婴儿生气情绪及其对行为发展的作用
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摘要
生气是人类普遍存在的基本情绪(Darwin,1872),4个月的婴儿是否已经具有稳定的生气,目前还存在争议(i.e.,Camras,Oster,&Bakeman,2007;i.e.,Stenberg&Campos,1990)。生气往往被认为是一种消极情绪(Rothbart,1989),许多研究发现生气儿童容易被同伴拒绝(Hubbard,2001;何洁,徐琴美,&王珏瑜,2007)。但是根据趋近-回避理论(Fox,1991;Gray,1987),生气和快乐一样,是反映趋近倾向的基本情绪。生气激发个体排除障碍,导向目标(Campos,Campos,&Barrett,1989;Darwin,1872)。前人研究发现儿童在挫折情景中的生气反应与面对新颖刺激时的趋近行为呈正相关(Derryberry & Rothbart,1997;Fox,1989;Kochanska,Coy,Tjebkes,&Husarek,1998)。但是反映趋近倾向的生气,也可能不利于努力控制的发展,导致问题行为的产生。有研究表明,在年长儿童身上生气和努力控制呈负相关(Derryberry & Rothbart,1997;Kochanska,2003),和问题行为呈正相关(Eisenberg et al.,2007;Smeekens,Riksen-Walraven,&van Bakel,2007),那么,婴儿早期生气是否对幼儿期努力控制和问题行为的发展产生影响以及怎样影响?生气婴儿是否在挫折情景中具有较多趋近行为?目前这样的研究很少。
根据前额脑电非对称性(frontal EEG asymmetry)的趋近-回避模型(Davidson,Ekman,&Saron,1990;Fox,1991),在成人和青少年上,生气主要和反映趋近倾向的左侧前额脑电较强活动性相关(coan & Allen,2003;Harmon-Jones,2004)。但是还没有研究发现婴儿生气和前额脑电非对称性的联系,也没有研究考察生气、前额脑电非对称性和行为发展之间的关系。从气质的趋近-回避理论看,具有积极反应气质类型的婴儿面对新颖刺激表现出较多趋近倾向的特点,而消极反应气质类型的婴儿则表现出较多回避倾向的特点(Fox,Henderson,Rubin,Calkins,&Schmidt,2001;Hane,Fox,Henderson,&Marshall,2008)。这种气质类型可能也会影响婴儿生气情绪的发展,以及生气和后期行为的关系。
本研究基于一项从4个月开始至4岁的追踪研究,探讨婴儿生气情绪的发展,同时结合前额脑电非对称性和气质,考察生气与同期的趋近行为、与幼儿阶段的问题行为、努力控制等其他行为的关系。通过气质类型筛选(面对新颖刺激的情绪和活动性反应),291名婴儿(103名积极反应组,105名消极反应组,83名控制组)参与了追踪研究。婴儿的生气情绪在4个月和9个月的手臂受束缚情景中测得,采用Ekman(2002)的面部活动编码系统(FacialAction Coding System,FACS)对生气情绪进行编码。婴儿的趋近行为在手臂受束缚和陌生玩具情景中测得,同时考察9个月婴儿在静息状态下的前额脑电非对称性。4岁儿童在做-不做任务(GNG)中的抑制控制。母亲通过CCTI(Buss&Plomin,1984)和CBQ(Rothbart,et al.,2001)报告3岁和4岁儿童愉快、害羞、社会性、活动性和努力控制等行为。通过CBCL(Achenbach & Rescorla,2002)报告2岁和4岁儿童的问题行为。
不管是对于成人还是儿童,生气情绪(表情)具有跨文化普遍性(Ekman et al.,2002;孟昭兰,阎军,&孟宪东,1985)。但是,Camras等人研究发现1岁左右的中国婴儿比美国婴儿更少表露生气(Camras et al.,2007),这种差异是否在更小的婴儿中出现?为了考察该问题,本研究又采集4个月的中国婴儿(32名)和美国婴儿(21名),比较他们在手臂受束缚情景和母亲报告中的生气情绪差异。同时进一步验证中国样本和研究一二关注的美国样本在生气和趋近行为的关系上是否具有跨文化一致性。
结果表明:1)对于具有积极气质类型的婴儿,生气频率从4个月到9个月呈显著增长;2)在4个月和9个月的手臂受束缚中,高生气频率的婴儿比低生气频率的婴儿表现出更多和更强的趋近行为(挣扎行为),这种现象主要反映在低或中等强度生气的婴儿上;3)9个月的前额脑电非对称性对4个月生气频率和9个月趋近行为或4岁抑制控制的关系起到调节作用,具体表现在左侧前额脑电活动性较强组,高生气的婴儿比低生气的婴儿具有较多的趋近行为和较弱的抑制控制;4)4个月的气质和9个月的生气频率在2岁时的内向性问题行为和4岁时的努力控制(主要是注意集中)上存在交互作用,在积极反应气质类型组,高生气的婴儿比低生气的婴儿具有更少的内向性问题行为和更高的注意集中性;5)生气频率从4个月到9个月具有一定的稳定性,4个月和9个月始终表露出高生气的婴儿,其母亲报告的3岁、4岁时的愉快程度、社会性、活动性比低生气的婴儿高,害羞程度比低生气的婴儿低;6)在手臂受束缚情景和母亲报告中,中国婴儿比美国婴儿较少表露生气;7)在中国婴儿中,高强度生气与高强度的趋近(挣扎)行为相关;在美国婴儿中,高强度的生气却与低强度的趋近行为相关。
结论:4个月的婴儿在挫折情景中已经表现出生气情绪,且这种生气从4个月到9个月显著增长。婴儿早期的生气反映了一种趋近倾向,它对同期的趋近行为,后期的努力控制和问题行为等产生影响,而且这些影响也受到婴儿的气质和前额脑电非对称性等个体因素的调节。同时,即使在4个月早期,中国婴儿已经比美国婴儿较少表露生气。
Anger is considered as one of the basic emotions in human besing. It is uncertainty whether anger emerge in four-month infants (i.e., Camras et al., 2007; i.e., Stenberg & Campos, 1990). From the valence of emotion, anger is a negative emotion (Rothbart, 1989). However, according to the theory of approach and withdrawal motivation (Fox, 1991; Gray, 1987), anger, like happiness, is considered as an basic emotion related with approach systems. Anger activiates individuals to remove barriers and orient toward goals (Campos et al., 1989; Darwin, 1872). Previous studies showed that angry children in frustration showed a lot of approach behaviors in response to novel sitimuli (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997; Fox, 1989; Kochanska et al., 1998). However, few studies addressed the issues whether angry infants exhibit approach behaviors in frustrating situations. Anger reflecting approach tendency may be detrimental for the development of effortful control and behavior problems. Some studies reported that anger was negatively related with effortful control (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997; Kochanska, 2003) and positively related with behavior problems (Eisenberg et al., 2007; Smeekens et al., 2007) in school-aged children and adolescents. However, few studies examined the relations between infants' anger and effortful control and problem behaviors in childhood.
At physiological level, according to approach-withdrawal model of frontal Electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry, anger is related to left frontal EEG asymmetry with approach tendency (Fox, 1991; Harmon-Jones, 2004). However, it remains unknown if this association is also evident in high anger-prone infants, or whether anger, associated with frontal EEG asymmetry is linked to approach behaviors, effortful control or behavioral problems. As noted in approach and withdrawal models of temperament, infants responding with negative reactivity to novel stimuli manifested withdrawal and behavioral inhibition, and infants with positive reactivity pattern showed approach, sociability and exuberance in later childhood (Fox et al., 2001; Hane et al., 2008). This temperament might influence anger development and the prediction from early anger to later behaviors.
In the context of a longitudinal study of temperament, this study examined the development of anger and its influences of temperament. In addition, it sought to examine the contribution of anger, combined with frontal EEG asymmetry or temperament, to approach behaviors, effortful control and behavior problems in early childhood. Two hundred and ninety-one four-month-old infants were selected from temperament patterns including affect and motor reactivity to novel stimuli (103 positive reactivity, 105 negative reactivity and 83 control group). Infants' anger expression was observed during arm restraint at both 4 and 9 months of age. Anger expression was coded using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS; Ekman, Friesen, & Hager, 2002). Infants' approach behaviors were measured during arm restraint (struggling) and an unpredictable toy task. The baseline frontal EEG asymmetry (F3. F4) at 9 months of age were assessed. Children's inhibitory control during a Go/No-Go task (GNG) was also collected at age 4. Mothers reported children's effortful control, pleasure, sociability and shyness from Colorado Children's Temperament Inventory (CCTI; Buss & Plomin, 1984) at age 3 and 4 and from Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Rothbart, et al., 2001) at age 4, and rated children's problem behaviors from Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL age 1.5 to 5; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2002) at age 2 and age 4.
The pattern of anger expression is universal across cultures both in adults and children (Ekman et al., 2002). However, one-year-old Chinese children expressed less anger than Americans (Camras et al., 2007). It is necessary to examine if this difference shows up in early of four-month age. Therefore, the anger expression of the four-month-old Chinese infants (n = 32) and American infants (n= 21) were compared during arm restraint and in maternal report. Furthermore, it is investigated whether the relation of anger and approach behavior is still found in Chinese sample.
The results indicated that: 1) The infants' anger expression increased from 4 months to 9 months among those infants selected for positive reactivity but not negative reactivity temperament; 2) During the arm restraint at 4 and 9 months, high frequency of anger-prone infants exhibited more and stronger struggling than low frequency of anger-prone infants, especially in infants with low and moderate intensity of anger; 3) High frequency of anger-prone infants at 4 months with 9-month left, but not right, frontal EEG asymmetry showed more 9-month approach behaviors and less 4-year inhibitory control relative to low frequency of anger-prone infants; 4) In positive reactivity temperament pattern, 9-month high frequency of anger-prone infants had higher 4-year effortful control and lower 2-year internalizing behaviors than low frequency of anger-prone infants; 5) There was also moderate stability of anger frequency from 4 months to 9 months. Continuously high anger-prone infants across ages displayed more happiness, activity, sociability and less shyness from maternal report of CBQ at age 4 and CCTI at age 3 and 4 than continuously low anger-prone infants; 6) Chinese infants displayed less anger than American infants during arm restraint and in maternal report; 7) In Chinese infants, high intensity of anger was linked to high intensity of struggling; while in American infants, high intensity of anger was linked to low intensity of struggling.
In conclusion, anger expression has emerged by 4 months of age, and increased from 4 months to 9 months. It offered great evidence suggesting the long term implications of anger with approach tendency in early infancy for approach behaviors, effortful control and behavioral problems in early childhood, and these associations were also influenced by infants' frontal EEG asymmetry and temperament. More importantly, it addressed the evidence that Chinese infants expressed less anger than Americnas early at 4 months.
根据前额脑电非对称性(frontal EEG asymmetry)的趋近-回避模型(Davidson,Ekman,&Saron,1990;Fox,1991),在成人和青少年上,生气主要和反映趋近倾向的左侧前额脑电较强活动性相关(coan & Allen,2003;Harmon-Jones,2004)。但是还没有研究发现婴儿生气和前额脑电非对称性的联系,也没有研究考察生气、前额脑电非对称性和行为发展之间的关系。从气质的趋近-回避理论看,具有积极反应气质类型的婴儿面对新颖刺激表现出较多趋近倾向的特点,而消极反应气质类型的婴儿则表现出较多回避倾向的特点(Fox,Henderson,Rubin,Calkins,&Schmidt,2001;Hane,Fox,Henderson,&Marshall,2008)。这种气质类型可能也会影响婴儿生气情绪的发展,以及生气和后期行为的关系。
本研究基于一项从4个月开始至4岁的追踪研究,探讨婴儿生气情绪的发展,同时结合前额脑电非对称性和气质,考察生气与同期的趋近行为、与幼儿阶段的问题行为、努力控制等其他行为的关系。通过气质类型筛选(面对新颖刺激的情绪和活动性反应),291名婴儿(103名积极反应组,105名消极反应组,83名控制组)参与了追踪研究。婴儿的生气情绪在4个月和9个月的手臂受束缚情景中测得,采用Ekman(2002)的面部活动编码系统(FacialAction Coding System,FACS)对生气情绪进行编码。婴儿的趋近行为在手臂受束缚和陌生玩具情景中测得,同时考察9个月婴儿在静息状态下的前额脑电非对称性。4岁儿童在做-不做任务(GNG)中的抑制控制。母亲通过CCTI(Buss&Plomin,1984)和CBQ(Rothbart,et al.,2001)报告3岁和4岁儿童愉快、害羞、社会性、活动性和努力控制等行为。通过CBCL(Achenbach & Rescorla,2002)报告2岁和4岁儿童的问题行为。
不管是对于成人还是儿童,生气情绪(表情)具有跨文化普遍性(Ekman et al.,2002;孟昭兰,阎军,&孟宪东,1985)。但是,Camras等人研究发现1岁左右的中国婴儿比美国婴儿更少表露生气(Camras et al.,2007),这种差异是否在更小的婴儿中出现?为了考察该问题,本研究又采集4个月的中国婴儿(32名)和美国婴儿(21名),比较他们在手臂受束缚情景和母亲报告中的生气情绪差异。同时进一步验证中国样本和研究一二关注的美国样本在生气和趋近行为的关系上是否具有跨文化一致性。
结果表明:1)对于具有积极气质类型的婴儿,生气频率从4个月到9个月呈显著增长;2)在4个月和9个月的手臂受束缚中,高生气频率的婴儿比低生气频率的婴儿表现出更多和更强的趋近行为(挣扎行为),这种现象主要反映在低或中等强度生气的婴儿上;3)9个月的前额脑电非对称性对4个月生气频率和9个月趋近行为或4岁抑制控制的关系起到调节作用,具体表现在左侧前额脑电活动性较强组,高生气的婴儿比低生气的婴儿具有较多的趋近行为和较弱的抑制控制;4)4个月的气质和9个月的生气频率在2岁时的内向性问题行为和4岁时的努力控制(主要是注意集中)上存在交互作用,在积极反应气质类型组,高生气的婴儿比低生气的婴儿具有更少的内向性问题行为和更高的注意集中性;5)生气频率从4个月到9个月具有一定的稳定性,4个月和9个月始终表露出高生气的婴儿,其母亲报告的3岁、4岁时的愉快程度、社会性、活动性比低生气的婴儿高,害羞程度比低生气的婴儿低;6)在手臂受束缚情景和母亲报告中,中国婴儿比美国婴儿较少表露生气;7)在中国婴儿中,高强度生气与高强度的趋近(挣扎)行为相关;在美国婴儿中,高强度的生气却与低强度的趋近行为相关。
结论:4个月的婴儿在挫折情景中已经表现出生气情绪,且这种生气从4个月到9个月显著增长。婴儿早期的生气反映了一种趋近倾向,它对同期的趋近行为,后期的努力控制和问题行为等产生影响,而且这些影响也受到婴儿的气质和前额脑电非对称性等个体因素的调节。同时,即使在4个月早期,中国婴儿已经比美国婴儿较少表露生气。
Anger is considered as one of the basic emotions in human besing. It is uncertainty whether anger emerge in four-month infants (i.e., Camras et al., 2007; i.e., Stenberg & Campos, 1990). From the valence of emotion, anger is a negative emotion (Rothbart, 1989). However, according to the theory of approach and withdrawal motivation (Fox, 1991; Gray, 1987), anger, like happiness, is considered as an basic emotion related with approach systems. Anger activiates individuals to remove barriers and orient toward goals (Campos et al., 1989; Darwin, 1872). Previous studies showed that angry children in frustration showed a lot of approach behaviors in response to novel sitimuli (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997; Fox, 1989; Kochanska et al., 1998). However, few studies addressed the issues whether angry infants exhibit approach behaviors in frustrating situations. Anger reflecting approach tendency may be detrimental for the development of effortful control and behavior problems. Some studies reported that anger was negatively related with effortful control (Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997; Kochanska, 2003) and positively related with behavior problems (Eisenberg et al., 2007; Smeekens et al., 2007) in school-aged children and adolescents. However, few studies examined the relations between infants' anger and effortful control and problem behaviors in childhood.
At physiological level, according to approach-withdrawal model of frontal Electroencephalogram (EEG) asymmetry, anger is related to left frontal EEG asymmetry with approach tendency (Fox, 1991; Harmon-Jones, 2004). However, it remains unknown if this association is also evident in high anger-prone infants, or whether anger, associated with frontal EEG asymmetry is linked to approach behaviors, effortful control or behavioral problems. As noted in approach and withdrawal models of temperament, infants responding with negative reactivity to novel stimuli manifested withdrawal and behavioral inhibition, and infants with positive reactivity pattern showed approach, sociability and exuberance in later childhood (Fox et al., 2001; Hane et al., 2008). This temperament might influence anger development and the prediction from early anger to later behaviors.
In the context of a longitudinal study of temperament, this study examined the development of anger and its influences of temperament. In addition, it sought to examine the contribution of anger, combined with frontal EEG asymmetry or temperament, to approach behaviors, effortful control and behavior problems in early childhood. Two hundred and ninety-one four-month-old infants were selected from temperament patterns including affect and motor reactivity to novel stimuli (103 positive reactivity, 105 negative reactivity and 83 control group). Infants' anger expression was observed during arm restraint at both 4 and 9 months of age. Anger expression was coded using the Facial Action Coding System (FACS; Ekman, Friesen, & Hager, 2002). Infants' approach behaviors were measured during arm restraint (struggling) and an unpredictable toy task. The baseline frontal EEG asymmetry (F3. F4) at 9 months of age were assessed. Children's inhibitory control during a Go/No-Go task (GNG) was also collected at age 4. Mothers reported children's effortful control, pleasure, sociability and shyness from Colorado Children's Temperament Inventory (CCTI; Buss & Plomin, 1984) at age 3 and 4 and from Children's Behavior Questionnaire (CBQ; Rothbart, et al., 2001) at age 4, and rated children's problem behaviors from Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL age 1.5 to 5; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2002) at age 2 and age 4.
The pattern of anger expression is universal across cultures both in adults and children (Ekman et al., 2002). However, one-year-old Chinese children expressed less anger than Americans (Camras et al., 2007). It is necessary to examine if this difference shows up in early of four-month age. Therefore, the anger expression of the four-month-old Chinese infants (n = 32) and American infants (n= 21) were compared during arm restraint and in maternal report. Furthermore, it is investigated whether the relation of anger and approach behavior is still found in Chinese sample.
The results indicated that: 1) The infants' anger expression increased from 4 months to 9 months among those infants selected for positive reactivity but not negative reactivity temperament; 2) During the arm restraint at 4 and 9 months, high frequency of anger-prone infants exhibited more and stronger struggling than low frequency of anger-prone infants, especially in infants with low and moderate intensity of anger; 3) High frequency of anger-prone infants at 4 months with 9-month left, but not right, frontal EEG asymmetry showed more 9-month approach behaviors and less 4-year inhibitory control relative to low frequency of anger-prone infants; 4) In positive reactivity temperament pattern, 9-month high frequency of anger-prone infants had higher 4-year effortful control and lower 2-year internalizing behaviors than low frequency of anger-prone infants; 5) There was also moderate stability of anger frequency from 4 months to 9 months. Continuously high anger-prone infants across ages displayed more happiness, activity, sociability and less shyness from maternal report of CBQ at age 4 and CCTI at age 3 and 4 than continuously low anger-prone infants; 6) Chinese infants displayed less anger than American infants during arm restraint and in maternal report; 7) In Chinese infants, high intensity of anger was linked to high intensity of struggling; while in American infants, high intensity of anger was linked to low intensity of struggling.
In conclusion, anger expression has emerged by 4 months of age, and increased from 4 months to 9 months. It offered great evidence suggesting the long term implications of anger with approach tendency in early infancy for approach behaviors, effortful control and behavioral problems in early childhood, and these associations were also influenced by infants' frontal EEG asymmetry and temperament. More importantly, it addressed the evidence that Chinese infants expressed less anger than Americnas early at 4 months.
引文
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Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. (1991). Genes, people and language. Scienctific American, 265, 104-111.
Coan, J. A., & Allen, J. J. B. (2003). Frontal EEG asymmetry and the behavioral activation and inhibition systems. Psychophysiology, 40, 106-114.
Darwin, C. R. (1872). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.
Davidson, R. J., Ekman, P., & Saron, C. D. (1990). Approach-withdrawal and cerebral and asymmetry: Emotional expression and brain physiology I. Journal of Personality) and Social Psychology, 55,330-341.
Davidson, R. J., & Fox, N. A. (1989). Frontal brain asymmetry predicts infants' response to maternal separation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 127-131.
Dawson, G., Panagiotides, H., Klinger, L. G., & Hill, D. (1992). The role of frontal lobe functioning in the development of infant self-regulatory behavior. Brain and Cognition, 20, 152-175.
Degnan, K. A., & Fox, N. A. (2007). Behavioral inhibition and anxiety disorders: Multiple levels of a resilience process. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 729-746.
Demaree, H. A., Robinson, J. L., Everhart, E. D., & Youngstrom, E. A. (2005). Behavioral inhibition system (BIS) strength and trait dominance are associated with affective response and perspective taking when viewing dyadic interactions. International Journal of Neuroscience, 115, 1579-1593.
Denham, S. A., Lehman, E. B., Moser, M. H., & Reeves, S. L. (1995). Continuity and change in emotional components of infant temperament. Child Study Journal, 25, 289-308.
Depue, R. A., & Iacono, W. G. (1989). Neurobehavioral aspects of affective disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 457-492.
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1997). Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 633-652.
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (2001). Early temperament and emotional development. In A. F. Kalverboer & A. Gramsbergen (Eds.), Handbook of brain and behavior in human development (pp. 967-987). UK: Kluwer Academic Publications.
Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science, 318, 1387-1388.
Dodge, K. A. (2006). Translational science in action: Hostile attributional style and the development of aggressive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 791-814.
Dodge, K. A., Coie, J. D., Pettit, G. S., & Price, J. M. (1990). Peer status and aggression in boys' groups: Developmental and contextual analyses. Child Development, 61, 1289-1309.
Dong, Q., & Pang, L. (1995). Culture and ecology as mediation of motoric development: The extraordinary case of urban China. Journal of Sports and Exercise Psychology, 17, 5.
Drummond, P. D. (1997). Correlates of facial flushing and pallor in anger-provoking situations. Personality and Individual Differences, 23, 575-582.
Eisenberg. N., Fabes, R., Nyman, M., Bernzweig, J., & Pinuelas. A. (1994). The relations of emotionality and regulation to children's anger-related reactions. Child Development, 65, 109-128.
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Fox, N. A., & Henderson, H. A. (1999). Does infancy matter? Predicting social behavior from infant temperament. Infant Behavior and Development, 22, 445-455.
Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K. H., Calkins, S. D., & Schmidt, L. A. (2001). Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four year of life. Child Development, 72, 1-21.
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Harmon-Jones, E. (2007). Trait anger predicts relative left frontal cortical activation to anger-inducing stimuli. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 66, 154-160.
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Harmon-Jones, E., & Sigelman, J. (2001). State anger and prefrontal brain activity: evidence that insult-related relative left-prefrontal activation is association with experienced anger and aggression. Journal of Personality and Psychology, 80, 797-803.
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He, J., Xu, Q., Reeb, B. C., & Degnan, K. A. (submitted). Two to four-year-old children's anger and approach behavior during frustration.
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Denham, S. A., Lehman, E. B., Moser, M. H., & Reeves, S. L. (1995). Continuity and change in emotional components of infant temperament. Child Study Journal, 25, 289-308.
Depue, R. A., & Iacono, W. G. (1989). Neurobehavioral aspects of affective disorders. Annual Review of Psychology, 40, 457-492.
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1997). Reactive and effortful processes in the organization of temperament. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 633-652.
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Dodge, K. A. (2006). Translational science in action: Hostile attributional style and the development of aggressive behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 791-814.
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Fine, S. E., & Izard, C. E. (2006). Emotion situation knowledge in elementary school: Models of longitudinal growth and preschool correlates. Social Development, 15, 730-751.
Fox, N. A. (1989). Psychophysiological correlates of emotional reactivity during the first year of life. Developmental Psychology, 25, 364-372.
Fox, N. A. (1991). If it's not left, it's right: Electroencephalogram asymmetry and the development of emotion. American Psychologist, 46, 863-872.
Fox, N. A., & Calkins, S. D. (2000). Multiple-measure approaches to the study of infant emotion. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland (Eds.), Handbook of emotion (second edition) (pp. 203-219). New York, London: The Guilford Press.
Fox, N. A., & Henderson, H. A. (1999). Does infancy matter? Predicting social behavior from infant temperament. Infant Behavior and Development, 22, 445-455.
Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K. H., Calkins, S. D., & Schmidt, L. A. (2001). Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four year of life. Child Development, 72, 1-21.
Freedman, D. G., & Freedman, M. (1969). Behavioral differences between Chinese-American and American newborns. Nature, 224, 1227.
Goldsmith, H. H., & Rothbart, M. K. (1988). Manual for the laboratory temperament assessment battery, version 1.Unpublished manuscript.
Goldsmith, H. H., & Rothbart, M. K. (1999). The laboratory temperament assessment battery: Prelocomotor version 3. 1.Unpublished manuscript.
Gray, J. A. (1987). Perspectives on anxiety and impulsivity: A commentary. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 493-509.
Hane, A. A., Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., & Marshall, P. J. (2008). Early behavioral reactivity and approach-withdrawal bias in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1491-1496.
Harmon-Jones, E. (2004). Contributions from research on anger and cognitive dissonance to understanding the motivational functions of asymmetrical frontal brain activity. Biological Psychology, 67, 51-76.
Harmon-Jones, E. (2007). Trait anger predicts relative left frontal cortical activation to anger-inducing stimuli. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 66, 154-160.
Harmon-Jones, E., & Allen, J. J. B. (1998). Anger and frontal brain activity: EEG asymmetry consistent with approach motivation despite negative affective valence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1310-1316.
Harmon-Jones, E., & Sigelman, J. (2001). State anger and prefrontal brain activity: evidence that insult-related relative left-prefrontal activation is association with experienced anger and aggression. Journal of Personality and Psychology, 80, 797-803.
He, J., Xu, Q., & Li, X. (submitted). The Development of Anger and Effortful control and Their Relations in Young Children (Chinese).
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