北极海域的国际法律问题研究

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英文题名：A Study on the International Legal Issues of the Arctic Seas 作者：吴琼 论文级别：博士 学科专业名称：国际法 中文关键词：北极海域 ; 海权 ; 海洋争端 ; 环境保护 ; 国际法制的构建 英文关键词：Arctic Seas ; Rights over the Seas ; Disputes ; Environmental Protection ; Construction of the International Legal Regime 学位年度：2010 导师：周洪钧 学科代码：030109 学位授予单位：华东政法大学 论文提交日期：2010-03-25

摘要

北极曾经是远离人们视线的遥远地区,也是各北极国家政治、经济的边缘问题。可是伴随着二十一世纪北极各国全球战略的谋篇布局以及北极海域显著的气候变暖,北极丰富的海洋资源及商业化通航的航道成为各国觊觎的目标。2007年8月,俄罗斯北极科考队在北极点的北冰洋底插上了钛合金国旗,致使北极海域国家之间的“明争暗斗”瞬间进入了全世界的视线。一时间,北极海域国家的“新仇旧恨”似乎都到了“白热化”的程度。在当今“热闹非凡”的北极地区究竟蕴藏着何种国际法制,本文将由此揭开其神秘的“面纱”。本文由导言和五章组成,计21万字。主要内容分述如下:
     第一章为“北极海域的概述”。在该章中首先对北极海域的范围、特点、北极海域国家以及北冰洋沿海国的界定有个初步的介绍。文中北极海域的范围包括主体海洋的北冰洋及九个附属海域。依据此标准,通常所指的八个北极国家中,加拿大、美国、俄罗斯、丹麦(格陵兰岛)、冰岛、挪威可以称为“北极海域国家”;如果仅指北冰洋的沿海国,除冰岛之外,就是上述的其他五个国家。当今的全球气候变化对北极海域的影响较大。根据科学家们的报道,本世纪末北冰洋也许会变成无冰之洋。这种变化对北极海域来言,既有消极的影响,也有积极的影响。消极的影响体现在对北极海域的海洋环境,乃至全球环境、海洋的生物资源将会带来灭顶之灾;而积极的影响主要在于北极海域开发利用的商业价值,包括海底油气资源的勘探和开发、航道的商业化通航;而积极因素的影响正是引发北极海域国家争端纷起的主要原因。北极海域并不是像一些学者所称的“法律的真空”;反之有关海洋的国际法、北极各国签署的双边、多边条约以及目前的区域环境软法都适用于北极海域的方方面面。
     第二章为“北极海域海权的确立”。北极海域国际法律问题的研究必然会涉及北极海域国家的主权问题。至今,围绕北极海域的陆地,包括北极海域中的绝大部分岛屿已被八个北极国家划分完毕,涉及到的陆地领土主权的争议已基本解决;但在北极海域,北极海域国家之间的海洋权益争端却纷争不断。在了解各国的海洋争端之前,应首先了解北极海域国家在北极海域所确立的海权,这为后续洞悉各国的海洋争端奠定基础。该章从北极海域国家领海主权的确立为起点,依次介绍了各国在北极海域的领海、专属经济区和大陆架的海权确立以及航行权的确立。在确立海权的过程中,可以看到北极海域国家对国际社会的贡献既有独特的国家实践,也有北极海域国家所提出的创新性的理论。前者典型的如挪威、加拿大北极群岛、俄罗斯北极群岛直线基线的国家实践;加拿大、俄罗斯在冰封的专属经济区对外籍船舶航行的“长臂管辖”;后者如“扇形理论”和“北极湖理论”的提出。在北极海域的海权确立中,原有的相关边界协议和1982年《海洋法公约》是主要的影响因素。尤其是《海洋法公约》既是这场北极海域“热战”的法律诱因,同时也为这场“战争”的最终停战提供了解决的路径和实体法依据。该章的最后一节将北极海域的海权确立与当代国际海洋法相结合,从对当代国际海洋法的发展与对其的挑战两个角度来予以了提炼和总结。
     第三章是“北极海域的争端及其法律评析”。该章对北极海域所存在的争端一一进行了回顾、详述与法律评析。北极海域的争端应该说涉及到海洋的方方面面。其既有岛屿之争,如加拿大与丹麦的汉斯岛之争、挪威与俄罗斯有关斯瓦尔巴德群岛专属经济区与大陆架相关问题的争端;加拿大与美国、欧盟的西北航道、俄罗斯与西方国家的北方海运航道之争;也有专属经济区、大陆架外缘的划界、海洋边界的划界之争,如美加的波弗特海海洋边界及大陆架争端;加拿大、俄罗斯、丹麦围绕着罗蒙诺索夫海岭与门捷列夫海岭的大陆架之争以及挪俄的巴伦支海大陆架的划分问题。在北极海域国家与非北极国家之间,目前存在着对北冰洋国际海底区域的不同立场。对每一问题,本章依据国际海洋法、国际条约法等的规定以及国际法院的审判实践,进行了较为深刻的法律评析。对未来北极海域争端的解决途径,该章最后一节从法律方法与政治方法的两种途径进行了法律分析;尤其是就政治方法而言,是否构建一个像《南极条约》一样的《北极条约》,是近期一直在探讨的国际热点问题。
     第四章的主题就是“北极海域的海洋环境保护”。上世纪八十年代北极地区面临的环境污染日趋严重,主要的环境问题包括持续有机污染物的污染、重金属的污染、臭氧层的消耗、酸化和噪音的污染、核辐射的污染和石油泄露及船舶的其他污染问题等。而新世纪,气候变暖又构成影响北极海域环境的最大威胁。北极海域的环境保护法制相对复杂,除各国国内的环境立法之外,区域环境“软法”制度与适用于北极海域的全球性环境公约构成对北极海域环境保护的国际法制。该章在分析北极理事会各工作小组的成就与不足的基础上,对北极海域现有的区域环境“软法”制度进行了详述与法律评析。对于适用于北极海域的主要全球环境公约和区域环境公约,文章主要从海洋污染的控制、海洋生物资源的保护以及与北极海域海洋环境保护相关的主要问题,如持续有机物的控制、气候变化等予以了分析。
     第五章“北极海域国际法制的前景与思考”,为整篇论文的结束篇。作为论文的最后一章,作者认为该章应与前几章“遥相呼应”;同时对北极海域未来的国际法制应有所总结、展望并提出自己的见解。而自新世纪以来,尤其是俄罗斯2007年北冰洋底插旗事件之后,北极海域国家都发表了自己最新的北极地区新战略;2008年5月28日,五个北冰洋沿海国聚首丹麦格陵兰的伊卢利萨特并共同发布了《伊卢利萨特宣言》;2009年4月,北极理事会发布了《罗姆瑟宣言》,指出未来两年北极理事会的工作重点。通过解读北极海域国家的最新北极战略及区域性宣言,北极海域未来国际治理的发展模式可见一斑。此外,对于未来北极海域国际法制的构建,文章主要从北极海域船舶航行法制与海洋资源的国际保护两个方面进行了初步的设想。对于前者,IMO将起到重要的作用;而对于后者,北极海域国家或八个北极国家可以制定一个类似《南极海洋生物资源养护公约》的一个协议。对于当今“热闹非凡”的北极海域,中国应享有何种利益并应坚持何种原则和立场,作者在该章的最后一节提出了自己的见解。
The Arctic Region has ever been a remote area which is far away from people’s lines of vision and it is also deemed to be a fringe issue in the Arctic states’political and economical concerns. However, with the Arctic states’new global strategic deployments and obvious warm climate change in the Arctic region, the abundant sea resources and commercial shipping in the Arctic Seas become Arctic states’chasing targets. In August 2007, the Russian Arctic Scientific Expedition Team planted a titanium Russian flag on the seabed beneath the North Pole, which made the Arctic states’infighting come into the spotlight of the international world. Instantly, the old scores and news among the Arctic nations seemed to turn white-hot. What kinds of international legal regime would be like behind such a bustling Arctic region, the paper herein will uncover its mysterious“veil”. The paper is composed of an introduction and five chapters, approximately 210,000 words. The main contents hereby are as follows:
     Chapter One: General Introduction to the Arctic Seas. The Chapter first has a preliminary introduction to the scope and feature of the Arctic Seas as well as the definition of the countries around the Arctic Seas and the Arctic coastal countries. The Arctic Seas herein include the Arctic Ocean and its nine annexed seas. In accordance with this criterion, Canada, Russia, America, Denmark(Greenland), Norway and Iceland among the commonly-called eight Arctic states could be known as the countries around the Arctic Seas while the aforesaid five countries except Iceland are referred to as the Arctic Ocean coastal countries. The present global climate change exerts much influence on the Arctic Seas. Some scientists reported that the Arctic Ocean would be iceless at the end of this century. This change will bring both negative and positive effects to the Arctic Seas. The negative effects are that the crowning calamity to the sea environment, even the global environment may arise therefrom. The positive effects mainly lie in the commercial values of the Arctic Seas including the exploitation and development of the gas and oil on the seabed and the commercial shipping which are supposed to be the leading reason to the disputes among the countries around the Arctic Seas. The Arctic Seas are not a vacuum of legal system as what some scholars said. Instead, the relevant international laws concerning with the sea, the bilateral and regional treaties and the regional soft environmental laws shall be applied to the aspects of the Arctic Seas.
     Chapter Two: Established Sea Rights over the Arctic Seas. The issue of the Arctic sates’sovereignty is an inevitable topic when some researches about the international legal system in the Arctic Seas are being done. So far, the lands around the Arctic Seas, inclusive of the main islands in the Arctic Seas have been divided by the eight Arctic states. In most instances no disputes existed over the title to Arctic lands. However, the disputes arising from the sea rights among the countries around the Arctic Seas never stop. Before touching on these disputes, we’d better go through with the established sea rights over the Arctic Seas by the surrounding countries which can provide the basis for the following understanding of the disputes. The chapter herein starts from the territorial sea rights in the Arctic Seas and introduces the sea rights in the territorial seas, the exclusive economic zones, the continental shelves as well as the shipping rights respectively. The countries around the Arctic Seas not only contribute to the international world with their peculiar national practices but also some innovative theories in the process of asserting the sea rights in the Arctic Seas. The typical examples for the former are the national practices of the straight baseline by Norway, Canada and Russia and the“Long-arm Jurisdiction”over the foreign ships by Canada and Russia in their ice-covered EEZs. The latter are some new theories like Sector Principle and Arctic Lake Theory. Besides, the original boundary treaties and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982 are also the predominating factors affecting the assertion of the sea rights in the Arctic Seas by the surrounding countries. Especially, the 1982 UNCLOS is not only attributed to today’s“hot war”in the Arctic Seas, but also provides the ways and substantive laws for the final cease-fire. The last section in this chapter combines the assertion of the sea rights in the Arctic Seas with the international laws of the sea and then extracts and summarizes the development and challenge made to the international laws of the sea.
     Chapter Three: The Disputes in the Arctic Seas and its Legal Comments. This chapter reviews and expounds each dispute arising from the Arctic Seas in depth and then comments it from the perspective of the law respectively. The present disputes in the Arctic Seas involve different aspects of the sea. There existed the disputes over the islands like Hans island dispute between Canada and Denmark, the EEZs and continental issues of the Svalbard Islands between Russia and Norway, the disputes over the shipping passage like the Northwest Passage between Canada and the United states, the European Union, etc. and the Northern Sea Route between Russia and the western countries., and also existed the disputes over the EEZs, the outer limits of the continental shelves and the sea boundaries such as the United States-Canada’s dispute over the boundary in the Beaufort Sea and its continental shelf, the continental shelf disputes of Alpha-Mendeleev Ridge and Lomonosov Ridge among Canada, Russia and Denmark, and the division of the continental shelf in Barents Sea between Russia and Norway. As to the countries surrounding the Arctic seas and the non-Arctic states, they show different standpoints over the International Seabed Areas. In this Chapter, the author laid profound legal comments on each issue in the light of the international laws on the sea, the international treaty law and the verdicts made by the International Court of Justice. As to the ways to settle the disputes in the Arctic Seas in the coming days, the last section of the chapter listed and analyzed the legal outlets and the political ones. Especially, in term of the political ones, the possibility of the Arctic Treaty which is similar to the Antarctic Treaty is an international hot issue nowadays.
     Chapter Four: Sea Environmental Protection to the Arctic Seas. Since the late 1980s, the environmental pollution increasingly posed threats to the Arctic region. The environmental pollution mainly consisted of persistent organic contaminants, heavy metals, ozone depletion, acidification and noise, radioactivity and oil pollution from the leakage of the ships and so on. In the new century, warm climate change has turned into the greatest threat imposed to the Arctic region. The environmental legal regime in the Arctic region seems to be relatively complicated. Apart from the domestic laws in each Arctic state, the regional soft legal system and the international environmental conventions applied to the Arctic region constitute the international legal regime for the protection of the Arctic environment. The chapter hereby analyzes and comments on the present regional environmental soft legal system based on the achievements and defects by the working groups of the Arctic Council. As to the global and regional environmental conventions applied to the Arctic region, the essay touches on the main issues like the control of the sea pollution, the protection of the biological diversity and the relevant key issues like POPs, climate change, etc..
     Chapter Five: Prospect and Pondering over the Arctic Seas. As the conclusive part of the dissertation, it is deemed to be corresponding to the previous chapters and summarize and envision the international legal regime of the Arctic region in the coming days and thereby put forward the author’s own perspectives. In the new century, each country surrounding the Arctic seas has issued its newest Arctic strategy after Russia's planting of a flag at the North Pole. On May 28, 2008, the five Arctic Ocean coastal states gathered together in Ilulissat, Denmark and announced the Ilulissat Declaration. In April 2009, the Arctic council issued the Troms? Declaration, in which it indicated the key works in the next two years. By analyzing these new Arctic strategies of the Arctic states as well as the regional declarations, the future trend of the international legal regime of the Arctic region could be clued. Besides, as to the specific approaches to the future international legal regime in the Arctic seas, the chapter herein imposes preliminary pondering over the construction of shipping legal system and protection of sea resources. IMO will play a leading role in the former while the treaty like the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources might be concluded by the six countries around the Arctic Seas or by the eight Arctic states. What China enjoys in the Arctic seas and how China sticks to its principle and standpoint while facing today’s“boisterous”Arctic Seas,the author explained her own viewpoint in the last section of this chapter.

引文

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    2 See the Report of the Commission,1981,20,ILM,797。
    3《冰岛与扬马延群岛的大陆架协议》第5条、第6条。
    4 R,R.Churchill,Maritime Delimitation in the Jan Mayen Area, Marine Policy, 1985, vol. 9, issue 1, pp.16-38;Willy Ostreng,Delimitation Arrangements in Arctic Seaas,Marine Policy,1986, vol.10,pp.137-140。
    1 Giveaway of 8 American Alaskan Islands and Vast Resource-Rich Seabeds to Russians, State Department Watch,2009,http://www.statedepartmentwatch.org/index.htm,(last visited on August 19,2009)。
    2 Donat Pharand,Polar Regions and the Development of International law,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1996,p.177。
    1 Susan Rolston and Ted McDorman,Maritime Boundary Making in the Arctic Region,in Douglas Johnston and Phil Saunders eds. Ocean Boundary Making: Regional Issues and Developments (Vancouver, UBC Press,1988),pp.37-39。
    2 Donat Pharand,Polar Regions and the Development of International law,Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,1996,p.181。
    3 Denmark,http://huwu.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/STATEFILES,(last visited on August 19,2009)。
    1 Iceland,http://www.globaloceans.org/icm/profiles/iceland.html,(last visited on August 19,2009)。
    2 D.H.Anderson,The Status under International Law of the Maritime Areas around Svalbard,Paper read at the Symposium on“Politics and Law -Energy and Environment in the Far North”,held at the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters on 24 January 2007。
    1魏敏著:《海洋法》,法律出版社1987年6月第1版,第190页。
    1 S. Rosenne & A. Yankov,United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982: A Commentary, Vol.IV 392 (2002),pp.393-397。
    2鲍君忠著:《国际海事公约概论》,大连海事大学出版社2007年5月第1版,第13-15页。
    1 Polar Ship Operations,http://www.martechpolar.com,(last visited on Sep.9,2009)。
    2 History of Arctic Marine Transport,Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment, AMAS Executive Summary With Recommendations,pp.54-59。
    2鲍君忠著:《国际海事公约概论》,大连海事大学出版社2007年5月第1版,第15页。
    3 Cruise Ship Safety Forum,http://www.marinetalk.com/articles-marine-companies/art/Cruise, (last visited on Sep.7,2009)。
    1 History of Arctic Marine Transport,Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment, AMAS Executive Summary With Recommendations,p.37。
    1 History of Arctic Marine Transport,Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment, AMAS Executive Summary With Recommendations,p.44。
    2《北极水域污染预防法案》第15(4)(a)-(b)。
    3 Lee Clark,Canada's Oversight of Arctic Shipping: The Need for Reform,Tulane Maritime Law Journal,Winter, 2008,33 Tul. Mar.L.J.79,p.94。
    4 R. Huebert,Polar Vision or Tunnel Vision, 19 Marine Pol'y 343, 353 (1995),p.343。
    1 Lee Clark,Canada's Oversight of Arctic Shipping: The Need for Reform,Tulane Maritime Law Journal,Winter, 2008,33 Tul. Mar.L. J.79,pp.96-104。
    2《东北航道完成破冰之旅》,2009年10月01日,http://news1.secutimes.com/20091001/19/2477471,(访问日期:2009年10月20日)。
    1 Reprinted in T.E. Armstrong,Soviet Proposals for the Arctic: A Policy Declaration by Mr. Gorbachev,(1988) 24 Polar Record, pp.68-69。
    2那力著:《国际环境法》,科学出版社2005年5月版,第146页。
    1 C.C.Joyner,Ice-Covered Regions in International Law,1991,31 Natural Resources Journal NatResJ 213,p.226。
    2 Auburn,Antarctic Law and Politics, Published in 1982, Indiana University Press (Bloomington),p.35。
    1 Christopher C Joyner,Antarctic and the Law of the Sea, Published in 1992, M. Nijhoff,p,81。
    2 S.Boyd,The Legal Status of the Arctic Sea Ice: A Comparative Study and A Proposal,(1984) ,Can. Y.B. Int'l La,p.98。
    3 F.M.Auburn,International Law–Sea-Ice- Jurisdiction,International & Comparative Law Quarterly, Volume 22, Issue 03, July 1973,pp.776-782。
    4 S.Boyd,The Legal Status of the Arctic Sea Ice: A Comparative Study and A Proposal,(1984) 22 Can. Y.B. Int'l La,p.140。
    1 US v. Escamilla,467 F.2d 341,1972。
    2 D.Phrand,State Juridiction Over Ice Island T-3:The Escamilla Case ,Arctic, v. 24, no.2, June 1971,pp.82-89。
    4伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第121页。
    3 Christopher C.Joyner,A Comparison of Soviet Arctic and Antarctic Policies in Lawson W. Brigham, The Soviet Maritime Arctic(ed.),London,1991,pp.284-286。
    1 Ivan L. Head,Canadian Claims to Territorial Sovereignty in the Arctic Regions,1963-64,9, McGill Law Journal, p.70。
    3 Shelagh D.Grant,Sovereignty or Security? Government Policy in the Canadian North, 1936- 1950,Vancouver,University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver,B.C;1988。
    2基于加拿大自治领著名的天文学家W.F. King的报告。W.F. King,Report upon the Title of Canada to the Islands North of the Mainland of Canada,Gov't.Printing Bureau,1905,pp.9-10。
    3伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第125页。
    1 William R.Morrison,Canadian Sovereignty and the Inuit of the Central and Eastern Arctic, Etudes Inuit Studies,Vol.10,1986,pp.245-59。
    2《Brief History about How it came to be》,PonInlethttp://www.pondinlet.ca/i18n/english/history,(Last visited on Nov.4,2009)。
    3 R.S. Reid,The Canadian Claim to Sovereignty over the waters of the Arctic,Canadian Yearbook of International Law, CYIL,Vol.12,1974,pp.112-114。
    1《斯瓦尔巴德群岛》,百度百科,http://baike.baidu.com/view,(访问日期:2009年7月20日)。
    3《斯瓦尔巴德条约》,《中国海洋报》1226期。
    4詹尼斯,瓦兹修订;王铁崖等译:《奥本海国际法》,中国大百科全书出版社1998年4月第版,第70页。
    1《北极探险史》,北极博物馆,http://www.kepu.net.cn/gb/earth/arctic/creature/crt107.html,(访问日期:2009年7月21日)。
    2 John Franklin,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Franklin,(last visited onJuly 21,2009)。
    3詹尼斯,瓦兹修订;王铁崖等译著:《奥本海国际法》,中国大百科全书出版社1998年4月第版,第74页。
    1伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第121页。
    2是位于太平洋的一个无人居住的小岛。小岛取名于英国海盗约翰..克里伯顿(John Clipperton),他曾经在小岛上躲藏过。1855年法国声称所有;1897年被墨西哥占领。仲裁员将该岛的所有权判归法国。
    3伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第124页。
    1詹尼斯,瓦兹修订;王铁崖等译:《奥本海国际法》,中国大百科全书出版社1998年4月第版,第77页。
    1 UK Treaty Series No. 18 (1924), Cmd. 2092;在国际联盟登记的条约名称为《斯匹次卑尔根群岛条约》。
    2 Whiteman《Digest of International Law, Vol.4,p.287(1965)。
    3 Arthur H.Dean, The Second Geneva Conference on the Law of the Sea: The Fight for Freedom of the Seas, 54 A.J.I.L.751,p.753(1960)。
    4 1982年《海洋法公约》第42条、47条。
    1曹英志,范晓婷:《论领海基点和基线问题的发展趋势》,《太平洋学报》2009年第1期,第70页。
    2伊恩.布朗利:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第163页。
    1 Matthew C. Miller,An Australian Nunavut? A Comparison of Inuit and Aboriginal Rights Movements in Canada and Australia,1998 Emory University School of Law,Emory International Law Review,12 Emory Int'l L. Rev. 1175,pp.1183-1184。
    1伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第164页。
    2曹英志,范晓婷:《论领海基点和基线问题的发展趋势》,载《太平洋学报》2009年第1期,第72页。
    2 Willy Ostreng, National Security and International Environmental Cooperation in the Arctic-the case of the Northern Sea Route, 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers,london, pp.139-143。
    1 Willy Ostreng, Politics in High Latitude, The Svalbard Archipelago,Montreal,McGill-Queen University Press,1978,pp.26-100。
    2 D. H. Anderson,The Status under International Law of the Maritime Areas around Svalbard,paper read at the Symposium on“Politics and Law– Energy and Environment in the Far North,”held at the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters on 24 January 2007。
    1 Royal Decree of 25 September 1970: Limits in the Seas No.39。
    2 Act of 27 June 2003, in UN Document Law of the Sea Bulletin No.54(2004)。
    3 Robin Churchill,“The Soviet Union and Jurisdiction Disputes in Northern Waters”in Clive Archer(ed.) The Soviet Union and Northern Waters,London,1988,pp.53-58。
    1 A. McNair,The Law of Treaties ,Appendix A,Clarendon Press, 1961,p.765。
    2 D. H. Anderson,The Status under International Law of the Maritime Areas around Svalbard,Paper read at the Symposium on“Politics and Law– Energy and Environment in the Far North,”held at the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters on 24 January 2007;pp.8-9。
    1王虎华著:《国际公法学》,北京大学出版社2006年9月第2版,第387-388页。
    1 D. H. Anderson,The Status under International Law of the Maritime Areas around Svalbard,paper read at the Symposium on“Politics and Law– Energy and Environment in the Far North,”held at the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters on 24 January 2007。
    1 Christopher Stevenson,Hans Off!: The Struggle For Hans Island and the Potential Ramifications for International Border Dispute Resolution ,Boston College International and Comparative Law Review Winter, 2007,30 B.C. Int'l & Comp. L. Rev. 263,p.263。
    2 Agreement between the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Government of Canada relating to the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Greenland and Canada, Den.-Can.,Dec.17, 1973。
    1 Adjacent Territories Order, 1880 (U.K.), reprinted in R.S.C. 1985,App 11 No.14。
    2 Treaty on Cession of Danish West Indies, U.S.-Den.,Aug.4,1916,39 Stat.1706。
    3 Legal Status of the South-Eastern Territory of Greenland (Nor.v.Den.), 1933 P.C.I.J.(ser. A/B), No.55,(May 11)。
    4 Agreement between the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Government of Canada relating to the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Greenland and Canada, Den.-Can.,Dec. 17, 1973。
    1 Case Concerning Sovereignty over Certain Frontier Land (Belgium/Netherlands), 1959 I. C.J.209, 227 (June 20)。
    2 Agreement between the Government of the Kingdom of Denmark and the Government of Canada relating to the Delimitation of the Continental Shelf between Greenland and Canada, Den.-Can., Dec. 17, 1973。
    3 Minquiers and Ecrehos (Fr.v.U.K.),1953 I.C.J.47,pp.65-69。
    1 Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indon. v. Malay.) 2002 L.C.J. pp.625-685。
    3 Daniel Howden & Ben Holst,The New Cold War, Independent, Jan. 5, 2005, p.27.
    4 Sumner, supra note 49, pp.1806-07;also Frontier Dispute (Burk. Faso v. Mali, 1986 I.C.J. 554, 567-68。
    1 L.B.Pearson,Canada looks Down North, 1945-1946,24,Foreign Affairs, pp.638-639。
    1 Rothwell, D. R.,The Canadian-U.S. Northwest Passage Dispute: A Reassessment, Cornell International Law Journa l26,1993,pp.401-441。
    1 Ccanadian Practice in 12 C.Y.I.L.,p.297(1974)。
    2 Nathan Read,Claiming the strait: How U.S. accession to the United Nations Law of the Sea will impact the dispute between Canada and America over the Northwest Passage , ,2007 Temple International and Comparative Law Journal,Fall, 2007,21 Temp. Int'l & Comp.L.J.pp.413-442。
    1王虎华著:《国际公法学》,北京大学出版社2006年9月第2版,第204页。
    2 Gordon W. Smith, An Historical and Legal Study of Sovereignty in the Canadian North and Related Probles of Maritime Law,Debates, 6 April,1957,pp.3185。
    3 Standing Committee on External Affairs and National Defence, Minutes of Proceedings and Evidence,No.25,p.18。
    1伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第132页。
    2伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第133页。
    1王铁崖著:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年8月第1版版,第591页。
    2 VanderZwaag & Pharand, supra note 32, p. 65. Judicial notice has been taken in Canada of the fact that the Inuit have resided in the North "since time immemorial. See 5 Geurin v. The Queen, 2 S.C.R.335 (1984)。
    1 J. A. Beesley & C. B. Bourne eds,Canadian Practice in International Law during 1970 as Reflected Mainly in Public Correspondence and Statements of the Department of External Affairs, 9 Can. Y.B. Int'l L.288 (1971)。
    2 Ronald G. Purver,Aspects of Sovereignty and Security in the Arctic, in Canadian Oceans Policy: National Strategies and the New Law of the Sea”, Int'l Can. 9 (Aug. and Sept.1985,pp.165-170。
    1凌岩编著:《国际公法案例评析》,中国政法大学出版社1995年版,第70页。
    1 D.R. ROTHWELL,citing the Legal Status of Eastern Greenland Case (Norway v. Denmark), (1933) P.C.I.J. (Ser. A/B) No.53,p.22。
    2 Agreement on Arctic Cooperation, Jan. 11, 1988, U.S.-Can., reprinted in 28 I.L.M. 142 (1989)。
    1郭培清著:《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社2009年10月第1版,第220页。
    2 A.Kolodkin,M.Kolossov,the legal Regime of the Soviet Arctic:Major Issues, Marine Policy, Vol.14,1990,pp.162-167。
    1 Brubaker, Douglas,Straits in the Russian Arctic - Jurisdiction v. Environmental Protection,Marine. Pollution and International Law (1993),p.98。
    3 Northwest Passage,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_passage, (last visited on Aug.24,2009)。
    2 Northern Sea Route, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Sea_Route,(last visited on Aug.24, 2009)。
    3 Franckx, E,Non-Soviet Shipping in the Northeast-Passage and the. Legal Status of Proliv Vil'kitskogo, Polar Record 24, No.151 (1988),p.270。
    1 Donat Pharand,Innocent Passage in the Arctic, Canadian Yearbook of International Law, 1968,6 Can. Y.B. Int'l L. 3 at 5.121。
    2该法案全称为:“On the improvement of protection of nature in the regions of the Far North and sea areas adjacent to the Northern coastline of the USSR (1984)”。
    1 1949 I.C.J.Rep.,p.29。
    2郭培清著:《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社2009年10月第1版,第144页。
    3 Donat PHARAND,The Legal Regime of the Arctic: Some Outstanding Issues,(1984) 39 Int'l J.742,p.780。
    1《北极地区安全指令》第3条D(2)。
    1 J.Ashley Roach,Arctic Sovereignty: Cold Facts, Hot Issues, InternationalLaw and the Arctic,Southwestern Journal of International Law,2009 15 Sw. J. Int'l L.301,pp.293-295。
    2 Treaty Regarding the Demarcation of the Boundary Between the United States and Canada, U.S.-Can., art.3,Feb.24, 1925, 43 L.N.T.S.pp.239, 244-46。
    3 David H. Gray,Canada's Unresolved Maritime Boundaries, 48 No. 2 Geomatica 131, 135 (1994), reprinted in Vol. 5, No. 3 Boundary and Security Bull. 61, 64 (University of Durham, International Boundaries Research Unit, 1997),http://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/ibru/publications,(last visited on Jan.4, 2010)。
    1 Mark B. Feldman & David Colson,The Maritime Boundaries of the United States, 75 Am. J. Int'l L. 729, 750 (1981),pp.729-750; K. L. Lawson,Delimiting Continental Shelf Boundaries in the Arctic: The United States-Canada Beaufort Sea Boundary, 22 Va. J. Int'l L. 221, 242 (1981);pp.221-242。
    2 Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Northern Oil and Gas Annual Report 2005, at 16 (2004), http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nth/og/pubs/ann/ann2005/ann 2005-eng.pdf,(last visited on Sep.4, 2009)。Also see Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Map of Beaufort Sea Area (2007), http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nth/og/le/mp/bsmd/bsmdnom2007,(last visited on Sep.4, 2009)。
    3 Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Beaufort Sea Alaska, Oil and Gas Lease Sale 202, 72 Fed. Reg. 12817, 12817,12820。
    1 D.Russell,International Ocean Boundary Issues and Management Arrangements , Canadian Ocean Law and Policy, 1992, pp.463-505。
    2 Giveaway of 8 American Alaskan Islands and Vast Resource-Rich Seabeds to Russians,State Department Watch,2009, http://www.statedepartmentwatch.org/index.htm,(last visited on Sep.4, 2009)。
    2王虎华著:《国际公法学》,北京大学出版社2006年9月第2版,第384页。
    1《美国加拿大拟再次考察北极大陆架》,2009年07月27日,环球时报,http://city.cctv.com/html/guojichengshi,(访问日期:2009年8月25日)。
    2 Shamil Midkhatovich Yenikeyeff ,Timothy Fenton Krysiek,The Battle for the Next Energy Frontier: The Russian Polar Expedition and the Future of Arctic Hydrocarbons”, Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, August 2007。
    3 the definition of Svalbard (Spitsbergen) in the Treaty Concerning the Archipelago of Spitsbergen, Feb.9, 1920, Art.1。
    2 DAVID A.COLSON,The Delimitation of the Outer Continental Shelf Between Neighboring States, American Journal of International Law, January 2003,97 A.J.I.L. 91,pp.95-96。
    2 Mark Jarashow, Michael B. Runnels, & Tait Svenson ,UNCLOS and the Arctic:The Path of Least Resistance,Fordham University School of Law Fordham International Law Journal, May, 2007,30 Fordham Int'l L.J.1587;pp.1890-1596。
    3 Brent Carpenter, Warm is the New Cold:Global Warming, Oil, UNCLOS Article 76,and How an Arctic Treaty Might Stop a New Cold War, Environmental Law,Winter, 2009,39 Envtl.L.215,p.217。
    1 Barry Hart Dubne,On The Basis for Creation of a New Method of Defining of International, Jurisdiction in the Arctic Ocean,Missouri Environmental Law & Policy Review200513 Mo. Envtl. L. & Pol'y Rev.1,pp.10-13。
    1 North Sea,1969 ICJ REP.32,para.101。
    2王虎华著:《国际公法学》,北京大学出版社2006年9月第2版,第214页。
    1 Training Manual, supra note 5, at VII-33。
    2 Training Manual, supra note 5, at VII-30。
    3 Training Manual, supra note 5, at VII-32。
    1 CLCS, United States of America: Notification Regarding the Submission Made by the Russian Federation to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, 2-3, U.N. Doc. CLCS.01.2001.LOS/USA (Mar.18, 2002)
    2 U.S. Reaction, supra note 157; Grantz,supra note 10,p.3。
    3 Statement Made by the Deputy Minister for Natural Resources of the Russian Federation During Presentation of the Submission Made by the Russian Federation to the Commission, Made on 28 March 2002, U.N. Doc. CLCS/31 (Apr. 5, 2002)。
    4 U.S. Reaction, supra note 157; Grantz, supra note 10, pp.201-207。
    1 Moore,John Norton,etc, Legal and Scientific Aspects of Continental Shelf Limits, Martin Nijhoff,2004,p.303。
    2 Brent Carpenter,Warm is the New Cold: Global Warming, Oil, UNCLOS Article 76 and How an Arctic Treaty Might Stop a New Cold War Environmental Law,Winter, 2009, 39 Envtl.L.215,pp.234-236。
    3 Arthur Grantz, Treatment of Ridges and Borderlands Under Article 76 of the United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea: The Example of the Arctic Ocean, in Legal and Scientific Aspects of Continental Shelf Limits 201, 202 (Myron H.Nordquist et al.eds.,2004).
    1 Ron Macnab, The Outer Limit of the Continental Shelf in the Arctic Ocean, in LEGAL AND SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF CONTINENTAL SHELF LIMITS 301–11 (Myron H. Nordquist et al.eds.,2004)。
    2 Rules of Procedure of the Commission,Annex I,Article 2(b)。
    3 Rules of Procedure of the Commission,Annex I,Article5(b)。
    4 Rules of Procedure of the Commission,Annex I,Article5(a)。
    5 Russian Submission Addendum, supra note 141, para. 41; Peter F. Croker, The Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf: Progress to Date and Future Challenges, in Legal and Scientific Aspects of Continental Shelf Limits 215, 220 (Myron H. Nordquist et al.eds.,2004)。
    1 CLCS, Statement by the Chairman of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on the Progress of Work in the Commission, paras. 24-28, Doc. CLCS/58 (Apr.25, 2008); 2009年3月27日,委员会通过了“Recommendations of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in regard to the Submission made by Norway in respect of areas in the Arctic Ocean, the Barents Sea and the Norwegian Sea on 27 November 2006”。
    2王铁崖著,《国际法》,法律出版社1995年8月第1版,第274页至275页。
    1 Gilbert Guillaume, Speech to the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly of the United Nations (Oct.31,2001), http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ipresscom/iprstats.htm> ,( visited on Jan 23, 2010)。
    2 Qatar-Bahrain, 40 ILM 847 (2001)。
    3 Maritime Delimitation in the Area Between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Den. v. Nor.), 1993 ICJ REP.
    5 DAVID A. COLSON ,The Delimitation of the Outer Continental Shelf Between Neighboring States American Journal of International Law,January 2003,97 A.J.I.L. 91,pp.11-102。
    1王铁崖著:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年8月第1版,第288-290页。
    1 Ron Macnab, The Outer Limit of the Continental Shelf in the Arctic Ocean, in LEGAL AND SCIENTIFIC ASPECTS OF CONTINENTAL SHELF LIMITS 301–11 (Myron H. Nordquist et al.eds.,2004)。
    2 Moore,John Norton,etc, Legal and Scientific Aspects of Continental Shelf Limits, Martin Nijhoff,c2004,pp.302-309。
    3 Daria Boklan ,Russia: The Arctic Region Perception, Quarterly,Year VII N°2– Summer 2009,pp.71-72。
    4 I.C.J. Reports 1984,p.291。
    5 I.C.J. Reports 1984,p.290。
    1王铁崖著:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年8月第1版,第14页。
    1 Brent Carpenter,Warm is the new Cold: Global Warming,Oil, UNCLOS Article76, and how an Arctic Treaty might stop a new Cold War, Environmental Law,Winter, 2009,39 Envtl.L. 215,pp.219-220。
    1王铁崖著:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年8月第1版,第250页。
    1 Brent Carpenter,Warm is the new Cold: Global Warming,Oil, UNCLOS Article76, and how an Arctic Treaty might stop a new Cold War, Environmental Law,Winter, 2009,39 Envtl.L.215,p.252。
    2 Stephanie Holmes,Breaking the Ice: Emerging Legal Issues in Arctic Sovereignty,The University of Chicago Chicago Journal of International Law,Summer, 2008,9 Chi.J.Int'l L. 323,pp.326-370。
    1伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版,第15页。
    2王铁崖著:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年8月第1版,第590页。
    1吴慧著:《国际海洋法法庭研究》,海洋出版社2002年1月第1版,第103页。
    2余民才著:《国际法专论》,中信出版社2003年8月第1版,第193-195。
    3 For a summary of results from AMAP's Human Health Monitoring Program see Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, supra note 3,pp.171-186。
    4 Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, supra note 3, p.97。
    1 McIver, supra note 27, p.150 (quoting Dr. Fred Roots, scientist and Arctic expert for Environment Canada, quoted in Stephen Dale, New Arctic Body Grapples with External Pressures, INTER PRESS SERVICE,Sept.26,1996。
    2 Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, supra note 3,p.179。
    3《人体铅元素与硒元素超标怎么办?》,“百度知道”, http://zhidao.baidu.com/question/98699439.(访问日期:2009年11月11日)
    4 Part IVB. Even though human-created noise poses a significant threat to the Arctic marine populations, the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy recognizes "that most types of [noise] disturbance do not cause mortality." AEPS, supra note 2, 30 I.L.M. pp.1640-41。
    1 Report of Senior Arctic Officials to Arctic Council Ministers, Barrow, Alaska, Oct. 2000, 11.
    2 Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollution Issues (1998)。
    3 Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, AMAP Strategic Plan: 1998-2003, AMAP Report 99:6, available at http://www.amap.no/ol-docs/str-plan.pdf (last visited Jan. 2, 2010); AMAP Strategic Plan: 1998-2003, AMAP Report 99:6, available at http://www.amap.no/ol-docs/str-plan.pdf (last visited on Jan.2,2010)。
    4 Oran Young, Creating Regimes: Arctic Accords and International Governance,(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press),1998,39
    5 AMAP Report to the Ministers (Alta:1997)。
    1 The website for this group is at http://www.ims.uaf.edu:8000/EPPR/。
    2 The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas Guidelines, June 13, 1997, can be found on the PAME website at http://www.grida.no/pame/FRreports.htm。
    3 Strategic Plan of Action for the Arctic Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response Working Group, supra note 130。
    4 Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response, Report of the 13-15 June 2000 Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response (EPPR) Working Group Meeting 9 (2000), available at http://www.artic-council.org/reports/990908.html (last visited on Jan.2, 2010)。
    1 Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, Work Plan for the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, supra note 136.
    2 Arctic Council, The Iqaluit Declaration:The First Ministerial Meeting of the Arctic Council, Iqaluit, Canada, September 17-18,1998,art.24,http://arctic-council.org/iqaluit.asp(last visited on Jan.13,2010)。
    3 Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment, Working Group Meeting Report, June 5-8,2000, Copenhagen, Denmark 8 (2000)。
    1 Lawson W. Brigham, The Emerging International Polar Navigation Code: Bi-polar Relevance, in Protecting the Polar Marine Environment: Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention 244 (D.Vidas, ed.2000)。
    2 Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, About CAFF, at http://www.grida.no/caff/about.htm (last visited on Jan.13,2010)。
    3 CAFF Strategic Plan for the Conservation of Arctic Biological Diversity, September 1998, available on the CAFF website at http://www.grida.no/prog/polar/caff/stratplan.htm
    4 Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, The CAFF Work Plan 1999-2000, http://www.grida.no/caff/workplan.htm (last visited on Jan.13,2010)。
    1 CAFF Strategic Plan for the Conservation of Arctic Biological Diversity, September 1998, available on the CAFF website at http://www.grida.no/prog/polar/caff/stratplan.htm。
    2 GEO-2000, Global Environment Outlook,(UNEP: Nairobi), chapter 2, The Polar Regions
    3 Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), Circumpolar Protected Areas Network (CPAN)– Strategy and Action Plan, CAFF Habitat Conservation report No.6 (1996), p.20。
    4 David VanderZwaag, International Law and Arctic Marine Conservation and Protection: A Slushy, Shifting Seascape (1997), Vol.9, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 303 ed., p.316。
    5 Generally Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, Caff Habitat Conservation Report No. 8: A Summary of Legal Instruments and National Frameworks for Arctic Marine Conservation (2000), http://www.grida.no/caff/MarinePaper-final.htm (last visited on Jan.14,2010)。
    1 Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, Caff Habitat Conservation Report No. 8: A Summary of Legal Instruments and National Frameworks for Arctic Marine Conservation (2000), http://www.grida.no/caff/MarinePaper-final.htm (last visited on Jan.14,2010)。
    2 Task Force for Sustainable Development and Utilization, Report of the Task Force for Sustainable Development and Utilization and Working Papers in Progress 3-5 (1996)。
    1 For a variety of reasons, the US has worked to ensure that the Arctic Council has a limited mandate, and thus has limited significance,Samantha Smith, Ministerial with Only Three Ministers, WWF Arctic Bulletin No.4,Fall 2000,4。
    2 Ministerial with Only Three Ministers, WWF Arctic Bulletin, vol.4,p.4.(2000)。
    3 Bruce A. Russell, The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy & the New Arctic Council, online at the Arctic Circle website maintained by the University of Connecticut: http:// arcticcircle.uconn.edu/ArcticCircle/NatResources/Policy/uspolicy1.html,(last visited on Jan.14, 2010)。
    4 David VanderZwaag, International Commons– The Arctic,in The Year in Review,1998, 9YbIEL,pp.266-273。
    1 David VanderZwaag, International Law and Arctic Marine Conservation– A Slushy, Shifting Seascape,(1997),Vol.9, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review; Rothwell,p.32。
    1 The International Negotiating Committee (INC 5) on the POP Convention: Intervention by Ambassador Kari Karanko, Finland on behalf of the Arctic Council,http://www.arctic- council.org/,(last visited on Jan.15,2010)。
    2 List of Major International Instruments and Policy declarations pertaining to the Arctic Environment, presented at the Ministerial meeting,Rovaniemi,Finland,1991。
    3 Linda Nowlan,Arctic Legal Regime for Environmental Protection,IUCN Environmental Law Programme, IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper No.44。
    4 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, supra note 11, pp.1655-1664。
    1 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, supra note 11, pp.1655-1664。
    2 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, section 7。
    3 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy,section 9。
    4 Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy,section 8。
    1那力著:《国际环境法》,科学出版社2005年5月版,第146页。
    1帕特莎.波尼;埃伦.波义尔著:《国际法与环境》,高等教育出版社2007年第1版,第336页。
    2 Donald R. Rothwell, Global Environmental Protection Instruments in Davor Vidas, ed.,Protecting the Polar Marine Environment– Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2000,p.64。
    3 Olav Schram Stokke, Radioactive Waste in the Barents and Kara Seas: Russian Implementation of the Global Dumping Regime in Davor Vidas, ed. Protecting the Polar Marine Environment– Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention ,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2000。
    4 Resolution LC.51(16);1996 Protocol, Annex I。
    1帕特莎.波尼;埃伦.波义尔著:《国际法与环境》,高等教育出版社2007年第1版,第404页。
    1 Declaration on Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation, May 26, 1998, Norway-Russian Federation, I.L.M. ,(last visited on Jan.15, 2010)。
    2 Lakshman D. Guruswamy & Jason B. Aamodt,Nuclear Arms Control: The Environmental Dimension,Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy,Summer, 1999 10 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL.L.& POL'Y 267,p.302。
    1江苏海事局编著,《常用国际海事公约研究和应用》,大连海事大学出版社2006年3月第1版,第192页。
    2 Donald R. Rothwell, Global Environmental Protection Instruments in Davor Vidas,ed. Protecting the Polar Marine Environment– Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000,p.60。
    1金祖光著:《论新海洋法公约下的船舶航行权》,《当代海洋法的理论与实践》,法律出版社1987年3月第1版,第135页。
    1王铁崖著:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年5月版,第469页。
    2刘中民著:《国际海洋环境制度导论》,海洋出版社2007年5月第1版,第137页。
    1 COSEWIC Assessment and Update Status Report on the Northern Fur Seals,2006,pp.19-20。
    4孙凯:《论日本对商业捕鲸禁令的抵制》,载《浙江海洋学院学报》2008年12月,第75页。
    1孙凯:《论日本对商业捕鲸禁令的抵制》,载《浙江海洋学院学报》2008年12月,第76页。
    3 Kevin McCormick, Involving Local Authorities and Indigenous Peoples in Marine Management, Background Paper, CAFF, IUCN, PAME Circumpolar Marine Workshop,1999,p.15。
    1 Brit Floistad and Olav Schram Stokke,Common Concerns- National interests;Norway, the Soviet Union and the Barents Sea Fisheries,(1989)9(2),International Challenges,pp.23-24。
    2 Floistad and Olav Schram Stokke,Common Concerns,p.25; The Northern Enviroment,p.64;Sciener, Soviet Fisheries,pp.76-79。
    3 Schram Stokke and Alf Hakon Hoel,Fisheries Management in the Barents Region: Safeguard and Swaps,(1992),12(4), International Challenges,pp.69-71。
    1 Jeffrey L. Canfield, Recent Developments in Bering Sea Fisheries Conservation and Management,(1993),24 ODIL,pp.257-289。
    2 Convention on the Conservation and Management of Pollock Resources in the Central Bering Sea,Article I。
    3 Convention on the Conservation and Management of Pollock Resources in the Central Bering Sea,Article 11,12。
    4 Stuart Kaye,Legal Approaches to Polar Fisheries Regimes: A Comparative Analysis of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Resources and the Bering Doughnut Hole Convention,(1995),26,CalWILJ,pp. 75—112。
    1林灿玲著:《国际环境法》,人民出版社2004年4月第1版,第343页。
    2黄硕琳:《<联合国海洋法公约>生效对公海渔业的影响》,载《水产学报》1996年9月第三期,第251- 225页。
    1 Meltzer,E.,1994.Global Overview of Stradding and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks:The Non-sustainable Nature of High Seas Fisheries.InOcean Development and International Law,25:pp.255-344。
    1《生物多样性公约》,百度百科,http://baike.baidu.com/view/84702.htm,(访问日期:2009年12月19日)。
    2林灿玲著:《国际环境法》,人民出版社2004年4月第1版,第340页。
    1 Linda Nowlan,Arctic Legal Regime for Environmental Protection,IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper,No.44,p.29。
    2那力著:《国际环境法》,科学出版社2005年1月,第134页。
    1 D.L.VanderZwaag,“International Commons”(1998), 9 YB iel Law, p.272。
    2该数据截止到2009年9月。
    3 Stockholm POPs Convention, supra note 14,Annex A, Part II。
    4 Stockholm POPs Convention, supra note 14,art.8。
    5 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organi Pollutants,http://www.unep.org/Documents/Default. asp,(last visited on Dec.20,2009)。
    6 Terry Fenge,Indigenous Peoples and Global POPs,in Northern Perspectives, Fall 2000。
    1 ICC, Northern Contaminants and Global POPs Programme, http://www.inusiaat.com, and IPEN, The Arctic POPs and the Recognition of a Duty, http://www.ipen.org.(last visited on Dec.20,2009)。
    2 Earth Negotiations Bulletin,Summary of the Fifth Session of the Inter-governmental Nego- tiating Committee for an International Legally Binding Instrument for Implementing International Arctic on Certain Persistent Organic Pollutants (IISD: Winnipeg), 2000; http://www.iisd.ca/linkages/download/asc/,(last visited on Dec.20,2009)。
    3王虎华著:《国际公法学》,北京大学出版社2006年9月第2版,第303页。
    4该数据截止到2009年2月;Kyoto_Protocol ;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol。
    2王虎华著:《国际公法学》,北京大学出版社,2006年9月第2版,第304页。
    1 Kalamarkyan R.A., Migachov Yu.I. Mezhdunarodnoye pravo. Kurs lektsiy (Lectures in international law). M.: Eksmo Education, 2006, p.332
    1 Canada First Defence Strategy ,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_First_Defence_Strategy,(last visited on Dec.28,2009)
    2 Minister Cannon Outlines Canada’s Arctic Foreign Policy,March 11, 2009。
    1 JOHN R. CROOK,Comprehensive New Statement of U.S. Arctic Policy,American Journal of International Law,Vol.4,2009,pp.342-345。
    2《北极地区安全指令》第3条B(1)。
    3《北极地区安全指令》第3条B(1)。
    1 Arctic Council,Member States ,Norway, Arctic Policy,http://arcticportal.org/arctic-council(last visited on Dec.29,2009)
    2《挪威政府高北战略》第3页。
    3《挪威政府高北战略》第8页。
    1《挪威政府高北战略》第9页。
    2 JOHN R. CROOK,United States Joins in Arctic Declaration, Supports Existing Arctic Legal Regime,American Journal of International Law,October, 2008,102 A.J.I.L.872。
    1 Oran Young, Young, Oran R. The Structure of Arctic Cooperation: Solving Problems/Seizing Opportunities , paper prepared at the request of Finland in preparation for the fourth conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region, Rovaniemi, 27-29 August 2000, and the Finnish chairmanship of the Arctic Council during the period 2000-2002,p.15。
    2 Alexandre Kiss, Commentary and Conclusions”in Dinah Shelton, ed. Commitment and Compliance, 2000, 239。
    1 Discussion in Davor Vidas, The polar marine environment in regional cooperation in Davor Vidas, ed., Protecting the Polar Marine Environment,Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.89-92。
    2 Testimony of Oran Young to SCFAIT, Canada and the Circumpolar World,chap.5,p.2.。
    1 Ystein Jensen,The INO Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-Covered Waters: From Voluntary to Mandatory Tool for Navigation safety and EnviromentalProtection,FNI Report 2/2007,summary。
    2 SOLAS,Annex 7, Ch.V, Regulations 10-11, 32 U.S.T.47,1184 U.N.T.S. 278。
    1江苏海事局编著《:常用国际海事公约的研究与应用》,大连海事大学出版社2006年3月第1版,第114-116页。
    1江苏海事局编著《:常用国际海事公约的研究与应用》,大连海事大学出版社2006年3月第1版,第198-199页。
    1江苏海事局编著《:常用国际海事公约的研究与应用》,大连海事大学出版社2006年3月第1版,第198-199页。
    2包括澳大利亚的大堡礁;古巴的Sabana-Camaguey群岛;美国的Florida Keys周围海域;波罗的海区域等。
    3郭培清著:《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社2009年10月第1版,第166页。
    4鲍君忠著:《国际海事公约概论》,大连海事大学出版社2007年5月第1版,第71页。
    2 24-01 (2005)1,2,3 The application of conservation measures to scientific research;26-01 (2006) 1,2,3 General environmental protection during fishing。
    3吴琼:《<南极海洋生物资源养护公约>介评》,载《中国国际法年刊》2007年,第194-201页。
    1 Derek A. Scott, Bird Life International, Migratory Birds of the Arctic– A Review of International Conventions and Other Legal Instruments Relevant to the Conservation of Migratory Birds, CAFF, 1998.
    1杨泽伟著:《国际法析论》,中国人民大学出版社2007年7月第1版,第352-357页。
    1黄金元著:《全球化时代大国的安全》,中国社会科学出版社2007年1月第1版,第163页,第314页。
    2郭培清著:《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社2009年第10版第1版,第59页。
    1曹英志,范晓婷:《论领海基点和基线问题的发展趋势》,载《太平洋学报》2009年第1期,第73页。
    2郭渊:《对南海争端的国际海洋法分析》,载《北方法学》第3卷总14期,第133页。
    3 U.S. Reaction, supra note 157; Grantz, supra note 10, pp.201--207。
    1、黄金元著:《全球化时代大国的安全》,中国社会科学出版社2007年1月第1版。
    2、曾令良著:《欧盟法总论》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月第1版。
    3、王铁崖著:《国际法》,法律出版社1995年8月第1版。
    4、伊恩.布朗利著:《国际公法原理》,法律出版社2007年7月第1版。
    5、詹尼斯,瓦兹修订;王铁崖等译:《奥本海国际法》,中国大百科全书出版社1998年4月第版。
    6、王虎华著:《国际公法学》,北京大学出版社,2006年9月第2版。
    7、高健军著:《中国与海洋法》,海洋出版社,2004年3月第1版。
    8、余民才著:《国际法专论》,中信出版社,2003年8月第1版。
    9、帕特莎.波尼;埃伦.波义尔:《国际法与环境》,高等教育出版社,2007年7月第1版。
    10、鲍君忠著:《国际海事公约概论》,大连海事大学出版社,2007年5月第1版。
    11、邵沙平,余敏友著:《国际法问题专论》,武汉大学出版社,2002年第1版。
    12、徐显明等著:《美洲人权公约》,山东人民出版社,2006年第1版。
    13、那力著:《国际环境法》,科学出版社,2005年1月。
    14、林灿玲著:《国际环境法》,人民出版社,2004年4月第1版。
    15、吴慧著:《国际海洋法法庭研究》,海洋出版社2002年1月第1版。
    16、郭培清著:《北极航道的国际问题研究》,海洋出版社2009年10月第1版。
    1、梁淑英编著:《国际法案例教程》,知识产权出版社2003年6月第1版。
    2、凌岩编著:《国际公法案例评析》,中国政法大学出版社1995年版。
    3、江苏海事局编著:《常用国际海事公约的研究与应用》,大连海事大学出版社2006年3月第1版。
    1、郭培清、田栋:《摩尔曼斯特讲话与北极合作》,载《海洋世界》2007-2008年。
    2、畅言:《北极烽火》,载《舰载武器》2007年10月。
    3、王郦久:《北冰洋主权之争的趋势》,载《现代国际关系》2007年第10期。
    4、何俊芳:《2002年俄罗斯联邦的民族状况》,载《世界民族》2007年第1期。
    5、杨远斌:《传统知识与知识产权保护》,载《贵州师范大学学报》(社会科学版),2006年第3期。
    6、朱雪忠:《传统知识的法律保护初探》,载《华中师范大学学报》第43卷第3期。
    7、林灿玲:《论国际法不加禁止行为所产生的损害性后果的国家责任》,载《比较法研究》,2000年第3期。
    8、史卉:《论小布什执政时期美国的环境外交》,载《前沿》,2007年第10期。
    9、孙凯:《论日本对商业捕鲸禁令的抵制》,载《浙江海洋学院学报》,2008年12月。
    10、黄硕琳:《<联合国海洋法公约>生效对公海渔业的影响》,载《水产学报》,1996年9月第三期。
    11、吴琼:《<南极海洋生物资源养护公约>介评》,载《中国国际法年刊》2007年。
    12、曹英志,范晓婷:《论领海基点和基线问题的发展趋势》,载《太平洋学报》2009年第1期。
    金祖光:《论新海洋法公约下的船舶航行权》,载《当代海洋法的理论与实践》,法律出版社1987年3月第1版。
    《斯瓦尔巴德条约》,载《中国海洋报》1226期。
    1、“极地科普馆”:《极地入门》,http://www.jdkpnet.com.cn/jidirumen/l,(访问日期:2009年10月14日)。
    2、人民网国际频道:《地球尽头的狂热角逐:插旗激起千层浪》,2007年8月6日,http://world.people.com.cn/GB/89881/97034/6073364.html,(访问日期:2009年5月27日)。
    3、法制晚报:《北极“冷战”》,http://www.fawan.com/article/showartic,(访问日期:2009年7月1日)。
    4、北极博物馆:《北极探险史》,http://www.kepu.net.cn/gb/earth/arctic,(访问日期:2009年7月1日)。
    5、互动百科:《冰岛》,http://www.hudong.com/wiki,(访问日期:2009年7月19日)。
    6、新华网:《瑞典概括》,http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2002-06/13 htm,(访问日期:2009年7月19日).
    7、新华网:《芬兰概况》,http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2002-06/13,(访问日期2009年7月19日)。
    8、百度百科:《斯瓦尔巴德群岛》,http://baike.baidu.com/view,(访问日期:2009年7月20日)。
    9、新华网:《北极地区》,http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2006-07/13;(访问日期:2009年8月1日)。
    10、北极的自然地理《:遥望北极世界http://202.194.133.29/song/diqius,(访问日期:2009年8月1日)。
    11、百度百科:《北极》,http://baike.baidu.com/view/2720.htm,(访问日期:2009年8月1日)。
    12、新华网:《北极冰帽加速消融,北冰洋1天缩小上万平方公里》,2009-8-17,http://www.northnews.cn/news,(访问日期:2009年8月19日)。
    13、新华网:法新社《北冰洋本世纪末将无冰?》,2009年3月22日,http://news.xinhuanet.com/world,(访问日期:2009年8月9日)。
    14、新华网:《冷眼看北极——环北冰洋各国拉开资源争夺序幕》,2007年
    08月27日,http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2007-08/27/content_6610362,(访问日期:2009年8月1日)。
    15、杨希哲:《俄罗斯在北极点海底插下国旗》,http://www.ckjorc.org/cn/,(访问日期:2009年8月3日)。
    16、搜狐新闻:《世界地图最后大修,各国争外大陆架从暗斗到明争》,2009年5月25日,http://news.sohu.com/20090525/n264145475.shtml,(访问日期2009年8月17日)。
    17、新闻晨报:《北极有史以来首次变孤岛北极熊面临溺死危险》,2008年9月2日,http://news.eastday.com/w/20080902/,(访问日期:2009年8月21日)。
    18、新华网:《东北航道完成破冰之旅》,http://news1.secutimes.com/,(访问日期:2009年10月20日)。
    19、经济参考报:《北极之争潜藏经济利益,各国博弈"冰融相见”》,2009年4月10,http://www.7265.cn/2009/0411/2755.html,(访问日期:2009年8月20日)。
    20、新华网:《北极冰盖下的暗战》,2008-8-14,http://www.qlwb.com.cn,(访问日期:2008年12月6日)。
    21、新华网:《加拿大紧抓极地航道》2008-8-2,http://www.chinareports,(访问日期:22008年12月6日)。
    22、瞭望网:《西北航道或成美俄争夺》,2008-11-18,http://Liaowang.org,(访问日期:2008年12月6日)。
    23、环球时报:《美国加拿大拟再次考察北极大陆架》,2009年07月27日,,http://city.cctv.com/html/guojichengshi,(访问日期:2009年8月25日)。
    24、环球杂志:《延伸大陆架的最后期限临近多国展开“蓝色圈地”》,2008年09 http://www.chinanews.com.cn/gj/kong/news/2008/09-04/1371046.sht,(访问日期:2009年8月27日)。
    25、极地科普馆:《两极异同》,http://www.jdkpnet.com.cn/jidirumen/lia,(访问日期:2009年8月29日)。
    26、极地科普馆:《极地探险》,http://www.jdkpnet.com.cn/jidirumen/lia,(访问日期:2009年8月29日)。
    27、百度百科:《冰川》,http://baike.baidu.com/view/1962.htm,(访问日期:2009年9月4日)。
    28、百度百科:《冰盖》,http://baike.baidu.com/view/558760.htm,(访问日期:2009年9月4日)。
    29、人民网:《南极知多少:冰架是什么?》,2005年11月29日,http://scitech.people.com.cn/GB/25509/43011/43213/3899886,(访问日期:2009年9月4日)。
    30、互动百科:《冰山》,http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E5%86%B0%E5%B1%B1,(访问日期:2009年9月4日)
    31、百度百科:《海冰》,http://baike.baidu.com/view/15634.htm,(访问日期:2009年9月4日)。
    32、百度百科:《地球最北端的人》http://mkd.lyge.cn/zhanzheng/,(访问日期:2009年3月10日)。
    33、中国科普博览:《谁是北极真正的主人?》,http://amuseum.cdstm.cn/,(访问日期:2009年3月14日)。
    34、百度搜索:《什么是土著人?》,http://zhidao.baidu.com/question,(访问日期:2009年3月14日)。
    35、维基网:《因纽特人》,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit,(访问日期:2009年3月18日)。
    36、维基百科:《挪威历史》,http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/,(访问日期:2009年4月17日)。
    37、温克.布伦那:《挪威的萨米族人》, ltour/conZhu.php?Article,(访问日期:2009年4月17日)。
    38、维基网:《俄罗斯历史》,http://www.globeedu.com/country/ru/topic,(访问日期:2009年7月15日)。
    39、汉语词典解释:《生物放大》,,http://hanyu.iciba.com/wiki/127271,(访问日期:2009年9月11日)。
    40、百度知道:《人体铅元素与硒元素超标怎么办?》,http://zhidao.baidu.(访问日期:2009年9月12日)。
    41、人民网:《保护臭氧层》,2004,http://www.people.com.cn/GB/paper,(访问日期:2009年9月11日)。
    42、黄作平:《美军监测船高强度声呐危害海洋生物》,http://www.farmer,com.(访问日期:2009年9月17日)。
    43、百度知道:《史上最严重的核泄露事故》,2009年11月,http://www.congeo.,(访问日期: 2009年9月19日)。
    44、新浪军事:《全球核潜艇沉没事故知多少》,2000年08月15日,http://www.sina.com.cn, (访问日期:2009年9月19日)。
    45、海军论坛:《核潜艇事故档案》,http://bbs.tiexue.net/post_3691803,(访问日期:2009年9月19日)。
    46、译言翻译:《埃克森.瓦尔迪兹号溢油事故20年记》,http://www.yeeyan.(访问日期:2009年9月19日)。
    47.南方网:《气候变化影响生存环北极熊在本世纪末灭绝》,2004年11月4日,http://www.southcn.com/tech/news/200411040108.htm,(访问日期:2009年9月20日)。
    48、中国气象报社:《世界自然基金会:北极变暖会造成全球性危害》,2009年9月,http://www.cma.gov.cn/qhbh/zxdt/200909/t20090904_43827.html,(访问日期:2009年9月20日)。
    49、网易新闻:《奥巴马在联合国气候变化峰会上的讲话全文》, http://discove163.com, (访问日期:2009年10月14日)。
    50、百度百科:《北极熊》,http://baike.baidu.com/view/5092.htm,(访问日期:2009年10月18日)。
    51、百度百科:《环境污染导致北极熊雌雄同体》,http://baike.baidu.com,(访问日期:2009年10月18日)。
    52、动物世界:《北极鸟类》,http://www.wangchao.net.cn/bbsdetail,(访问日期:2009年10月19日)。
    53、南极考察:《鲸的全身都是宝》http://www.cbe21.com/subject/,(访问日期:2009年10月21日)。
    54、互动百科:《夏洛特皇后岛驯》, http://www.hudong.com/wiki,(访问日期:2009年10月23日)。
    55、百度百科:《生物多样性公约》,http://baike.baidu.com/view/,(访问日期:2009年10月25日)。
    56、中国新闻网:《加拿大拨1800万美元助俄罗斯销毁退役核潜艇》,2005-03-18,http://www.southcn.com/news/international,(访问日期:2009年10月25日)。
    57、环球时报:《俄罗斯挪威讨论北极领土分割问题》,http://www.xilu.com,(访问日期:2009年11月12日)。
    58、新华网:《美国与加拿大联手对抗俄罗斯北冰洋主权主张》,英国媒体,2008-8-18,http://www.mas.ah163.net/web/news/internationalnews,(访问日期:2009年11月12日)。
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    81、Randall S. Abate, Climate Change Liability and the Allocation of Risk: A Case Study in the need Enforceable International Environmental Human Right ,Stanford Journal of International Law,43 Stan. J Int'l L 2007.
    82、Natalia S.Mirovitskaya, Margaret Clark and Ronald G. Purver, North Pacific Fur Seals: Regime Formation as a Means of Resolving Conflict, Polar Politics ,Ithaca, NY,22, 1993.
    83、David D. Caron, The International Whaling Commission and the North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission: The Institutional Risks of Coercion in Consensual Structures ,89 Am.J. Int’l L. 154, reprinted in Hunter et al. International Environmental Law and Policy (New York: FoundationPress) 1998.
    84、Schram Stokke and Alf Hakon Hoel, Fisheries Management in the Barents Region: Safeguard and Swaps, 12(4), International Challenges 69, 1992.
    85、Stuart Kaye,Legal Approaches to Polar Fisheries Regimes: A Comparative Analysis of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Resources and the Bering Doughnut Hole Convention, 26,CalWILJ, 1995.
    86、Meltzer,E.,1994 Global Overview of Stradding and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks: The Non-sustainable Nature of High Seas Fisheries, Ocean Development and International Law, 25.
    87、Stuart Kaye, Legal Approaches to Polar Fisheries Regimes: A Comparative Analysis of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Resources and the Bering Doughnut Hole Convention, 26,CalWILJ ,1995.
    88、Linda Nowlan, Arctic Legal Regime for Environmental Protection,IUCN Environmental Policy and Law Paper No.44.
    89、Lakshman D.Guruswamy & Jason B. Aamodt, Nuclear Arms Control: The Environmental Dimension,Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy,10 COLO. J. INT'L ENVTL. L.& POL'Y 267,Summer, 1999.
    90、Young, Oran R, The Structure of Arctic Cooperation: Solving Problems/Seizing Opportuni-Ties,A paper prepared at the request of Finland in preparation for the fourth conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region, Rovaniemi, and the Finnishchairmanship of the Arctic Council during the period 2000-2002,27-29 August 2000.
    91、Kalamarkyan R.A., Migachov Yu.I,Mezhdunarodnoye pravo. Kurs lektsiy (Lectures in international law).M,Eksmo Education, 2006.
    92、JOHN R. CROOK, Comprehensive New Statement of U.S. Arctic Policy,American Journal of International Law,Vol.4,2009.
    93、EDITED BY JOHN R. CROOK, United States Joins in Arctic Declaration, Supports Existing Arctic Legal Regime,American Journal of International Law, 102 A.J.I.L. October, 2008.
    94、Robin Churchill,The Soviet Union and Jurisdiction Disputes in Northern Waters, in The Soviet Union and Northern Waters,London,1988.
    95、W.E.Butler,The Legal Regime of the Soviet Arctic Marine Areas, in The Soviet Maritime Arctic(ed.),
    96、Galina Haruchi, The Indigenous Intelligentsia, in Towards a New Millennium: The Years of the Indigenous Movement in Russia,Thomas Kohler & Kathrin Wessendorf eds.,2002.
    97、Donald R. Rothwell, Global Environmental Protection Instruments, in Davor Vidas, ed., Protecting the Polar Marine Environment-Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
    98、Olav Schram Stokke, Radioactive Waste in the Barents and Kara Seas: Russian Implementation of the Global Dumping Regime ,in Davor Vidas, ed. Protecting the Polar Marine Environment -Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention ,Cambridge University Press, 2000.
    99、Russell ,International Ocean Boundary Issues and Management Arrangements”, in D. VanderZwaag (ed.),Canadian Ocean Law and Policy ,Toronto:Butterworths,1992.
    100、Roger Kvist, Swedish Sami Policy 1548-1992, in The Changing Circumpolar North: Opportunities for Academic Development,ed. Laasi Heininen (Rovaniemi: Arctic Centre Publications 6, 1994.
    101、Pekka Aikio, Cultural Sovereignty in Northern Aboriginal Nations: The Predicament of the Sami,in Social Sciences in the North,eds. Louis-Jacques Dorais and Ludger Mler-Wille (Ste-Foy, Canada: International Arctic Social Sciences Association).
    102、Sergey Haruchi, Who am I in this Land? What People am 1 a Part of?, in Towards a New Millennium: The Years of the Indigenous Movementin Russia , 76 Thomas Kohler & Kathrin Wessendorf eds., 2002.
    103、Lawson W. Brigham, The Emerging International Polar Navigation Code: Bi-polar Relevance?, in Protecting the Polar Marine Environment,Law and Policy for Pollution Prevention 244,D.Vidas,ed. 2000.
    104、Steve Charnovitz, Encouraging Environmental Cooperation Through the Pelly Amendmen,The Journal of Environment & Development,1994,3(1).
    105、Trond Bjorndal and John Conrad, On the resumption of the Norwegian minke whale hunt in Whaling in the North Atlantic- Economic and Political Perspectives, ed. Petursdottir, (Rekjavik: University of Iceland), 1997.
    1、International Polar Year, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/, Feb.23,2009.
    2、Arctic Council,Member States,Arctic Policy, http://arcticportal.org/ l,Mar.4,2009.
    3、The Northern Forum,http://www.northernforum.org/,Mar.4,2009.
    4、Eben HopsonMemorialArchives,http://www.ebenhopson.com/, Mar.14,2009.
    5、TheInuitCircumpolarConference,Randberg.com, http://www.randburg.com/gr/inuitcir.html.,Mar.24,2009.
    6、ICC,http://www.inuit.org/index,Mar.27,2009.
    7、SaamiCouncil,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SaamiCouncil, Mar.28,2009.
    8、RAIPON,http://www.raipon.org/RAIPON/tabid/302/Default.aspx.,Mar. 27,2009.
    9、AIA,http://www.aleut-international.org/,Mar.27,2009.
    10、AAC,http://www.arcticathabaskancouncil.com/,Mar.27,2009.
    11、GCI,http://www.gwichin.org/,Mar.29,2009.
    12、European Union,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union, Apr.2,2009).
    13、Greenland and European Union,http://en.wikipedia.org/,Apr. 4,2009.
    14、Anne Eckstein,EU/ARCTIC ,EU to Deepen Sustainable Exploitation of the Arctic, Wednesday National Edition, http://www.europolitics, July 1, 2009.
    15、Canada against EU entry to Arctic Council because of seal trade ban,April 29, 2009,CBCNEws,http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/Apr.4,2009.
    16、The Barents Euro-Arctic Region,http://www.barentsinfo.org/, May 4,2009.
    17、ArcticSovereignty,http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index, May 4,2009.
    18、OttoSverdrup,ArcticExplorer,ExploreNorth,http://explorenorth. com/explorers/sverdrup.html.,May 7,2009.
    19、Brief History about How it came to be,Pond Inlet, http://www.pondinlet, May 7,2009.
    20、Russian Alaska, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska#History,May 9,2009.
    21、Alaska Purchase,http://virtualology.com/hallofthehistoricarchives, May 9,2009.
    22、Hans Egede,http://www.danstopicals.com/egede.htm.,May 14,2009.
    23、Doctrineof Discovery,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery, May 15,2009.
    24、John Franklin,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Franklin,May 24,2009.
    25、Giveaway of 8 American Alaskan Islands and Vast Resource-Rich Seabeds to Russians, StateDepartmentWatch,http://www.statedepartmentwatch,May 27,2009.
    26、Denmark,http://huwu.org/Depts/los/LEGISLATIONANDTREATIES/STATEFILES.,June 7,2009.
    27、Iceland,http://www.globaloceans.org/icm/profiles/iceland.html., June 7,2009.
    28、Northwest Passage,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Passage. Aug.1,2009.
    29、Northern Sea Route,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Sea_ Route,Aug.5,2009.
    30、Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, Canada's Program, fig. 5,http://www.international.gc.ca/continental/program-canada-programme, Aug.7,2009.
    31、Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Northern Oil and Gas Annual Report 2005, http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nth/og/pubs/ann/ann2005/an.pdf.Also see Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Map of Beaufort Sea Area (2007), http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/nth/og/le/mp/bsm.,Aug.7,2007.
    32、Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Beaufort Sea Alaska, Oil and Gas Lease Sale 202, 72 Fed. Reg. 12817, 12817, 12820 ,Mar.19, 2007.
    33、Russia claims the North Pole and 10billion tons of Oil and natural Gas Deposits, Business Card,http://www.thoughtmechanics.com. July 16,2007.
    34、Brian Laghi,Graham Visit to Arctic Island Causes Icy Spat with Denmark, THE GLOBE AND MAIL,at A1; Canada, Denmark Dispute Ownership of Tiny Arctic Island, CBC NEWS ONLINE, http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national,July 25,2005.
    35、Anne McIlroy, Hans Off My Island, GUARDIAN UNLIMITED, http://guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/,Aug.30, 2005.
    36、ContinentalshelfofRussia,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_shelfof_Russia.Aug.6,2008.
    37、British Antarcti Territory,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/., Aug.16,2009.
    38、Geologist to Prospect on Disputed Hans Island in Arctic, CBC NEWS,http://www.cbc.ca/canada/north/story/2006/08/16/hans-island-prospect.html,Aug.16,2006.
    39、Polar Ship Operations, http://www.martechpolar.com/Polar%.
    40、Thule people,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thule_people,Sep. 2,2009.
    41、Canada in the Aboriginal Making Treaties and Relation, http//www.canadian.org/citm/themes/aboriginals,Sep.3,2009.
    42、Indian Act of Canada,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian,June 2,2009.
    43、TheWilliamsTreaties,http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/al/hts/tgu/trwileng.asp.,June 2,2009.
    44、Douglas K Mertz,A Primer on Alaska Native Sovereignty,Law Offices of Douglas Kemp Mertz, 1991,http://www.alaska.net/~dkmertz/natlaw.htm., June 12,2009.
    45、Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act,October 29,2007,http://www.npca.org/media_center/fact_sheets/anilca.,Oct.29,2007.
    46、SubsistenceManagementInformation,http://www.subsistmgtinfo.org/basics.htm,Subsistence Management Information.Jan.30,2007.
    47、Greenland,http://www.iwgia.org/sw15466.asp.,June 12,2009.
    48、Greenlandic Home Rule,IWGIA, http://www.iwgia.org/sw15469.asp. June 12,2009.
    49、SARAH LYALL,Greenland to Vote on More Independence From Denmark, The New York Times on the Web,http://www.nytimes.com,Nov.25,2008.
    50、The Sami People in Sweden,Factsheet Published by the Swedish Institute,February 1999,http://www.samenland.nl/lap_sami_si.html Feb. 1999.
    51、The Sami in a Shrinking World,Cultural Survival, http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications,June 12,2009
    52、P.Zaidfudim et al,Who Are They, Indigenous Russian Northerners?,ENERGIYA (1999),http://courier.com.ru/energy/people.htm. June 13,1999.
    53、ICC,Northern Contaminants and Global POPs Programme,http:// www.inusiaat.com, and IPEN;The Arctic POPs and the Recognition of a Duty, http://www.ipen.org., June 19,2009.
    54、Council of Europe http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/, Aug.19,2009.
    55、Council of Europe, Report Submitted by Denmark, ACFC/SR(1999)009, http://www.coe.int/t/e/human%5Frights/minorities/,May 6,1999.
    56、European Union,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union, Aug.19,2009.
    57、Organization of American States,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/, Sep.19,2009.
    58、Inter-American Indian Institute,http://www.oas.org/EN/PINFO/HR/, Sep.19,2009.
    59、Current Situation of the Draft Declaration,Information Review Board, http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/IKS/iachr.html.,Sep.11,2009.
    60、Rapporteurship on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, http://www.cidh, Sep.11,2009.
    61、Kyoto_Protocol;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol, Sep.13,2009.
    62、See Press Release, United Nations Envtl. Programme Key Polar Ctr., Many Strong Voices Join Forces on Climate Change, http://polar.grida.no/news.cfm. Sep.20,2009.
    63、Press Release, United Nations Envtl. Programme Key Polar Ctr., Many Strong Voices Join Forces on Climate Change, http://polar.grida.no/news. Sep.19,2009.
    64、Sierra Club,Toxics: Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic PollutantsSigned,SierraClubEnvironmentalUpdate(2001),athttp://www.sierraclub.org/toxics/resources/treaty.asp.Dec.12,2001.
    65、Environmental Defense, Large-Scale Pollution Revealed Throughoutthe Arctic,Defensenewsletter,Vol.XXIV,No.5.(1993), http://www.edf.org/pubs/Newsletter/1993/sep/clargepoll.,June 13,1993.
    66、Friends of the Earth, Fact Sheet, Re-ignite the Effort: Halon Recovery to Protect the Earth's Ozone Layer (1999), http://www.foe.org/ptp., June 17,1999.
    66、AEA, Waste Disposal in the Arctic Seas http://www.iaea,Aug.2009.
    67、Spill Anniversary Energizes Opposition to Arctic Drilling, http://ens.lycos.com/ens/mar2001/2001L-03-23-06.html.,Mar.15,2007.
    68、United Nations Environment Programme,Rio Declaration on Environment and Development,United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (1992) http://www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asap.,June 13,1992.
    69、The Arctic Environment: Second Ministerial Conference, The Nuuk Declaration on Environment and Development in the Arctic, Nuuk, Greenland, ,http://www.arctic-council.org/nuuk    70、Arctic Council, Report of the Senior Arctic Officials to the Arctic Council, Iqaluit, Canada, September 17-18,1998, Part I(C), http://arctic-council.org/pmeetings/98rep.asp.,Sep.17-18, 1998.
    71、Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program, AMAP Strategic Plan:1998-2003, AMAP Report, http://www.amap.no/ol-docs/str-plan, Sep.15,2003.
    72、The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy, Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas Guidelines”,http://www.grida.no/pame/FRreports.June 13, 1997.
    73、Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response, Report of the 13-15 June 2000, Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response (EPPR) WorkingGroupMeeting,http://www.artic-council.org/reports,June 13-15,2000.
    74、CAFF Strategic Plan for the Conservation of Arctic Biological
    Diversity,CAFFhttp://www.grida.no/prog/polar/caff/stratplan.htm.,Sep 1998.
    75、Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, Caff Habitat Conservation Report No. 8: A Summary of Legal Instruments and National Frameworks for Arctic Marine Conservation,http://www.grida.no/caff/Marine-Paper. Sep.18,2000.
    76、Bruce A. Russell,The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy & the New Arctic Council,online at the Arctic Circle website maintained by the University of Connecticut: http:// arcticcircle.uconn.edu/Arctic Circle. Jan.l,2009.
    77、The International Negotiating Committee (INC 5) on the POP Convention: Intervention by Ambassador Kari Karanko, Finland on behalf of the Arctic Council,http://www.arctic-council.org/.,Feb.4,2001.
    78、ICC, Northern Contaminants and Global POPs Programme,http://www.inusiaat.com, and IPEN, The Arctic POPs and the Recognition of a Duty, http://www.ipen.org. Feb.4,2001.
    79、Earth Negotiations Bulletin,Summary of the Fifth Session of the Inter-governmental Nego-tiating Committee for an International Legally Binding Instrument for ImplementingInternational Arctic on Certain Persistent Organic Pollutants,http://www.iisd.ca/linkages/down,2000.
    80、Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, http://www.iisd.ca/linkages/download/asc/enb1912e.txt.http://www.unep.org/ozone.Sep.24,2009.
    81、Extracted from an analysis of MOP-12 in the Earth Negotiations Bulletin,http://www.iisd.ca/ linkages/download/asc/enb1912e.txt. Sep.24,2009.
    82、Statistics Norway,Strong increase in greenhouse gas emissions,Ssb.no. http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects,Apr.10,2001.
    83、Environment Canada News Release, Economic Analysis ShowsImplementing Bill C-288 Would Plunge Canada Into a Recession, http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp. Apr.19,2007.
    84、The Made-in-Canada climate Change Mystery by Romeo St. Martin, Politics Watch, http://www.politicswatch.com/climate,July 24, 2006.
    85、Natura 2000,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natura_2000.
    86、Environmental Treaties and Resource Indicators (ENTRI) ,http://sedac.ciesin.org/entri/texts/protection.of.birds.1950.html。
    87、All the World Heritage sites are listed on the website at http://www.unesco.org/whc.,July1,2004.
    88、Russian Energy Strategy to 2020,http://www.iea.org/papers, May 6 ,2003.
    89、Canada’s Northern Strategy,http://www.northernstrategy.ca/, August 18,2009.
    90、Canada First Defense Strategy,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki,May 12,2008.
    91、Sigtuna,Sweden, New Arctic Policies,http://www.bjorn.is/greinar, May 4,2009.
    92、the Troms? Declaration,On the occasion of the Sixth Ministerial Meeting of The Arctic Council, Troms?, Norway, http://arctic-council.org. April 29, 2009.
    93、Ilulissat Declaration, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilulissat Declaration, Aug.8,2008.
    94、Why the Canadian Minister is bothered by the flag at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean?,http://wap.1tv.ru/news?p_topic_id=106838. Mar.8,2007.