ exposure to community violence: Sleep and psychophysiological functioning. Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 367-375.
128.Scarpa, A., Fikretoglu, D., & Luscher, K. (2000). Community violence exposure in a young adult sample: II. Psychophysiology and aggressive behavior. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 417-425.
129.Raine, A. (1997). Antisocial behavior and psychophysiology: A biosocialperspective and a prefrontal dysfunction hypothesis. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 289-304). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
130.Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Mednick, S. A., (1997). Low resting heart rate at age 3 predisposes to aggression at age 11 years: Evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1457-1464.
131.Brennan,P. A., Raine, A., Schulsinger, F., Kirkegaard-Sorensen, L., Knop, J., Hutchings, B., Rosenberg, R., & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Psychophysiological protective factors for male subjects at high risk for criminal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 853-855.
132.Raine, A., Venables, P.H., & Williams, M. (1995). High autonomic arousal and electrodermal orienting at age 15 years as protective factors against criminal behavior at age 29 years. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1595-1600.
133.Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Williams, M. (1996). Better autonomic conditioning and faster electrodermal half-recovery time at age 15 years as possible protective factors against crime at age 29 years. Developmental Psychology, 32, 624-630.
134.Cantor, J. (2001). In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 207-221). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
135.Finkelhor, D., & Kendall-Tackett, K. (1997). A developmental perspective on the childhood impact of crime, abuse, and violent victimization. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth, Developmental Perspectives
136.Streeck-Fischer, A., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2000). Down will come baby,cradle and all: Diagnostic and therapeutic implications of chronic trauma on child development. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 903-918.
137.Schuck, A. M., & Widom, C. S. (2001). Childhood victimization and alcohol symptoms in females: Causal inferences and hypothesized mediators. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1069-1092.
138.Davis, M. C., Matthews, K. A., & McGrath, C. E. (2000). Hostile attitudes predict elevated vascular resistance during interpersonal stress in men and women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 17-25.
139.Gump, B. B., Matthews, K. A., & Raikkonen, K. (1999). Modeling relationships among socioeconomic status, hostility, cardiovascular reactivity, and left ventricular mass index in African American and White children. Health Psychology, 18, 140-150.
140.R(?)ikk(?)nen, K., Matthews, K. A., Flory, J. D., & Owens, J. F. (1999). Effects of hostility on ambulatory blood pressure and mood during daily living in healthy adults. Health Psychology, 18, 44-53.
141.R(?)ikk(?)nen, K., Matthews, K. A., & Kuller, L. H. (2001). Trajectory of psychological risk and incident hypertension in middle-aged women. Hypertension, 38, 798-802.
142.Johnson, R. N. (1996). Bad news revisited: The portrayal of violence, conflict, and suffering on television news. Peace & Conflict, 2, 201-216.
143.Bushman, B. J. (1995). Moderating role of trait aggressiveness in the effects of violent media on aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 950-960.
144.Margolin, G., & Gordis, E. B. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 445-479.
145.Perez-Smith, A. M., Albus, K. E., & Weist, M. D. (2001). Exposure to violence and neighborhood affiliation among inner-city youth. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 464-472.
146.Koukounas E & McCabe MP (2001). Emotional responses to filmed violence and the eye blink startle response: a preliminary investigation.Journal of Interpersonal Violence 16(5) 476-88.
147.Linz DG, Donnerstein E & Penrod S (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 758-68.
148.Graybill D, Kirsch JR & Esselman ED (1985) .Effects of playing violent versus non-violent video games on the aggressive ideation of children. Child Study Journal l5 199-205.
149.Metzler, C. W., Noell, J., Biglan, A., Ary, D., & Smolkowski, K. (1994). The social context for risky sexual behavior among adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 17, 419-438.
150.McNair, D.M., Lorr, M., & Droppleman, L.F. (1992). Manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
151.Usala, P. D., & Hertog, C. (1989). Measurement of affective states in adults: Evaluation of an adjective rating scale instrument. Research on Aging, 11, 403-426.
152.Funk, J. B., Elliott, R., Urman, M. L., Flores, G. T., & Mock, R. M. (1999). The Attitudes Towards Violence Scale: A measure for adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 1123-1136.
153.Velicer, W. F., Huckel, L. H., & Hansen, C. E. (1989). A measurement model for measuring attitudes toward violence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 349-364.
154.Brady,S.S.(2006).Lifetime community violence exposure and health risk behavior among yong adults in college.Journal of Adolescent Health .39,610-613
155.Brener, N. D., Collins, J. L., Kann, L., Warren, C. W., & Williams, B. I. (1995). Reliability of the Youth Risk Behavior Survey Questionnaire. American Journal of Epidemiology, 141, 575-580.
156.Brener , N. D., Kann, L., McManus, T., Kinchen, S. A., Sundberg, E. C., & Ross, J. G. (2002). Reliability of the 1999 youth risk behavior survey questionnaire. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31, 336-342.
157.Chen, E., & Matthews, K. A. (2003). Development of the Cognitive Appraisal and Understanding of Social Events (CAUSE) Videos. Health Psychology, 22, 106-110.
158.A., Chammah ,A.M.(1965).Prisoner’dilemma:A study in conflict and cooperation.Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press.
159.Deutsch,M.,Krauss,R.M.(1962).Studies of interpersonal bargaing,Journal of Conflict Resolution,6,52-76
160.Anderson, C. A., & Ford, C. M. (1986). Affect of the game player: Short-term effects of highly and mildly aggressive video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 390-402.
161.Crick, N.R. & Grotpeter, J.K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710-722.
162.傅安球,史莉芳。离异家庭子女心理,浙江教育出版社,1993,212-219
163.Coie JD, Dodge KA,Terry R, et a1.The role of aggression in peer relations: An analysis of aggression episodes, in boys' play groups. Chil Devel, 1991.62: 812- 826
164.Hess,B.,Markson,E.,&Stein,P.(1988).Sociology.New York:Macmillan.
165.Stewart, S.H., Taylor, S., Baker, J.M, et al.(1997).Gender differences in dimensions of anxiety sensitivity. J Anxiety Disord, May-Apr;11(2):179-200
166.时蓉华.社会心理学,浙江教育出版社,1998,117-118
167. 刘晓红,卜卫.大众传播心理研究.中国广播电视出版社,2001 年版第 25 页
168.河北省委政策研究室,《青少年违法犯罪研究简报》,1997 年第 l 期
169.徐建、肖健. 21 世纪中国青少年法律保护的走向.当代青年研究 1996 年第3 期
170.Funk, J. (February 1993). Reevaluating the impact of videogames. Clinical Pediatrics, 32, 86-90.
171.Huesmann, L. R., Eron, L. D., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1984). Stability of aggression over time and generations. Developmental Psychology, 20, 1120-1134.
172.Wills, T. A., DuHamel, K., & Vaccaro, D. (1995). Activity and mood temperament as predictors of adolescent substance use: Test of a self-regulation mediational model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 901-916.
173.Wills, T. A., McNamara, G., & Vaccaro, D. (1995). Parental education related to adolescent stress-coping and substance use: Development of a mediational model. Health Psychology, 14, 464-478.
174.Carnagey L,Anderson A.Violent video game exposure and aggression:A literature review.Minerva Psichiatr,2004,45(1):1-18.
175.张镇,刘月霞 ,张建新. 媒体暴力影响青少年攻击行为的理论模型。中国学校卫生,2006,27,10:915-916
176.Brady,S.S. & Matthews,K.A.(2006).Effects of media violence on health-related outcomes among young men .Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med,160,341-347
2. 孙召路.论传媒对青少年的负面影响及其防治措施.连云港教育学院学报,2000,(49)1:5-7.
3. 赵允芳.解剖媒体暴力现象.传媒观察.2004,12:18-20.
4. 陈宪奎.美国市民社会研究.中国社科院出版社,2004 年 9 月版.
5. 欧阳艳文.家庭暴力与青少年犯罪的因果关系研究.北京青年政治学院学报. (14)4:18-22.
6. 朱作鑫.校园暴力之概念、现状及防治对策.广西青年干部学院学报.(15)5:21-26
7. 新馨.校园暴力.国外社会科学.2004,3.
8. 黄行福.校园暴力:危害学校教育的毒瘤.思想·理论·教育.2004.
9. 杨彩霞.校园暴力产生原因探析.福建公安高等专科学校学报,2004,5.
10. 李大鹏.解析校园暴力行为.思想·理论·教育.2004.
11. Bandura A, Ross D&Ross SA (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 66 ,3-11.
12. Hicks DJ (1965).Imitation and retention of film-mediated aggressive peer and adult models.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,2 :97-100.
13. Joanne HS, Franco F.(2006).Informing policies in forensic settings: a review of research investigating the effects of exposure to media violence on challenging/offending behaviour. The British Tourtcal of Poretcsic Practice (8)2:31-46
14. Huesmann LR & Eron LD (1986). Television and the Aggressive Child: A Cross-National Comparison. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
15. Berkowitz L (1984). Some effects of thought on anti- and pro-social influences of media evems: a cog- neoassociation analysis. Psychological Bulletin 95 410-27.
16. Anderson CA, Anderson KB & Denser WE (1996). Examining an affective aggression framework: weapon and temperature effects on aggressive thoughts, affect, and attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 22 366-76.
17. Anderson CA, Deuser WE & DeNeve KM (1995). Hot temperatures, hostile affect, hostile cognition, and arousal: tests of a general model of affective aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21 434-48.
18. Anderson CA, Benjamin AJ & Bartholow BD (1998). Does the gun pull the trigger? Automatic priming effects of weapon pictures and weapon names. Psychological Science 9 308-14.
19. Dill KE, Anderson CA, Anderson KB & Denser WE(1997). Effects of aggressive personality on social expectations and social perceptions. Journal of Research in Personality 31 272-92.
20. Lindsay JJ & Anderson CA (2000). From antecedent conditions to violent actions: a general affective aggression model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (5) 533-47.
21. Geen RG (1990). Human Aggression.Pacific Grove,CA:McG raw-Hill.
22. Zillmann D (1983). Cognition-excitation interdependencies in aggressive behaviour. Aggressive Behaviour 14 51-64.
23. Bushman BJ (1998). Priming effects of media violence on the accessibility of aggressive constructs in memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24 537-45.
24. Anderson CA & Bushman BJ (2001). Effects of violent video games onaggressive behaviour, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behaviour: a meta analytic review of the scientific literature. American Psychological Society 12 (5) 353-9.
25. Zillmann D (1972). Attribution and misattribution of excitatory reactions. In: JH Harvey,WJ Ickes & RF Kidd (Eds). New Directions in Attrihution Research 2355-68. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
26. Tannenbaum PH & Zillmann D (1975). Emotional arousal in the facilitation of aggression through communication. In: L Berkowitz (Ed). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 8 149-92. New York: Academic Press.
27. Zillman D (1979). Hostility and Aggression. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum.
28. Cantor J (2000). Media violence. journal of Adolescent Health 27s 30-4.
29. Griffiths M (1999) .Violent video games and aggression: a review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behaviour 4 (2) 203-12.
30. Pennell AE & Browne KD (1999). Film violence and young offenders. Aggression and Violent Behaviour 4 (1) 13-28.
31. Anderson CA, Carnagey NL & Eubanks J (2003) Exposure to violent media: the effects of songs with violent lyrics on aggressive thoughts and feelings.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (5) 960-71.
32. Guy K, Mohan D & Taylor PJ (2003). Do schizophrenic patients with a history of violence express a preference for screen violence? International journal of Forensic Mental Health 2 (2) 165-71.
33. Crick NR, Werner N, Casas J et al (1999). Childhood aggression and gender: a new look at an old problem.In: D Bernstein (Ed) Gender and Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 45 75-141. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
34. Eslea M (2004). School bullying: severity, distress and coping. Unpublished manuscript. University of Central Lancashire, Preston.
35. Coyne SM, Archer J & Eslea M (2004). Cruel intentions on television and in real life: can viewing indirect aggression increase viewers' subsequent indirect aggression? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 88 234-53.
36. Coyne SM (2004) Indirect aggression on screen: a hidden problem? The Psychologist 17 (12) 688-90.
37. Browne KD & Hamilton-Giachritsis C (2005). The influence of violent media on children and adolescents: a public-health approach. The Lancet 365 702-10.
38. Association of Chief Police Officers (1994). The link between pornographic and violent videos and young offenders and the Government's proposals to strengthen the law. Memorandum 1. In .Home Affairs Committee Fourth Report: Video Violence and Young Offenders (pp22-4). Westminster: House of Commons.
39. Bailey SM (1993). Brief communication. Criminal Justice Matters 6 (7).
40. Black SL & Beuan S (1992). At the movies with Buss and Durkee: a natural experiment on film violence. Aggressive Behaviour 18 37-45.
41. Halloran JD, Brown RL & Charley DC (1970) Television and Delinqu ency. Leicester: Leicester University Press.
42. Vine I (1995). Mass media and anti-social conduct-from moral panics to media education. Proceedings of the British Psychological Society 3 (2) 133.
43. Itzin C (1994). Pornographic and violent videos. Memorandum 15. In Home Affairs Committee Fourth Report: Video violence and Young Offenders (pp55-64). Westminster: House of Commons.
44. Walsh DA (1999) 1999 Video and Computer Game Report Card. Retrievedfrom http://www.mediafamily.org/research/vgrc/ 1999- l .shtml.
45. Lynch PL, Gentile DA, Olson AA & van Brederode TM(2001). The effects of violent video game hostile attributional bias on adolescent aggressive attitudes and behaviour. Poster session Presented at the biennial conference of the Society for Research in Child Development.
46. Kirsh SJ & Olczak PV (2000). Violent comic books and perceptions of ambiguous provocation situations. Media Psychology 2 47-62.
47. Griffiths MD & Hunt N (1993). The acquisition, development and maintenance of computer game playing in adolescence. Paper presented at the British Psychological Society London Conference, City University.
48. Griffiths MD & Hunt N (1995). Computer game playing in adolescence: prevalence and demographic indicators. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 5 189-93.
49. Lynch P (1994).Type A behaviour, hostility and cardiovascular function at rest after playing video games in teenagers. Psychosomatic Medicine 56 152.
50. McCloud S (1993). Understanding Comics. Northampton,MA: Kitchen Sink.
51. Potenza M, Verhoeff P & Weiss E (1996). Comic books and development. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35 1573-4.
52. Kirsh SJ & Olczak SJ (2002). The effects of extremely violent comic books on social informatian processing. Journal of lnterpersonal Violence 17 (11) 1160-78.
53. Funk JB (1993). Reevaluating the impact of violent video games. Clinical Pediatrics 32 86-90.
54. Feshbach S (1955). The drive-reducing function of fantasy behaviour. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 50 3-11.
55. Anderson CA & Bushman BJ (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology 53 27-51.
56. Ballard ME & Coates S (1995). The immediate effects of homicidal, suicidal, and non-violent heavy metal and rap songs on the moods of college students. Youth and Society 27 148-68.
57. Berkowitz L & Le Page A (1967). Weapons as aggression- eliciting stimuli.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 7 202-7.
58. Frodi A (1975) .The effect of exposure to weapons on aggressive behaviour from a cross-cultural perspective. International Journal of Psycholoy 10 283-92.
59. Caprara GV, Renzi P, Amolitii P et al (1984). The eliciting cue value of aggressive slides reconsidered in a personological perspective: the weapons effect and irritability. British Journal of social Psychology 14.313-22.
60. Berkowitz L (1974) .Some determinants of impulsive aggression: role of mediated associations with reinforcement for aggression. Psychological Review 81 165-76.
61. Fraczek A & Macaulay J (1971). Some personality factors in reaction to aggressive stimuli.Journal of Personality 39 163-77.
62. Singer, M. I., Anglin, T. M., Song, L. Y., & Lunghofer, L. (1995). Adolescents’ exposure to violence and associated symptoms of psychological trauma. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273, 477-482.
63. Huston, A. C., Donnerstein, E., Fairchild, H., Feshbach, N. D., Katz, P. A., Murray, J. P., Rubinstein, E. A., Wilcox, B. L., & Zuckerman, D. (1992). Big world, small screen: The role of television in American society. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.
64. National television violence study (Vols. 1-2). (1997-1998). Thousand Oaks,CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
65. Provenzo, E. F. (1991). Video kids: Making sense of Nintendo. Cambridge: MA: Harvard University Press.
66. Dietz, T. L. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in videogames: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38, 425-442.
67. Walsh, D. (2000). Interactive violence and children: Testimony submitted to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, March 21, 2000 68.Nielsen Media Research. (1998). 1998 Report on Television. New York, NY: Author.
68. Huntemann, N., & Morgan, M. (2001). Mass media and identify development. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 309-322). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
69. Anderson, C. A., & Dill, K. E. (2000). Videogames and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 772-790.
70. 陈昌风.电视媒体对未成年人的影响。电视专论,2004,8:30-32
71. 赵永乐,何莹,郑涌.媒体暴力及其对青少年儿童的影响.现代中小学教育,2004,4:44-46
72. Boney-McCoy, S. & Finkelhor, D. (1995). Psychosocial sequelae of violent victimization in a national youth sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63, 726-736.
73. 孙江平.中国 5 省市中学生危险行为现状(二):易导致意外伤害的危险行为.中国学校卫生,2001,22(4):292-293
74. 周月芳,罗春燕,彭宁宁,等.上海市青少年危险行为现状研究(二):易导致意外伤害的危险行为.中国校医,2003,17(2):100-103
75. Straus. M. A. (1992). Children as witnesses to marital violence: a risk factor of lifelong problems among a nationally representative sample of American men and women. In D. F. Schwartz (Ed.), Children and Violence: Report of the Twenty-Third Ross Roundtable on Critical Approaches to Common Pediatric Problems (pp. 98-109). Columbus: OH: Ross Lab.
76. Bell, C.C., & Jenkins, E. J. (1993). Community violence and children on Chicago’s Southside. In D. Reiss, J. E. Richters, M. Radke-Yarrow, & D. Scharff (Eds.), Children and Violence (pp. 46-54). New York: Guilford.
77. Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., & Pardo, C. (1992). Children in Danger. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
78. Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children’s symptomatology. Developmental Psychopathology, 10, 235-257.
79. Martinez, P., & Richters, J. E. (1993). The NIMH Community Violence Project. II. Children’s distress symptoms associated with violence exposure. In D. Reiss, J. E. Richters, M. Radke-Yarrow, & D. Scharff (Eds.), Children and Violence (pp. 22-35). New York: Guilford.
80. Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Saunders, B., Resnick, H., Best, C. L., & Schnurr, P. P. (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 19-30.
81. Gorman-Smith, D., & Tolan, P. (1998). The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Developmental Psychopathology, 10, 101-116.
82. Miller, L. S., Wasserman, G. A., Neugebauer, R., Gorman-Smith, D.,Kamboukos, D. (1999). Witnessed community violence and antisocial behavior in high-risk urban boys. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 2-11.
83. Farrell, A. D., & Bruce, S. E. (1997). Impact of exposure to community violence on violent behavior and emotional distress among urban adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 2-14.
84. Champion, H. L., & Durant, R. H. (2001). Exposure to violence and victimization and the use of violence by adolescents in the United States. Minerva Pediatrica, 53, 189-197.
85. Flannery, D. J., Singer, M. I., & Wester, K. (2001). Violence exposure, psychological trauma, and suicide risk in a community sample of dangerously violent adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 435-442.
86. Sullivan, T. N., Kung, E. M., & Farrell, A. D. (2004). Relation between witnessing violence and drug use initiation among rural adolescents: Parental monitoring and family support as protective factors. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 488-498.
87. Acierno, R., Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H., Saunders, B., De Arellano, M., & Best, C. (2000). Assault, PTSD, family substance use, and depression as risk factors for cigarette use in youth: Findings from the National Survey of Adolescents. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13, 381-396.
88. Schwab-Stone, M. E., Ayers, T. S., Kasprow, W., Voyce, C., Barone, C., Shriver, T., & Weissberg, R. P. (1995). No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1343-1352.
89. Silverman, J. G., Raj, A., Mucci, L. A., & Hathaway, J. E. (2001). Datingviolence against adolescent girls and associated substance use, unhealthy weight control, sexual risk behavior, pregnancy, and suicidality. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, 572-579.
90. Albus, K. E., Weist, M. D., Perez-Smith, A. M. (2004). Associations between youth risk behavior and exposure to violence: Implications for the provision of mental health services in urban schools. Behavior Modification, 28, 548-564.
91. Berenson, A. B., Wiemann, C. M., & McCombs, S. (2001). Exposure to violence and associated health-risk behaviors among adolescent girls. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 155, 1238-1242.
92. White, H. R., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Farrington, D. P. (1999). Developmental associations between substance use and violence. Development & Psychopathology, 11, 785-803.
93. Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Resnick, H. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1997). A 2-year longitudinal analysis of the relationships between violent assault and substance use in women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 834-847.
94. Albus, K. E., Weist, M. D., Perez-Smith, A. M. (2004). Associations between youth risk behavior and exposure to violence: Implications for the provision of mental health services in urban schools. Behavior Modification, 28, 548-564.
95. Cook, D. E., Kestenbaum, C., Honaker, L. M., Anderson, E. R., Jr. (2000). Joint statement on the impact of entertainment violence on children: Congressional Public Health Summit, July 26, 2000.
96. Wood, W., Wong, F. Y., & Chachere, J. G. (1991). Effects of media violence on viewers’ aggression in unconstrained social interaction. PsychologicalBulletin, 109, 371-383.
97. Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Smailes, E. M., Kasen, S., & Brook, J. S. (2002). Television viewing and aggressive behavior during adolescence and adulthood. Science, 295, 2468-2471.
98. Eron, L. D., Lefkowitz, M. M., Huesmann, L. R., & Walder, L. O. (1972). Does television violence cause aggression? American Psychologist, 27, 253-263.
99. Huesmann, L. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 125-139.
100.Bushman, B. J., & Huesmann, L. R. (2001). Effects of televised violence on aggression. In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 223-254). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
101.Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., Malamuth, N. M., & Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 81-110.
102.Kremar, M., & Greene, K. (2000). Connections between violent television exposure and adolescent risk taking. Media Psychology, 2, 195-217.
103.Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2001). Media violence and the American public: Scientific facts versus media misinformation. American Psychologist, 56, 477-489.
104.Huesmann, L. R., Moise, J. F., & Podolski, C. (1997). The effects of media violence on the development of antisocial behavior. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 181-193). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
105.Berkowitz, L. (1990). On the formation and regulation of anger and aggression: A cognitive-neoassociationistic analysis. American Psychologist, 45, 494-503.
106.Bandura, A. (1986). Models of human nature and causality. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory (pp. 2-46). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
107.Dodge, K. A., & Schwartz, D. (1997). Social information processing mechanisms in aggressive behavior. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 171-180). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
108.Kirsh, S. J., & Olczak, P. V. (2000). Violent comic books and perceptions of ambiguous provocation situations. Media Psychology, 2, 47-62.
109.Schwartz, D., & Proctor, L. J. (2000). Community violence exposure and children’s social adjustment in the school peer group: The mediating roles of emotion regulation and social cognition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical psychology, 68, 670-683.
110.Shahinfar, A., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Matza, L. S. (2001). The relation between exposure to violence and social information processing among incarcerated adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 136-141.
111.Lerner, R. M. (1987). A life-span perspective for early adolescence. In R. M. Lerner & T. T. Foch (Eds.), Biological-psychosocial interactions in early adolescence (pp. 9-34). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
112.Jessor. R. (1984). Adolescent Development and Behavioral Health. In J. D. Matarazzo, S. M. Weiss, J. A. Herd, N. E. Miller, & S. M. Weiss (Eds.), Behavioral health: A handbook of health enhancement and disease prevention (pp. 69-90). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc
113.Donovan, J. E., & Jessor, R. (1985). Structure of Problem Behavior in Adolescence and Young Adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 890-904.
114.Donovan, J. E., Jessor, R., & Costa, F. M. (1991). Adolescent health behavior and conventionality-unconventionality: An extension of problem-behavior theory. Health Psychology, 10, 52-61.
115.Jessor, R., Donovan, J. E., & Costa, F. (1996). Personality, perceived life chances, and adolescent behavior. In K. Hurrelmann & S. F. Hamilton, Social Problems and Social Contexts in Adolescence: Perspectives across Boundaries (pp. 219-233). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
116.Garbarino, J. (1997). Growing up in a socially toxic environment. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth, Developmental Perspectives on Trauma: Theory, Research, and Intervention, (pp.141-154). Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press.
117.Shahinfar, A., & Fox, N. A. (1997). The effects of trauma on children: Conceptual and methodological issues. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth, Developmental Perspectives on Trauma: Theory, Research, and Intervention, (pp.115-139). Rochester, New York: University of Rochester Press.
118.Frankenhaeuser, M. (1986). A psychobiological framework for research on human stress and coping. In M. H. Appley & R. Trumbull (Eds.), Dynamics of stress: Physiological, psychological, and social perspectives (pp. 101-116). New York: Plenum Press.
119.Lovallo, W. R. (1997). Stress & health : biological and psychological interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
120.Sherwood, L. (1997). Human physiology: From cells to systems. (3rd ed.). New York: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
121.Ballard, M. E., & Wiest, J. R. (1996). Mortal Kombat ?: The effects of violent videogame play on males’ hostility and cardiovascular responding. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 717-730.
122.Bushman, B. J., & Geen, R. G. (1990). Role of cognitive-emotional mediators and individual differences in the effects of media violence on aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 156-163.
123.Gerra, G., Fertomani, G., Zaimovic, A., Caccavari, R., Reali, N., Maestri, D., Avanzini, P., Monica, C., R. Delsignore, & Brambilla, F. (1996). Neuroendocrine responses to emotional arousal in normal women. Neuropsychobiology, 33, 173-181.
124.Calvert, S. L., & Tan, S. (1994). Impact of virtual reality on young adults’ physiological arousal and aggressive thoughts: Interaction versus observation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, 125-139.
125.Gr?er, M., & Howell, M. (1990). Autonomic and cardiovascular responses of preschool children to television programs. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing, 3, 134-138.
126.Cooley-Quille, M., Boyd, R. C., Frantz, E., & Walsh, J. (2001). Emotional and behavioral impact of exposure to community violence in inner-city adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 199-206.
127.Cooley-Quille, M., & Lorion, R. (1999). Adolescents’ exposure to community violence: Sleep and psychophysiological functioning. Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 367-375.
128.Scarpa, A., Fikretoglu, D., & Luscher, K. (2000). Community violence exposure in a young adult sample: II. Psychophysiology and aggressive behavior. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 417-425.
129.Raine, A. (1997). Antisocial behavior and psychophysiology: A biosocialperspective and a prefrontal dysfunction hypothesis. In D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior (pp. 289-304). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
130.Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Mednick, S. A., (1997). Low resting heart rate at age 3 predisposes to aggression at age 11 years: Evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1457-1464.
131.Brennan,P. A., Raine, A., Schulsinger, F., Kirkegaard-Sorensen, L., Knop, J., Hutchings, B., Rosenberg, R., & Mednick, S. A. (1997). Psychophysiological protective factors for male subjects at high risk for criminal behavior. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 853-855.
132.Raine, A., Venables, P.H., & Williams, M. (1995). High autonomic arousal and electrodermal orienting at age 15 years as protective factors against criminal behavior at age 29 years. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1595-1600.
133.Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Williams, M. (1996). Better autonomic conditioning and faster electrodermal half-recovery time at age 15 years as possible protective factors against crime at age 29 years. Developmental Psychology, 32, 624-630.
134.Cantor, J. (2001). In D. G. Singer & J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 207-221). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
135.Finkelhor, D., & Kendall-Tackett, K. (1997). A developmental perspective on the childhood impact of crime, abuse, and violent victimization. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth, Developmental Perspectives
136.Streeck-Fischer, A., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2000). Down will come baby,cradle and all: Diagnostic and therapeutic implications of chronic trauma on child development. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 34, 903-918.
137.Schuck, A. M., & Widom, C. S. (2001). Childhood victimization and alcohol symptoms in females: Causal inferences and hypothesized mediators. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1069-1092.
138.Davis, M. C., Matthews, K. A., & McGrath, C. E. (2000). Hostile attitudes predict elevated vascular resistance during interpersonal stress in men and women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 17-25.
139.Gump, B. B., Matthews, K. A., & Raikkonen, K. (1999). Modeling relationships among socioeconomic status, hostility, cardiovascular reactivity, and left ventricular mass index in African American and White children. Health Psychology, 18, 140-150.
140.R(?)ikk(?)nen, K., Matthews, K. A., Flory, J. D., & Owens, J. F. (1999). Effects of hostility on ambulatory blood pressure and mood during daily living in healthy adults. Health Psychology, 18, 44-53.
141.R(?)ikk(?)nen, K., Matthews, K. A., & Kuller, L. H. (2001). Trajectory of psychological risk and incident hypertension in middle-aged women. Hypertension, 38, 798-802.
142.Johnson, R. N. (1996). Bad news revisited: The portrayal of violence, conflict, and suffering on television news. Peace & Conflict, 2, 201-216.
143.Bushman, B. J. (1995). Moderating role of trait aggressiveness in the effects of violent media on aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 950-960.
144.Margolin, G., & Gordis, E. B. (2000). The effects of family and community violence on children. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 445-479.
145.Perez-Smith, A. M., Albus, K. E., & Weist, M. D. (2001). Exposure to violence and neighborhood affiliation among inner-city youth. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 464-472.
146.Koukounas E & McCabe MP (2001). Emotional responses to filmed violence and the eye blink startle response: a preliminary investigation.Journal of Interpersonal Violence 16(5) 476-88.
147.Linz DG, Donnerstein E & Penrod S (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 758-68.
148.Graybill D, Kirsch JR & Esselman ED (1985) .Effects of playing violent versus non-violent video games on the aggressive ideation of children. Child Study Journal l5 199-205.
149.Metzler, C. W., Noell, J., Biglan, A., Ary, D., & Smolkowski, K. (1994). The social context for risky sexual behavior among adolescents. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 17, 419-438.
150.McNair, D.M., Lorr, M., & Droppleman, L.F. (1992). Manual for the profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.
151.Usala, P. D., & Hertog, C. (1989). Measurement of affective states in adults: Evaluation of an adjective rating scale instrument. Research on Aging, 11, 403-426.
152.Funk, J. B., Elliott, R., Urman, M. L., Flores, G. T., & Mock, R. M. (1999). The Attitudes Towards Violence Scale: A measure for adolescents. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 14, 1123-1136.
153.Velicer, W. F., Huckel, L. H., & Hansen, C. E. (1989). A measurement model for measuring attitudes toward violence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 349-364.
154.Brady,S.S.(2006).Lifetime community violence exposure and health risk behavior among yong adults in college.Journal of Adolescent Health .39,610-613
155.Brener, N. D., Collins, J. L., Kann, L., Warren, C. W., & Williams, B. I. (1995). Reliability of the Youth Risk Behavior Survey Questionnaire. American Journal of Epidemiology, 141, 575-580.
156.Brener , N. D., Kann, L., McManus, T., Kinchen, S. A., Sundberg, E. C., & Ross, J. G. (2002). Reliability of the 1999 youth risk behavior survey questionnaire. Journal of Adolescent Health, 31, 336-342.
157.Chen, E., & Matthews, K. A. (2003). Development of the Cognitive Appraisal and Understanding of Social Events (CAUSE) Videos. Health Psychology, 22, 106-110.
158.A., Chammah ,A.M.(1965).Prisoner’dilemma:A study in conflict and cooperation.Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press.
159.Deutsch,M.,Krauss,R.M.(1962).Studies of interpersonal bargaing,Journal of Conflict Resolution,6,52-76
160.Anderson, C. A., & Ford, C. M. (1986). Affect of the game player: Short-term effects of highly and mildly aggressive video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12, 390-402.
161.Crick, N.R. & Grotpeter, J.K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710-722.
162.傅安球,史莉芳。离异家庭子女心理,浙江教育出版社,1993,212-219
163.Coie JD, Dodge KA,Terry R, et a1.The role of aggression in peer relations: An analysis of aggression episodes, in boys' play groups. Chil Devel, 1991.62: 812- 826
164.Hess,B.,Markson,E.,&Stein,P.(1988).Sociology.New York:Macmillan.
165.Stewart, S.H., Taylor, S., Baker, J.M, et al.(1997).Gender differences in dimensions of anxiety sensitivity. J Anxiety Disord, May-Apr;11(2):179-200
166.时蓉华.社会心理学,浙江教育出版社,1998,117-118
167. 刘晓红,卜卫.大众传播心理研究.中国广播电视出版社,2001 年版第 25 页
168.河北省委政策研究室,《青少年违法犯罪研究简报》,1997 年第 l 期
169.徐建、肖健. 21 世纪中国青少年法律保护的走向.当代青年研究 1996 年第3 期
170.Funk, J. (February 1993). Reevaluating the impact of videogames. Clinical Pediatrics, 32, 86-90.
171.Huesmann, L. R., Eron, L. D., Lefkowitz, M. M., & Walder, L. O. (1984). Stability of aggression over time and generations. Developmental Psychology, 20, 1120-1134.
172.Wills, T. A., DuHamel, K., & Vaccaro, D. (1995). Activity and mood temperament as predictors of adolescent substance use: Test of a self-regulation mediational model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 901-916.
173.Wills, T. A., McNamara, G., & Vaccaro, D. (1995). Parental education related to adolescent stress-coping and substance use: Development of a mediational model. Health Psychology, 14, 464-478.
174.Carnagey L,Anderson A.Violent video game exposure and aggression:A literature review.Minerva Psichiatr,2004,45(1):1-18.
175.张镇,刘月霞 ,张建新. 媒体暴力影响青少年攻击行为的理论模型。中国学校卫生,2006,27,10:915-916
176.Brady,S.S. & Matthews,K.A.(2006).Effects of media violence on health-related outcomes among young men .Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med,160,341-347