性别变更的法律问题研究
摘要
虽然法律上有“禁止性别歧视”的原则,很多情况下性别与法律权利无关,但在某些法律关系和法律概念中,性别还是很重要的因素。人的性别传统上一般是依据人出生时的生物特征由接生人员作出“男性或女性”的确认,法律文件也随之确认。大多数人认同自己的生物性别,法律对生物性别的确认就没有问题。但也有些人会认为自己出生时被赋予的生物性别是“上帝的错误”,他们认为自己本该是异性,迫切希望变更性别。随着变性人的增多,因性别变更引起的纠纷也日益增多。由于我国法律对性别变更的权利、变性手术的规制、性别变更的法律确认等问题缺乏明确的规定,对变性人在户籍、婚姻家庭、就业、医疗、社会保障等诸多方面的权利也没有明确规定,变性人的权利难以得到保护。
本文通过对国外性别变更相关问题的立法、判例、理论学说及我国现状的研究与分析,从尊重、保护变性人人格权的角度,对性别变更的法律基础、性别变更的医疗法律问题、性别变更的法律确认、变性人的婚姻家庭法律问题、变性人反就业歧视法律问题进行系统研究,对我国相关制度的具体构建提出框架性建议。
本文除“序”外,共有五章及结论,基本内容如下：
第一章论证性别变更权利的法律基础。首先,通过研究人权国际公约的条文、欧洲人权法的条文及欧洲人权法院的判决、变性人国际组织《性别权利国际法案》的条文、国际奥委会的变性运动员新政策,得出结论：性别变更权利首先是人权,变性人是人类,应享有基本人权；其次,通过对美国宪法及我国宪法的分析,提出性别变更权利是宪法权利,宪法上的自由权、平等权、人身权是其基础,最后研究了性别变更权利的民法基础,指出性别变更权利属于人格权、绝对权。
第二章研究性别变更医疗法律问题。性别变更医疗本身是医患双方私法自治的范畴,但由于性别变更医疗特别是变性手术的高度伦理性、高风险性及后果的不可逆性,国家法律必须对变性医疗进行规制。本章研究了“变性人法律与就业政策国际联合会”制定的《变性人医疗法律标准》,对变性手术的法律规范问题尤其是变性手术的条件进行了比较研究,结合我国变性手术医疗与司法现状,针对我国卫生部《变性手术技术管理规范(征求意见稿)》,建议删除限制患者权利的条款,如患者应提交无罪证明、事先到公安部门备案同意、性取向不能为同性、患者未在婚姻状态等条款。同时应谨慎引入市场机制,建立起变性医疗保障与医疗保险制度。
第三章探讨了性别变更的法律确认问题。历史上各国采用的性别变更法律确认标准有三种：生物学性别确认标准(即不承认变性人的性别变更)、医学性别变更确认标准(即经过医学治疗如变性手术后,符合生物学标准即承认性别变更)、自我认同性别确认标准(不需考虑医学治疗不需考虑生物标准,仅按变性人自我认同的性别予以确认)。不以变性手术为条件、采用自我认同性别确认标准,是最符合变性人利益的法律标准,已被一些现代发达国家所采用,应是法律发展的趋势。我国目前尚不具备采用自我认同性别确认标准的条件,但可逐步放宽医学性别变更确认标准中变性手术的种类要求,可允许变性人选择一种或几种变性手术,尽量减少对身体侵袭性大的生殖器手术在法律确认性别变更中的决定作用。在将来整个社会发展到各方面条件具备时,也应采用自我认同性别确认标准。在性别变更涉及的法律文件的修改方面,除了应规定户籍、身份证等法律文件的性别变更条件程序外,还应和国际接轨,在出生证明管理办法中也应制定变性人变更性别的条件和方法,建议采取英国模式,颁发新、出生证,还应对原证保密。
第四章研究了变性人的婚姻家庭法律问题,包括变性人的结婚、离婚法律问题、亲属关系法律问题、对子女的监护法律问题、变性人的生育与收养法律问题。提出变性人有结婚的权利,婚后变性不应以先离婚为法律条件,变性后也不适用离婚,可规定变性为婚姻关系终止的原因。变性人有通过人工生殖技术或收养生育、抚养孩子的权利,离婚后的变性人也有探望子女的权利,不应以变性人身份为由剥夺变性人的抚养权、探望权。
第五章研究了变性人反就业歧视法律问题。针对变性人的就业歧视,从民法角度侵害的也是变性人的人格权。本章从立法角度梳理了美国变性人反就业歧视的法律体系,结合美国判例法对制定法的解释、发展,对美国联邦宪法、残疾人法、公民权利法案等在变性人反就业歧视诉讼中起重要作用的法律及其历史发展进行研究,也对变性人反就业歧视的州法律和地方行政命令进行了介绍及评析；从司法角度对美国变性人反就业歧视诉讼中涉及的在福利、卫生间的分配、骚扰、降级、解雇、推定解雇以及报复等歧视内容及在诉讼中的证明、法律依据等问题进行了逐个剖析；结合我国变性人反就业歧视的立法与司法现状,借鉴美国立法、司法经验,按我国己参加的国际公约要求的义务,针对我国法律制度的不足,提出我国应制定反就业歧视法律法规,在其中明确规定禁止对变性人进行就业歧视；在完善立法前,由法院在诉讼中通过法解释保护变性人不受就业歧视；建立反就业歧视的宪法诉讼模式,在未建立宪法诉讼模式前,可采用民事诉讼主张人格权的保护。
本文创新点主要包括：1、对性别变更的法律基础、性别变更的医疗法律问题、性别变更的法律确认、变性人的婚姻家庭法律问题、变性人反就业歧视法律问题进行系统研究,尚属首次,有弥补空白之效。2、性别变更权利是未被法律明示的性别权的内容,是人权、宪法权利、民事权利。作为宪法权利,其对应的是国家应通过立法确认、保护该权利的义务；作为民事权利,其对应的是其他民事主体不侵害该权利的义务,在医疗场合下对应的是医生的义务。3、不以变性手术为条件、采用自我认同性别确认标准,是法律发展的趋势。我国目前尚不具备采用自我认同性别确认标准的条件,但可逐步放宽医学性别变更确认标准中变性手术的种类要求,可允许变性人选择一种或几种变性手术,尽量减少对身体侵袭性大的生殖器手术在法律确认性别变更中的决定作用。在将来整个社会发展到各方面条件具备时,也应采用自我认同性别确认标准。4、婚后变性不应以先离婚为法律条件,变性后也不适用离婚,可规定变性为婚姻关系终止的原因。变性人有通过人工生殖技术或收养生育、抚养孩子的权利,离婚后的变性人也有探望子女的权利,不应以变性人身份为由剥夺变性人的抚养权、探望权。
Although there is the principle of "prohibit discrimination on the basis of gender"in the law and there is no relation between gender and legal rights, gender is a significant factor in certain legal relations and legal concepts. The announcement of gender is made on the basis of biological characteristics by the birth attendant and then entered onto legal documents. Most of us will be satisfied with the assignment that we received moments after our birth, the legal recognition is correct. However, some people who will think the gender assignment at birth is God's wrong hope to change the gender. The disputes relevant to gender transition raise with transgender people increasing. There is neither provision which expressly deals with right to change gender, rules of sex reassignment surgery and gender recognition nor with transgender rights in household register, family, employment, health care and social security aspects, the transgender rights are hard to get legal safeguard.
This dissertation explores legal issues on legal basis of gender transition,medical care to gender transition, legal recognition for gender transition, transgender family, nondiscrimination policy in employment systematically at the angle of respecting and protecting transgender personal rights though research and analyze foreign legislations, cases, theories and current situation in China on gender transition issues.
This dissertation is divided into 5 chapters.
Chapter I explores the legal basis of right to gender transition. Firstly reviews the articles of human right international convention, articles of European Convention on Human Rights, case ruling of European Court of Human rights, articles of International Bill of Gender Right and the new transgender athlete policy of International Olympic Committee, gets a conclusion that the right to gender transition is firstly human rights.Secondly, analyzes the constitutions of America and China, argues that the right to gender transition is constitutional right which basis are right to freedom, right to equality and personal right. At last explores the civil law basis of the right to gender transition, argues that it belongs to personal right and absolute right.
ChapterⅡdeals with the legal issues on medical care of gender transition.The medical care of gender transition itself depends on autonomy in private law, but the state must make laws to regulate it because it's of high ethic, high risk and no possibility to reverse. This chapter reviews Health Law Standards of Care for Transsexualism made by International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy, compares the requirements for sex reassignment surgery, combines with the medical and judicial situations in China, proposes to delete the articles which will impose restrictions on patients in Sex Reassignment,such as the articles "the patient should submit the no-crime certificate", "the patient should obtain the agreement of police department in the record in advance", "the patient's sexual orientation should not be same sex","the patient should not have a marriage"and so on. At last proposes to set up medical security and medical insurance systems under market systems prudently.
ChapterⅢdiscusses issues on legal recognition of gender transition. Reviews three models of legal recognition of gender transition:the Biological model, the medical model and the self-identity model.Suggests that the self-identity model adopted by some developed countries is the best model which is in line with the interests of transgender and is and will be the trend of law development. There is no condition for China to adopt this model, however, we can relax the requirement for the categories of sex reassignment surgery in medical model, transgender may choose one or several category of surgery, the determining role of genitals surgery in recognition of gender transition should be lessened. When every condition meet requirement in the future, we should adopt the self identity model for legal recognition of gender transition. In addition, we should establish the legal system of amending the gender designation on their birth certificate besides on besides on household register and identity document. The England model in which new birth certificate is issued and the old one is kept as a secrete should be referenced.
Chapter IV is directed mainly toward transgender family legal issues which includes transgender marriage validity, divorce, custody to children and giving birth or adoption. Proposes transgender people have right to get marriage, divorce should not be required as a precondition before gender transition and divorce procedure should be applied after gender transition, gender transition should be specified as a reason to end the marriage. Transgender people have the right to reproduce or adopt children though artificial reproduce technology or adoption. Transgender parent has the right to raise and visit child after divorce which should not be deprived just because of the transgender identity.
Chapter V explores the legal issues on how to protect transgender employees from discrimination. Starts out with an overview of American legislative system as well as a discussion of the cases interpreting and developing the statutes, analyzes both American federal constitution, Disability Law, Civil Rights Act and the state laws, administrative orders which played the significant roles in protecting transgender employees from discrimination and their history developments. At judicial angle analyzes the cases contents relevant to benefits, restroom assignment, harassment, demotion,termination,constructive discharge and retaliation,as well as the testimony and the legal ground. Then combining with current legislative and judicial situation in China, suggests to make up nondiscrimination laws expressly prohibiting discrimination against transgender employees. Courts should protect transgender employees from discrimination though interpreting laws before the laws are perfected. The constitutional procedure should be established to deal with discrimination cases.
In terms of research innovation, there are four aspects in this paper:1.It's the first time to systematically research legal issues on legal basis of gender transition,medical care to gender transition, legal recognition for gender transition, transgender family and nondiscrimination in employment, which may have effect to make up for a deficiency.2. The right to change gender is content of gender right which is not yet to express in the law. It is human right, constitutional right and civil right. As constitutional right, it's corresponding country's obligation is to establish law to recognize and protect this right. As civil right, it's corresponding other civil subjects'obligation is not to infringe on this right.3. The self-identity model of gender recognition without requirement for sex reassignment surgery is the trend of law development. There is no condition for China to adopt this model, however, we can relax the requirement for the categories of sex reassignment surgery in medical model, transgender may choose one or several category of surgery, the determining role of genitals surgery in recognition of gender transition should be lessened.When every condition meet requirement in the future, we should adopt the self identity model for legal recognition of gender transition.4.divorce should not be required as a precondition before gender transition and divorce procedure should be applied after gender transition, gender transition should be specified as a reason to end the marriage.Transgender people have the right to reproduce or adopt children though artificial reproduce technology or adoption. Transgender parent has the right to raise and visit child after divorce which should not be deprived just because of the transgender identity.
本文通过对国外性别变更相关问题的立法、判例、理论学说及我国现状的研究与分析,从尊重、保护变性人人格权的角度,对性别变更的法律基础、性别变更的医疗法律问题、性别变更的法律确认、变性人的婚姻家庭法律问题、变性人反就业歧视法律问题进行系统研究,对我国相关制度的具体构建提出框架性建议。
本文除“序”外,共有五章及结论,基本内容如下：
第一章论证性别变更权利的法律基础。首先,通过研究人权国际公约的条文、欧洲人权法的条文及欧洲人权法院的判决、变性人国际组织《性别权利国际法案》的条文、国际奥委会的变性运动员新政策,得出结论：性别变更权利首先是人权,变性人是人类,应享有基本人权；其次,通过对美国宪法及我国宪法的分析,提出性别变更权利是宪法权利,宪法上的自由权、平等权、人身权是其基础,最后研究了性别变更权利的民法基础,指出性别变更权利属于人格权、绝对权。
第二章研究性别变更医疗法律问题。性别变更医疗本身是医患双方私法自治的范畴,但由于性别变更医疗特别是变性手术的高度伦理性、高风险性及后果的不可逆性,国家法律必须对变性医疗进行规制。本章研究了“变性人法律与就业政策国际联合会”制定的《变性人医疗法律标准》,对变性手术的法律规范问题尤其是变性手术的条件进行了比较研究,结合我国变性手术医疗与司法现状,针对我国卫生部《变性手术技术管理规范(征求意见稿)》,建议删除限制患者权利的条款,如患者应提交无罪证明、事先到公安部门备案同意、性取向不能为同性、患者未在婚姻状态等条款。同时应谨慎引入市场机制,建立起变性医疗保障与医疗保险制度。
第三章探讨了性别变更的法律确认问题。历史上各国采用的性别变更法律确认标准有三种：生物学性别确认标准(即不承认变性人的性别变更)、医学性别变更确认标准(即经过医学治疗如变性手术后,符合生物学标准即承认性别变更)、自我认同性别确认标准(不需考虑医学治疗不需考虑生物标准,仅按变性人自我认同的性别予以确认)。不以变性手术为条件、采用自我认同性别确认标准,是最符合变性人利益的法律标准,已被一些现代发达国家所采用,应是法律发展的趋势。我国目前尚不具备采用自我认同性别确认标准的条件,但可逐步放宽医学性别变更确认标准中变性手术的种类要求,可允许变性人选择一种或几种变性手术,尽量减少对身体侵袭性大的生殖器手术在法律确认性别变更中的决定作用。在将来整个社会发展到各方面条件具备时,也应采用自我认同性别确认标准。在性别变更涉及的法律文件的修改方面,除了应规定户籍、身份证等法律文件的性别变更条件程序外,还应和国际接轨,在出生证明管理办法中也应制定变性人变更性别的条件和方法,建议采取英国模式,颁发新、出生证,还应对原证保密。
第四章研究了变性人的婚姻家庭法律问题,包括变性人的结婚、离婚法律问题、亲属关系法律问题、对子女的监护法律问题、变性人的生育与收养法律问题。提出变性人有结婚的权利,婚后变性不应以先离婚为法律条件,变性后也不适用离婚,可规定变性为婚姻关系终止的原因。变性人有通过人工生殖技术或收养生育、抚养孩子的权利,离婚后的变性人也有探望子女的权利,不应以变性人身份为由剥夺变性人的抚养权、探望权。
第五章研究了变性人反就业歧视法律问题。针对变性人的就业歧视,从民法角度侵害的也是变性人的人格权。本章从立法角度梳理了美国变性人反就业歧视的法律体系,结合美国判例法对制定法的解释、发展,对美国联邦宪法、残疾人法、公民权利法案等在变性人反就业歧视诉讼中起重要作用的法律及其历史发展进行研究,也对变性人反就业歧视的州法律和地方行政命令进行了介绍及评析；从司法角度对美国变性人反就业歧视诉讼中涉及的在福利、卫生间的分配、骚扰、降级、解雇、推定解雇以及报复等歧视内容及在诉讼中的证明、法律依据等问题进行了逐个剖析；结合我国变性人反就业歧视的立法与司法现状,借鉴美国立法、司法经验,按我国己参加的国际公约要求的义务,针对我国法律制度的不足,提出我国应制定反就业歧视法律法规,在其中明确规定禁止对变性人进行就业歧视；在完善立法前,由法院在诉讼中通过法解释保护变性人不受就业歧视；建立反就业歧视的宪法诉讼模式,在未建立宪法诉讼模式前,可采用民事诉讼主张人格权的保护。
本文创新点主要包括：1、对性别变更的法律基础、性别变更的医疗法律问题、性别变更的法律确认、变性人的婚姻家庭法律问题、变性人反就业歧视法律问题进行系统研究,尚属首次,有弥补空白之效。2、性别变更权利是未被法律明示的性别权的内容,是人权、宪法权利、民事权利。作为宪法权利,其对应的是国家应通过立法确认、保护该权利的义务；作为民事权利,其对应的是其他民事主体不侵害该权利的义务,在医疗场合下对应的是医生的义务。3、不以变性手术为条件、采用自我认同性别确认标准,是法律发展的趋势。我国目前尚不具备采用自我认同性别确认标准的条件,但可逐步放宽医学性别变更确认标准中变性手术的种类要求,可允许变性人选择一种或几种变性手术,尽量减少对身体侵袭性大的生殖器手术在法律确认性别变更中的决定作用。在将来整个社会发展到各方面条件具备时,也应采用自我认同性别确认标准。4、婚后变性不应以先离婚为法律条件,变性后也不适用离婚,可规定变性为婚姻关系终止的原因。变性人有通过人工生殖技术或收养生育、抚养孩子的权利,离婚后的变性人也有探望子女的权利,不应以变性人身份为由剥夺变性人的抚养权、探望权。
Although there is the principle of "prohibit discrimination on the basis of gender"in the law and there is no relation between gender and legal rights, gender is a significant factor in certain legal relations and legal concepts. The announcement of gender is made on the basis of biological characteristics by the birth attendant and then entered onto legal documents. Most of us will be satisfied with the assignment that we received moments after our birth, the legal recognition is correct. However, some people who will think the gender assignment at birth is God's wrong hope to change the gender. The disputes relevant to gender transition raise with transgender people increasing. There is neither provision which expressly deals with right to change gender, rules of sex reassignment surgery and gender recognition nor with transgender rights in household register, family, employment, health care and social security aspects, the transgender rights are hard to get legal safeguard.
This dissertation explores legal issues on legal basis of gender transition,medical care to gender transition, legal recognition for gender transition, transgender family, nondiscrimination policy in employment systematically at the angle of respecting and protecting transgender personal rights though research and analyze foreign legislations, cases, theories and current situation in China on gender transition issues.
This dissertation is divided into 5 chapters.
Chapter I explores the legal basis of right to gender transition. Firstly reviews the articles of human right international convention, articles of European Convention on Human Rights, case ruling of European Court of Human rights, articles of International Bill of Gender Right and the new transgender athlete policy of International Olympic Committee, gets a conclusion that the right to gender transition is firstly human rights.Secondly, analyzes the constitutions of America and China, argues that the right to gender transition is constitutional right which basis are right to freedom, right to equality and personal right. At last explores the civil law basis of the right to gender transition, argues that it belongs to personal right and absolute right.
ChapterⅡdeals with the legal issues on medical care of gender transition.The medical care of gender transition itself depends on autonomy in private law, but the state must make laws to regulate it because it's of high ethic, high risk and no possibility to reverse. This chapter reviews Health Law Standards of Care for Transsexualism made by International Conference on Transgender Law and Employment Policy, compares the requirements for sex reassignment surgery, combines with the medical and judicial situations in China, proposes to delete the articles which will impose restrictions on patients in Sex Reassignment,such as the articles "the patient should submit the no-crime certificate", "the patient should obtain the agreement of police department in the record in advance", "the patient's sexual orientation should not be same sex","the patient should not have a marriage"and so on. At last proposes to set up medical security and medical insurance systems under market systems prudently.
ChapterⅢdiscusses issues on legal recognition of gender transition. Reviews three models of legal recognition of gender transition:the Biological model, the medical model and the self-identity model.Suggests that the self-identity model adopted by some developed countries is the best model which is in line with the interests of transgender and is and will be the trend of law development. There is no condition for China to adopt this model, however, we can relax the requirement for the categories of sex reassignment surgery in medical model, transgender may choose one or several category of surgery, the determining role of genitals surgery in recognition of gender transition should be lessened. When every condition meet requirement in the future, we should adopt the self identity model for legal recognition of gender transition. In addition, we should establish the legal system of amending the gender designation on their birth certificate besides on besides on household register and identity document. The England model in which new birth certificate is issued and the old one is kept as a secrete should be referenced.
Chapter IV is directed mainly toward transgender family legal issues which includes transgender marriage validity, divorce, custody to children and giving birth or adoption. Proposes transgender people have right to get marriage, divorce should not be required as a precondition before gender transition and divorce procedure should be applied after gender transition, gender transition should be specified as a reason to end the marriage. Transgender people have the right to reproduce or adopt children though artificial reproduce technology or adoption. Transgender parent has the right to raise and visit child after divorce which should not be deprived just because of the transgender identity.
Chapter V explores the legal issues on how to protect transgender employees from discrimination. Starts out with an overview of American legislative system as well as a discussion of the cases interpreting and developing the statutes, analyzes both American federal constitution, Disability Law, Civil Rights Act and the state laws, administrative orders which played the significant roles in protecting transgender employees from discrimination and their history developments. At judicial angle analyzes the cases contents relevant to benefits, restroom assignment, harassment, demotion,termination,constructive discharge and retaliation,as well as the testimony and the legal ground. Then combining with current legislative and judicial situation in China, suggests to make up nondiscrimination laws expressly prohibiting discrimination against transgender employees. Courts should protect transgender employees from discrimination though interpreting laws before the laws are perfected. The constitutional procedure should be established to deal with discrimination cases.
In terms of research innovation, there are four aspects in this paper:1.It's the first time to systematically research legal issues on legal basis of gender transition,medical care to gender transition, legal recognition for gender transition, transgender family and nondiscrimination in employment, which may have effect to make up for a deficiency.2. The right to change gender is content of gender right which is not yet to express in the law. It is human right, constitutional right and civil right. As constitutional right, it's corresponding country's obligation is to establish law to recognize and protect this right. As civil right, it's corresponding other civil subjects'obligation is not to infringe on this right.3. The self-identity model of gender recognition without requirement for sex reassignment surgery is the trend of law development. There is no condition for China to adopt this model, however, we can relax the requirement for the categories of sex reassignment surgery in medical model, transgender may choose one or several category of surgery, the determining role of genitals surgery in recognition of gender transition should be lessened.When every condition meet requirement in the future, we should adopt the self identity model for legal recognition of gender transition.4.divorce should not be required as a precondition before gender transition and divorce procedure should be applied after gender transition, gender transition should be specified as a reason to end the marriage.Transgender people have the right to reproduce or adopt children though artificial reproduce technology or adoption. Transgender parent has the right to raise and visit child after divorce which should not be deprived just because of the transgender identity.
引文
1 刘春霞：《中国至少十万人欲变性，有千人已做手术》,载《上海青年报》2005年1月18日。
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2 参见2007年2月郑州市二七区人民法院受理的“五旬男子状告医院变性手术不成功”案,http://legal.northeast.cn/system/2007/02/15/050707981.shtml,最后访问时间：2009年3月1日。
4 2009年6月21日我国卫生部颁布《变性手术技术管理规范(征求意见稿)》,至本文截稿日尚未出台正式通过的规范。
5 李醒明：《科学精神与人的价值》,载《自然辨证法研究》,1998年第1期。
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2 观念说认为“人权概念就是这样一种观念：存在某些无论被承认与否都在一切时候和场合属于全体人类的权利,人们凭其作为人就享有这些权利,而不论其在国籍、宗教、性别、社会身份、职业、财富、财产或其他任何种族、文化或社会特性方面的差异。”参见[英]A.J.M米尔恩：《人的权利与人的多样性——人权哲学》,夏勇、张志铭译,中国大百科全书出版社1995年版,第2页。
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1 Paisley Currah, Richard M.Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press.2006. Introduction Pxiii-xiv.
2 Shannon Price Minter, Do Transsexuals Dream of Gay Rights? Getting Real about Transgender Inclusion. In Paisley Currah, Richard M. Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006, p.158.
1 [英]克莱尔·奥维、罗宾·怀特：《欧洲人权法·原则与判例》(第三版),何志鹏、孙璐译,北京大学出版社2006年版,第300页。
2 The Hon.Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law. In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005, P62-63.
1 1998年欧洲人权法院改革之前,案件审理程序比较复杂。任何个人、民间团体以及非政府组织提交欧洲人权法院的案件必须首先提交欧洲人权委员会,该委员会确定可以受理后,将写出报告提交欧洲委员会部长委员会讨论。欧洲人权委员会或涉案国如果在三个月内不向人权法院提出审理要求,则由部长委员会裁决。1997年欧洲委员会第二次首脑会议决定,从1998年11月起正式启动单一欧洲人权法院,取消欧洲人权委员会,成员国公民、民间团体和非政府组织可以直接向法院起诉。
2 See The Hon. Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law, In Helmut Graupner, Phillip Tahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005,P64-66.
1(1987)9 E.H.R.R.56.
2(1987)9 E.H.R.R.56,para.37.
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1 (1990)13 E.H.R.R.622,para.42.
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1 《欧洲人权公约》第3条规定：“任何人不得被施以酷刑,亦不得被施以非人道的或有损人格的待遇或惩罚。
2 See The Hon. Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law, In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005. P71-73.
3 (1997)24 E.H.R.R.143.
1 See The Hon. Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law. In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005, P75-76.
2 《欧洲人权公约》第14条规定：“应确保人人无区别地享有本公约所列举的权利和自由,尤其不得基于性别、种族、肤色、语言、宗教、政治或其他方面的见解、民族或社会本源、属于少数民族、财产、出身或其他情况而予以歧视。”
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4(2002) 35E.H.R.R.18.
5(2002)35E.H.R.R.18,paras.90-93.
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1 另一个公共医疗保障计划是老年人医疗照顾(Medicare)。
2 Dean Spade, Documenting Gender, Hastings Law Journal, March 2008.
3 330 F.3d 630 (4th Cir.2003)
4 249 F.3d 755(8th Cir.2001)
5 211 F.2d 1275(9th Cir.2000)
6 221 F. Supp.2d 156 (D. Mass.2002)
7 130 F.Supp.2d 648 (E.D. Pa.2001)
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1 754 N.Y.S.2d 846
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1 Corbett v. Corbett,[1970] 2 All E.R.33,88.
2 Jason Allen, A Quest for Acceptance:the Real ID Act and the Need for Comprehensive Gender Recognition Legislation in the United States, Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,2008.
3 参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_Recognition_Act_2004,2009年12月14日访问。
1 Franklin H. Romeo. Beyond a Medical Model:Advocating for a New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
2 Tenn.Code Ann.§68-3-203(d)(2006).
3 在英美法中,事实问题(question of fact),指有争议的事实,通常由陪审团来认定,在无陪审团参加审判时,由法官认定。在上诉审中,一般不再审查事实问题。法律问题(question of law),指有关法律适用或法律解释的问题,由法官来决定。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第1134页。
4简易判决(summary judgment),指当事人对案件中的主要事实(material facts)不存在真正的争议(genuine issue)或案件仅涉及法律问题时,法院不经开庭审理而及早解决案件的一种方式。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》法律出版社2003年版第1309页。
5 9 S.W.3d 223
6 273 Kan.191.42 P.3d 120
1 884 So.2d 155
2 Karly A. Grossman, Transsexuals and the Legal Determination of Sex, Family Law Quarterly, Fall 2005.
3 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第749页。
4 刘国生：《关于变性手术后的法律文件更改实践及启示》,《法律与医学杂志》,2006年第13卷(第3期),第242 页。
1 张迎秀：《结婚制度研究》,山东大学出版社2009年版,第274页。
2 Richard F. Storrow, Naming the Grotesque Body in the "Nascent Jurisprudence of Transsexualism," Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,1997.
3 Walter Meyer III, M.D.,et al. The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association's Standards of Care for Gender Identity Disorders,Sixth Version.at http://www.wpath.org/publications_standards.cfm.
1 Franklin H. Romeo, Beyond a Medical Model:Advocating for a New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
1 Jerry L. Dasti.Advocating a Broader Understanding of the Necessity of Sex-Reassignment Surgery Under Medicaid, New York University Law Review. December,2002.
2 Franklin H. Romeo, Beyond A Medical Model:Advocating for A New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
3 355A.2d204
4 Taylor, No.03CA1753,2003 WL 22382512 at*1 (D.C. Super.2003).
5 816A.2d 68(Md.2003).
1 Kantaras v. Kantaras,884 So.2d 155 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App.2004)
2 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第749页。
3 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第748页。
1 根据日文版法律条文,由山东政法学院张永平老师翻译。日文版法律参见附录三。
2 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第749-750页。
1 Pinneke v. Preisser,623 F.2d 546(8th Cir.1980).
2 Smith v. Rasmussen,249 F.3d 755 (8th Cir.2001).
3 Karly A. Grossman, Transsexuals and the Legal Determination of Sex. Family Law Quarterly, Fall 2005.
4 American Psychological Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 532-37 (4th ed.1994).
1 Franklin H.Romeo, Beyond a Medical Model:Advocating for a New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
2 See Jerry L. Dasti,Advocating a Broader Understanding of the Necessity of Sex-Reassignment Surgery Under Medicaid, New York University Law Review, December,2002.
1 For example, Vecchione v Vecchione, Kantaras v Kantaras,In re Estate of Gardinar,In re Heiling, Attorney General v. Kevin, Attorney General v. Otahuhu Family Court, I.v. The United Kingdom;Goodvin v. The United Kingdom. See Julie A. Greenberg, The Roads Less Traveled:The Problem with Binary Sex Categories, in Paisley Currah. Richard M. Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press, P
2 本文对该法的介绍是根据维基网对该法的介绍及笔者对英文条文的翻译,参见http：//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_Recognition_Act_2004(2009年12月14日访问)。对该法尚有其他中文译法：“性别确认法”、“性别识别法”,此处根据本章主旨,兼顾前后文行文方便,在此译为《性别确认法》。
1 参见“无需做手术登记可‘变性’西班牙政府通过新提案”,载《新民晚报》2006年06月03日
2 Sara R. Benson, Hacking The Gender Binary Myth:Recognizing Fundamental Rights For the Intersexed, Cardozo Journal of Law & Gender, Fall 2005.
1 Richard F. Storrow, Naming the Grotesque Body in the "Nascent Jurisprudence of Transsexualism," Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,1997.
2 Megan Bell, Transsexuals and the Law, Northwestern University Law Review,Summer 2004.
3 In re Heilig,816 A.2d 87 (Md.2003).
4 M.T. v. J.T.,355 A.2d 209 (N.J.Super. Ct. App. Div.1976).
5 Katie D. Fletche, Judge Lola Maddox, In Re Marriage of Simmons:A Case for Transsexual Marriage Recognition, Loyola University Chicago Law Journal, Spring 2006.
1 Taylor Flynn, The Ties that [don't] Bind:Transgender Family Law and the Unmaking of Families,in Paisley Currah, Richard M. Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006, P35.
1 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第746页。
2 刘国生：《关于变性手术后的法律文件更改实践及启示》,《法律与医学杂志》,2006年第13卷(第3期),第240-241页。
1 刘国生：《关于变性手术后的法律文件更改实践及启示》,《法律与医学杂志》,2006年第13卷(第3期),第241页。
2 Sylvia Rivera Law Project, The Fight for Fair Access to Birth Certificates Continues, http://srlp.org/index.php? sec=03H&page=nycbc_newpolicy(last visited Jan.23,2010).
1 Mass. Registry of Motor Vehicles. Sex Change Policy (2004).
2 Sylvia Rivera Law Project, The Fight for Fair Access to Birth Certificates Continues, http://srlp.org/index.php? sec=03H&page=nycbc_newpolicy(last visited Jan.23,2010).
3 Dean Spade, Documenting Gender,Hastings Law Journal, March 2008.
1 R. Nick Gorton, Jamie Buth & Dean Spade. Medical Therapy and Health Maintenance for Transgender Men:A Guide for Health Care Providers 80 (2005),available at http://www.nickgorton.org.
2 Dean Spade. Documenting Gender, Hastings Law Journal, March 2008.
3 Lambda Legal,Amending Birth Certificates To Reflect Your Correct Sex:In re Birth Certificate Amendment of John Doe (Nov.12,2002), http://www.lambdalegal.org/our-work/publications/facts-backgrounds/page-31991108.html(last visited Jan.22,2009).
Damien Cave, No Change in Definition of Gender, New York Times, Dec.6.
2 270 N.Y.S.2d 319(N.Y.Sup. Ct.1966)
3 293 N.Y.S.2d 834,835 (N.Y.Civ. Ct.1968).
1 347 N.Y. S.2d 515.
2 398 N.Y.S.2d 99 (N.Y.Sup. Ct.1977).
3 See Dean Spade, Leave Behind for Department of Vital Statistics, http://srlp.org/documents/bc leave behind.html(last visited Jan.15,2008).
4 Lisa Mottet & John M.Ohle, Transitioning Our Shelters, A Guide To Making Homeless Shelters Safe for Transgender People 12 (2003), http://thetaskforce.org/downloads/reports/reports/TransitioningOurShelters.pdf
1 See Harper Jean Tobin, Against the Surgical Requirement for Change of Legal Sex,38 Case W. Res. J.Int'l L.393,401(2006-07).
2 See Dean Spade, Leave Behind for Department of Vital Statistics, http: //srlp.org/documents/bc leave behind.html (last visited Jan.15,2008).
3 See Tenn. Code Ann.§68-3-203(d) (2006) ("The sex of an individual will not be changed on the original certificate of birth as a result of sex change surgery.").
4 See Dean Spade, Leave Behind for Department of Vital Statistics, http: //srlp.org/documents/bc_leave_behind.html (last visited Jan.15,2008).
1 陈焕然、陆利平：“变性手术立法刍议”,载《科技与法律》2002年第1期。
1 参见姚秀兰：“论中国户籍制度的演变与改革”,载《法学》2004年第5期。
2 陈焕然、陆利平：“变性手术立法刍议”,《科技与法律》2002年第1期。
1 邓志辉：“变性之后期待社会认同”,载《人民公安》,2003年第1期.
2 参见马金瑜：“中国第一例变性人夫妻的爱情生活”,载《南方人物周刊》2005年10月19日。
3 梁晓琴、唐胜建：“易性癖诊治前后的几点思考”,医学与哲学,2007年第8期。
1 Defense of Marriage Act, Pub. L. No.104-199,110 Stat.2419(1996) (codified at 1 U.S.C. §7 and 28 U.S.C. §1738C(2000)).
2 852 P.2d 44 (Haw.1993)
1 美国联邦宪法第四条第一款规定：“每个州对于他州的公共法律、案卷和司法程序,应给予充分信任和尊重(fullfaith and credit)。国会得以一般法律规定这类法律、案卷和司法程序如何证明和具有的效力。
2 Jason Manning, Backgrounder:The Defense of Marriage Act, Online News Hour, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law/gay marriage/act.html (last visited Mar.29,2008)
3 Wash.Rev. Code Ann.§26.04.010 (West 2006).
4 see DOMA Watch, Issues by State, http://www.domawatch.org/stateissues/index.html (last visited Mar.20, 2008).
5 A. Spencer Bergstedt, Estate Planning and the Transgender Client,Western New England Law Review,2008.
6 825 N.E.2d 303 (111.App.Ct.2005)
7 884 So.2d 155,161(Fla. Dist. Ct. App.2004)
1 杨遂全等：《婚家庭法新论》,法律出版社2003年版,第8页。
2 巫昌祯：《婚姻与继承法学》,中国政法大学出版社2001年版,第26页。
3 杨大文：《姻婚家庭法》,中国人民大学出版社2000年版,第3页。
4 曾宪义：《以案说法新版—婚姻家庭法篇》,中国人民大学出版社2005年版第33页。
5 杨大文教授语。参见：代小琳：“兰州变性人可结婚法律专家：宽容成全变性人婚姻”,载《北京晨报》,2003年9月12日。
1 王炜：《整形外科学》(下册),浙江科学技术出版社1999年版,第1646页。
1 张迎秀：《结婚制度研究》,山东大学出版社2009年版,第286页。
2 743 S.W.2d 766(Mo.App.1997)
1 715 P.2d 56 (Nev. S. Ct.1986)
2 516 P.2d 132(Colo.App.1973)
3 884 So.2d 155
1 estoppel,含义为“不容否认”,是指禁止当事人提出与其以前的言行相反的主张；即对于当事人先前的行为、主张或否认,禁止其在此后的法律程序中反悔,否则将会对他人造成损害。它可分为三种：因立有契据而不容否认、因已记录在案而不容否认和因既有行为而不容否认,其中,前两种又称普通法上的不容否认,后一种称为衡平法上的不容否认。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第495页。
2 de facto,含义为“实际上的；事实上的”,指虽不合法,但因实际目的而必须予以承认的职位、政府或事实状态等。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第384页。
1 张迎秀：《结婚制度研究》,山东大学出版社2009年版,第288页。
1 张迎秀：《结婚制度研究》,山东大学出版社2009年版,第289页。
1 参见《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》(GCHIJ)第11(1)(a)条。
2 参见1958年国际劳工大会《就业和职业歧视公约》
1 Stephen B.Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 127 N.J.Super.13,316 A.2d 39 (N.J. Super. Ct., App. Div.1974).
3 liberty interest,自由权益,指美国宪法和州宪法的正当程序条款(due process clause)所确认和保障的权益(见美国宪法第五条和第十四条修正案),一般包括：(1)美国宪法修正案前八条所保护的自由权；(2)各州通过立法或行政途径对其裁量权进行限制,并要求决策应遵循特定标准而产生的自由利益。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第845页。
4 No.001060A,2000 WL 33162199 (Mass. Super. Ct. Oct.11,2000).
5 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs. Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
1 《1973年残疾人正常活动法》(Rehabilitation Act 1973),一项联邦立法。规定在各项由联邦提供财政支援的活动和计划中,对身心不健全者,不得仅仅因其残疾而拒绝其加、不给予其应享有的利益或存有任何歧视。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社，003年版第1172页。也有学者根据字面含义译为“修复法”、“复兴法”,但笔者认为根据法律内容,元照法律词典的解释更为适宜。
2 Stephen B.Thomas, Ed.D.and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 Shannon H.Tan, When Steve is Fired for Becoming Susan:Why Courts and Legislators Need to Protect Transgender Employees From Discrimination, Stetson Law Review, Winter 2008.
2 403 F. Supp.456(N. D. Cal.1975).
3 1975 U. S. Dist. LEXIS 16261 (September 10,1975).
4 KylarW. Broadus,The Evolution of Employment Discrimination Protections for Transgender People, in Paisley Currah, Richard M.Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006, P94-95.
5 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir.1984).
6 490 U.S.228(1989).
1 Meritor,477 U.S.57.
2 523 U.S.75(1998).
3 Shannon H.Tan,When Steve is Fired for Becoming Susan:Why Courts and Legislators Need to Protect Transgender Employees From Discrimination,Stetson Law Review, Winter 2008.
4 378 F.3d 566 (6th Cir.2004)
1 401 F.3d 729, cert, denied,126 S.Ct.624 (2005)
2 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs. Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
3 165 F. Supp.2d 964 (D.Minn.2001)
4 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs. Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
1 See the Taskforce, State Nondiscrimination Laws in the U.S(last updated on July 1,2009),in http: //www.thetaskforce.org/reports and research/nondiscrimination laws.
2 Abigail W. Lloyd, Student Author, Defining the Human:Are Transgendered People Strangers to the Law? Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law & Justice,2005.
3 No.98 BEM 3695,2001 WL 1602800(Mass. Comm'n Against Discrim. Oct.10,2001)
4 No.013117J,2002 WL 31492397 (Mass. Super. Ct. Oct.7,2002)
5 “初步证明的案件”prima facie case,有两种含义：(1)原告提出的证据足以支持其诉讼请求,从而可以将案件交付陪审团裁断；(2)原告已提出足以支持其诉讼请求的证据,如被告不能提出足以反驳的反证,法庭必然判决原告胜诉。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第1088页。
6 777 A.2d 365(N.J.Super.Ct.App.Div.2001).
1 No. Civ.02-5441 RBK,2005 WL 2143972 (D.N.J. Sept.2,2005).
2 850 F.Supp.284 (E.D. Pa.1993)
3 No. CV 950553003,1997 WL 78585 (Conn. Super. Ct. Feb.4,1997)
4 857 F. Supp.96 (D.D.C.1994)
5 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs. Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
6 刘国生、王正苍：“关于美国变性人歧视问题介绍”,《法律与医学杂志》2007年第4期)。
7 337 F. Supp.2d 996 (N.D. Ohio 2003).
1 See Natl.Gay & Lesbian Task Force, Jurisdictions with Explicitly Transgender-Inclusive Nondiscrimination Laws, http://www.thetaskforce.org/downloads/reports/fact_sheets/alljurisdictions_w_pop_4_08.pdf (updated Apr.2008).
2 Chad A. Readier, Student Author, Local Government Anti-Discrimination Laws:Do They Make a Difference? 31 U. Mich.J.L. Reform 777,797(1998). University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform,Spring 1998.
3 Stephen B.Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 313 F.3d 758 (2d Cir.2002).
2 Ulane v. Eastern Airlines,742 F.2d 1081,1087 (7th Cir.1984).
3 Ashlie v. Chester-Upland Sch. Dist., No.78-4037,1979 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 12516, at a5 (E.D. Pa. May 9, 1979).
1 Sommers v. Budget Mktg.,Inc.,667 F.2d 748 (8th Cir.1982)
2 Doe v.Boeing,846 P.2d 531 (Wash.1993)
3 Goins v. West Group, CX-00-706,2001 Minn.LEXIS 839 (Minn.Dec.31,2001).
4 850 F.Supp.284 (E.D. Pa.1993).
3 Stephen B. Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 Nelda H. Cambron-Mccabe, Martha M. Mccarthy,& Stephen B. Thomas, Public School Law,5th ed. Allyn and Bacon Publishers,2004, p.367.
2 524 U.S.775,118 S.Ct.2275,141 L.Ed.2d 662(1998);
3 524 U.S.742,118 S.Ct.2257,141 l.Ed.2d 633(1998).
4 Nelda H. Cambron-Mccabe, Martha M. Mccarthy,& Stephen B. Thomas, Public School Law,5th ed. Allyn and Bacon Publishers,2004, p.368-369.
5 626 N.Y.S.2d 391 (N.Y.Sup. Ct.1995).
6 Stephen B. Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges, & Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 No. C-1-00-780,2002 U. S. Dist. LEXIS 26207(S.D. Ohio March 8,2002).
2 Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins,490 U.S.228,109 S.Ct.1775,104 L.Ed.2d 268(1989).
3 McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green,411 U.S.792,93 S.Ct.1817,36 L.Ed.2d 668(1973).
4 No. IP02-0320-C-H/K,2003 WL 21525058,2003 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 11373(S.D. Ind. June 6,2003).
1 No.03-CV-0375E(SC),2003 WL 22757935,2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 23757(W.D.N.Y. Sept.26,2003)。
2 218 F.3d 932(8th Cir.2000).
3 155 F.3d 435 (4th Cir.1998).
4 Stephen B. Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder,Colleges.& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
5 378 F.3d 566 (6th Cir.2004).
1 就业机会均等委员会EEOC(cqual employment opportunity commission),这是根据1964年《民权法》设立的组织,1965年7月2日开始工作。其设立的目的,在于消除因种族、肤色、宗教、年龄、性别、民族等不同而产生的在就业、升迁、解雇、工资、考核、培训、培训期以及所有其他就业条件等方面的歧视,并促使雇主、工会和社区组织自愿提出以使就业机会均等能真正被付诸实施的行动计划。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版,第479页。
2 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》，上海文艺出版社2005年版,第261页。
3 参见马金瑜：“中国第一例变性人夫妻的爱情生活”,《南方人物周刊》2005年10月19日。
4 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》,上海文艺出版社2005年版,第257页。
5 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》，上海文艺出版社2005年版,第184页。
6 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》，上海文艺出版社2005年版,第246-253页。
1 徐显明：“百年前人权观念在中国的传播与百年后的人权入宪(代序)”,徐显明主编：《人权研究》第四卷,山东人民出版社2004年版,第8页。
2 王广辉：《比较宪法学》,北京大学出版社2007年版,第163-164页。
1 郑弋：“‘反就业歧视’呼唤立法”,载《江苏法制报》2007年1月8日。
1 薛宁兰：“由‘性骚扰’诉讼引发的立法思考”,载中国法学网http://www.iolaw.org.cn/showarticle.asp?id=1134.
1 刘士国：“类型化与民法解释”,《法学研究》2006年第6期。
1 邵娜：“论禁止歧视的宪法学之门”,载《广西政法管理干部学院学报》2009年第6期。
1 Karly A. Grossman, Transsexuals and the Legal Determination of Sex, Family Law Quarterly, Fall 2005.
1、刘士国.现代侵权损害赔偿研究[M].北京：法律出版社,1998.
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2.Bailey Dirmann Morse, Comparing Civilian Treatment of Transsexual Marriage: Why Louisiana Should Implement the French Approach, Loyola Law Review, Spring 2008.
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4. Shannon H. Tan, When Steve is Fired for Becoming Susan:Why Courts and Legislators Need to Protect Transgender Employees From Discrimination, Stetson Law Review, Winter 2008.
5.Michele Westhoff, An Examination of Prisoners' Constitutional Right to Healthcare:Theory and Practice,Health Lawyer, August,2008.
6.Jason Allen, A Quest for Acceptance:The Real Id Act and the Need for Comprehensive Gender Recognition Legislation in the United States, Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,2008.
7.Kristin Wenstrom, "What the Birth Certificate Shows":An Argument to Remove Surgical Requirements From Birth Certificate Amendment Policies, Law and Sexuality:A Review of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues,2008.
8.Amanda S.Eno, The Misconception of "Sex" in Title VII:Federal Courts Reevaluate Transsexual Employment Discrimination Claims, Tulsa Law Review, Spring 2008.
9.J. Denise Diskin, Taking It to the Bank:Actualizing Health Care Equality for San Francisco's Transgender City and County Employees, Hastings Race and Poverty Law Journal, Winter 2008.
10. Sheelagh McGuinness, Amel Alghrani, Gender and Parenthood:The case for Realignment, Medical Law Review, Summer 2008.
11.Michael O'Flaherty, John Fisher, Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and International Human Rights Law:Contextualising the Yogyakarta Principles, Human Rights Law Review,2008.
12.Holning Lau,Sexual Orientation & Gender Identity:American Law in Light of East Asian Developments, Harvard Journal of Law & Gender, Winter 2008.
13.Andrew Gilden, Toward a More Transformative Approach:The Limits of Transgender Formal Equality, Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law & Justice,2008.
14.Sonja Shield,The Doctor Won't See You Now:Rights of Transgender Adolescents to Sex Reassignment Treatment,New York University Review of Law and Social Change,2007.
15.Leah Shams-Molkara, Crossing the Great Sexual Divide:Transsexuals Seeking Redress Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Saint John's Law Review, Winter 2007.
16.Colleen C.Keaney, Expanding the Protectional Scope of Title VII "Because of Sex" to Include Discrimination Based on Sexuality and Sexual Orientation,Saint Louis University Law Journal, Winter 2007.
17.Yael Lee Aura Shy, "Like any Other Girl":Male-to-Female Transsexuals and Professional Sports, Sports Lawyers Journal, Spring 2007.
18.Elisabeth McDonald, Discrimination and Trans People:The Abandoned Peoposal to Amend to Amend the Human Rights Act 1993,New Zealand Journal of Public and International Law, December 2007.
19.Anne C.DeCleene, The Reality of Gender Ambiguity:A Road Toward Transgender, Law and Sexuality:A Review of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues,2007.
20.Dr. Lisa Fishbayn, "Not Quite One Gender or the Other" Marriage Law and the Containment of Gender Trouble in the United Kingdom, American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy and the Law,2007.
21.Harper Jean Tobin, Against the Surgical Requirement for Change of Legal sex, Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law,2006-2007.
22.James T. Tsai, Foreword:International Justice and Shifting Paradigms Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law,2006-2007.
23.Darren Rosenblum, Parity/Disparity:Electoral Gender Inequality on the Tightrope of LIBERAL Constitutional Traditions, U.C.Davis Law Review, March 2006.
24.Nikko Harada,Trans-Literacy Within Eighth Amendment Jurisprudence: De/Fusing Gender and Sex, New Mexico Law Review, Summer 2006.
25.Kari J.Carter, The Best Interest Test and Child Custody:Why Transgender Should not be a Factor in Custody Determinations, Health Matrix:Journal of Law-Medicine, Winter 2006.
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27.Laura K. Langley, Self-determination in a Gender Fundamentalist State:Toward Legal Liberation of Transgender Identities, Texas Journal on Civil Liberties & Civil Rights, Fall 2006.
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32.Leslie A. Farber, A Primer to Transgender Legal Issues and Practice, New Jersey Lawyer, the Magazine April,2006.
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1、http://www.hbigda.org
2、http://www.transgendercare.com
3、http://www.wpath.org
4、http://www.lawatwork.com/hot-topics/health_care/index.html
5、http://www.transgenderlaw.org
6、http://www.aclu.org/
7、http://www.zhengxing168.com
8、http://www.upb.cc/zhengxing/4039.html
9、http://www.srschina.com/index.html
2 参见江中帆：“‘变性官司’击中法律盲点”,载吴元浩主编：《权益纠纷》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第7-11页。
2 参见2007年2月郑州市二七区人民法院受理的“五旬男子状告医院变性手术不成功”案,http://legal.northeast.cn/system/2007/02/15/050707981.shtml,最后访问时间：2009年3月1日。
4 2009年6月21日我国卫生部颁布《变性手术技术管理规范(征求意见稿)》,至本文截稿日尚未出台正式通过的规范。
5 李醒明：《科学精神与人的价值》,载《自然辨证法研究》,1998年第1期。
6 孙美堂：《对作为我国法律基础的人的价值观的检讨》,载《湖南科技大学学报》(社会科学版),2004年第2期。
7 邢贲思：《费尔巴哈的人本主义》,上海人民出版社,1981年版,第47-56页。
1 参见吕世伦主编：《现代西方法学流派》(下卷),中国大百科全书出版社,2000年版,第1117页。
2 参见陈焕然和陆利平：“变性手术立法当议”,载《科技与法律》2002年第1期,第70页。
1 生存条件说认为：“人权指的是那些人之生存所必需的、基本的、不可剥夺的权利”。参见国际人权法教程项目组编写：“国际人权法教程”第1卷,中国政法大学出版社2002年版,第11页。
2 观念说认为“人权概念就是这样一种观念：存在某些无论被承认与否都在一切时候和场合属于全体人类的权利,人们凭其作为人就享有这些权利,而不论其在国籍、宗教、性别、社会身份、职业、财富、财产或其他任何种族、文化或社会特性方面的差异。”参见[英]A.J.M米尔恩：《人的权利与人的多样性——人权哲学》,夏勇、张志铭译,中国大百科全书出版社1995年版,第2页。
3 价值确认说认为：“人权不过是人的价值的社会承认,是人区别于动物的观念上的、政治上的、法律上的标准”“法律意义上的人权被称为公民权(或公民的基本权利等),公民是把人权观念普遍化和实体化的媒体”。参见徐显明主编：《公民权利义务通论》,群众出版社1991年版,第467页。
4 个体说认为：人权“与一般意义上的权利明显不同,其独特性体现在……人权的权利主体和义务主体通常是现实的个体的人,人权的义务主体则是社会公权力的实际拥有者和行使者,或说是国家(政府)”。参见张文显主编：《马克思主义法理学——理论、方向和前沿》,高等教育出版社2003年版,第307页。
5 人性说认为：“人权是人按其自然属性和社会本质所应当享有的权利”。参见李步云：《走向法治》,湖南人民出版社1998年版,第404页。
1 Paisley Currah, Richard M.Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press.2006. Introduction Pxiii-xiv.
2 Shannon Price Minter, Do Transsexuals Dream of Gay Rights? Getting Real about Transgender Inclusion. In Paisley Currah, Richard M. Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006, p.158.
1 [英]克莱尔·奥维、罗宾·怀特：《欧洲人权法·原则与判例》(第三版),何志鹏、孙璐译,北京大学出版社2006年版,第300页。
2 The Hon.Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law. In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005, P62-63.
1 1998年欧洲人权法院改革之前,案件审理程序比较复杂。任何个人、民间团体以及非政府组织提交欧洲人权法院的案件必须首先提交欧洲人权委员会,该委员会确定可以受理后,将写出报告提交欧洲委员会部长委员会讨论。欧洲人权委员会或涉案国如果在三个月内不向人权法院提出审理要求,则由部长委员会裁决。1997年欧洲委员会第二次首脑会议决定,从1998年11月起正式启动单一欧洲人权法院,取消欧洲人权委员会,成员国公民、民间团体和非政府组织可以直接向法院起诉。
2 See The Hon. Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law, In Helmut Graupner, Phillip Tahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005,P64-66.
1(1987)9 E.H.R.R.56.
2(1987)9 E.H.R.R.56,para.37.
3 See The Hon. Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law, In Helmut Graupner. Phillip Tahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005, P67-68.
4(1987)9E.H.R.R.56,para.49.
5(1990)13E.H.R.R.622.
1 (1990)13 E.H.R.R.622,para.42.
2(1990)13 E.H.R.R.622,para.46.
3 See The Hon. Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law, In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005, P69-70.
1 《欧洲人权公约》第3条规定：“任何人不得被施以酷刑,亦不得被施以非人道的或有损人格的待遇或惩罚。
2 See The Hon. Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law, In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005. P71-73.
3 (1997)24 E.H.R.R.143.
1 See The Hon. Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law. In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005, P75-76.
2 《欧洲人权公约》第14条规定：“应确保人人无区别地享有本公约所列举的权利和自由,尤其不得基于性别、种族、肤色、语言、宗教、政治或其他方面的见解、民族或社会本源、属于少数民族、财产、出身或其他情况而予以歧视。”
3 参见[英]克莱尔·奥维、罗宾·怀特：《欧洲人权法·原则与判例》(第三版),何志鹏、孙璐译,北京大学出版社2006年版,第335-340页。
4(2002) 35E.H.R.R.18.
5(2002)35E.H.R.R.18,paras.90-93.
6 See The Hon.Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law, In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005, P85-86.
1 See Paisley Currah, Richard M. Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006, Appendix.
1 黄世席,魏静：“论变性人参加奥运会的权利”,《体育与科学》,2007年第3期。
1 吕娟：“假若性别消失”,《法律与生活》,2004年第1期。
2 吕娟：“假若性别消失”,《法律与生活》,2004年第1期。
3 Taylor Flynn, The Ties that [don't] Bind:Transgender Family Law and the Unmaking of Families,in Paisley Currah, Richard M.Juang.and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006, P34.
4 Sara R. Benson. Hacking The Gender Binary Myth:Recognizing Fundamental Rights For the Intersexed[J].Cardozo Journal of Law & Gender. Fall 2005.
1 Sara R. Benson, Hacking The Gender Binary Myth:Recognizing Fundamental Rights For the Intersexed, Cardozo Journal of Law & Gender. Fall 2005.
1 See Julie A. Greenberg,Marybeth Herald,You Can't Take it with You:Constitutional Consequences of Interstate Gender-Identity Rulings, Washington Law Review, November,2005.
2 See Saenz v. Roe,526 U.S.489,498(1999).
1 22 U.S.1(1824).
2 Goodridge v. Dep't of Pub. Health,798 N.E.2d 941,955-57 (Mass.2003).
3 See Julie A. Greenberg,Marybeth Herald,You Can't Take it with You:Constitutional Consequences of Interstate Gender-Identity Rulings. Washington Law Review,November,2005.
1 Reed v.Reed,404 U.S.71,76(1971).
2 Hartin v. Dir. of the Bureau of Records,347 N.Y.S.2d 515,518 (N.Y.Sup. Ct.1973)
1 See Julie A. Greenberg,Marybeth Herald,You Can't Take it with You:Constitutional Consequences of Interstate Gender-Identity Rulings. Washington Law Review,November,2005.
2 See Julie A. Greenberg,Marybeth Herald, You Can't Take it with You:Constitutional Consequences of Interstate Gender-Identity Rulings. Washington Law Review,November,2005.
1 焦洪昌,李树忠：《宪法教学案例》,中国政法大学出版社1999年版,第68页。
2 (美)詹姆斯·M·伯恩斯等：《民治政府》,陆震纶等译,中国社会科学出版社1996年版,第211页。
1 参见徐显明：“百年前人权观念在中国的传播与百年后的人权入宪(代序)”,徐显明主编：《人权研究》第四卷,山东人民出版社2004年版,第7-8页。
2 [英]洛克：《政府论(下卷)》,叶启芳、瞿菊农译,商务印书馆1964版,第5页。
1 参见林喆：《公民基本人权法律制度研究》,北京大学出版社2006年版,第27页。
2 参见林喆：《公民基本人权法律制度研究》,北京大学出版社2006年版,第29页。
3 参见林喆：《公民基本人权法律制度研究》,北京大学出版社2006年版,第34页。
4 参见林喆：《公民基本人权法律制度研究》,北京大学出版社2006年版,第35页。
5 [日]松井茂记：“论自己决定权”,莫纪红译,载《外国法译评》,1996年第3期,第11页。
1 易顶强：“性别变更权利的宪法思考”,载《长沙理工大学学报》(社会科学版),2007年第3期。
2 参见谭红：《人身权利的宪政之维》,山东人民出版社2009年版,第12页。
3 参见林喆：《公民基本人权法律制度研究》,北京大学出版社2006年版,第38页。
4 参见林喆：《公民基本人权法律制度研究》,北京大学出版社2006年版,第38页。
5 易顶强：“性别变更权利的宪法思考”,载《长沙理工大学学报》(社会科学版),2007年第3期
1 陈焕然、陆利平：“变性手术立法刍议”,载《科技与法律》2002年第1期。
2 参见“生命法哲学”,载法律博客网站http://jyfz.com.cn,最后浏览时间2007年3月1日。
1 参见马金瑜：“中国第一例变性人夫妻的爱情生活”,载《南方人物周刊》2005年10月19日。
2 参见马俊驹：《人格和人格权理论讲稿》,法律出版社2009年版,第21页。
3 参见马俊驹：《人格和人格权理论讲稿》,法律出版社2009年版,第22页。
1 参见王利明：《人格权法研究》,中国人民大学出版社2005年版,第14-15页。
1 尹田：“论人格权的本质”,载《法学研究》2003年第4期。
2 龙卫球：“论自然人人格权及其当代进路——兼论宪法秩序与民法实证主义”,载《清华法学》2002年第2辑。
3 马俊驹：“论作为私法上权利的人格权”,载《法学》2005年第12期。
4 参见谭红：《人身权利的宪政之维》,山东人民出版社2009年版,第36-40页。
5 参见马俊驹：“论作为私法上权利的人格权”,载《法学》2005年第12期。
1 John Money, Sex Errors of the Body and Related Syndromes:A Guide to Counseling Children,Adolescents, and Their Families, Paul H.Brookes Publishing Co.,1994, P4.
1 See http://www.transgendercare.com/guidance/resources/ictlep_soc.htm(last visited on March 5,2010).
1 陈焕然、陆利平：“变性手术立法刍议”,载《科技与法律》，2002年第1期。
2 王炜：《整形外科学》(下册),浙江科学技术出版社1999年版,第1642页。
3参见http://apps.who.int/classifications/apps/icd/icd 1 Oonline/.最后访问时间：2010年3月5日。
4参见http://allpsych.com/disorders/dsm.html.最后访问时间：2010年3月5日。
5 Walter Meyer Ill,M.D.,et al,The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association's Standards of Care for Gender Identity Disorders, Sixth Version, at http://www.hbigda.org/socv6.cfm,last visited: March 5,2010.
6刘春霞：“中国至少十万人欲变性,有千人已做手术”,载《上海青年报》2005年1月18日。
1 The Hon.Lord Robert Reed, Transsexuals and European Human Rights Law, In Helmut Graupner, PhillipTahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights:A Global Overview, Harrington Park Press,2005,P52.
1 王炜：《整形外科学》(下册),浙江科学技术出版社1999年版,第1643页。
2 Walter Meyer Ill, M.D., et al,The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association's Standards of Care for Gender Identity Disorders, Sixth Version, at http://www.hbigda.org/socv6.cfm,last visited: March 5,2010.
3 王炜：《整形外科学》(下册),浙江科学技术出版社1999年版,第1644页。
1 王炜：《整形外科学》(下册),浙江科学技术出版社1999年版,第1646页。
1 参见刘景峰：“变性：怎一个“切”字了得!?”,载《医药经济报》2009年06月25日。
2 陈焕然、陆利平：“变性手术立法刍议”,载《科技与法律》，2002年第1期。
3 Walter Meyer Ill,M.D., et al,The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association's Standards of Care for Gender Identity Disorders.Sixth Version, at http://www.hbigda.org/socv6.cfm,last visited:March 5,2010.
1 See http://www.transgendercare.com/guidance/resources/ictlep_soc.htm(last visited on March 5,2010).
1 孙福川,尹梅：“过度医疗的伦理学会诊及其治疗处方——兼论临床诊治最优化伦理准则”,载《医学与哲学》,2003年第9期。
1 See Walter Meyer Ill,M.D., et al, The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association's Standards of Care for Gender Identity Disorders, Sixth Version, at http://www.wpath.org/publications_standards.cfm.
1 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第744-745页。
2 李政：“身份证男变女,全国首例变性女变证惊动公安部”,载《天府早报》,2000年4月2日。
3 邓志辉：“变性之后期待社会认同”,载《人民公安》,2003年第1期。
1 王炜：《整形外科学》(下册),浙江科学技术出版社1999年版,第1646页。
1 参见：http://www.upb.cc/zhengxing/4039.html,http://www.zhengxing168.com/2009/3-20/200932019418.htm,2009年12月16日访问。
1 王德利：“只要给10-50万就可帮你变性”,载《重庆晚报》2009年6月18日。
2 参见江中帆：“‘变性官司’击中法律盲点”,载吴元浩主编：《权益纠纷》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第7-10页。
1 参见江中帆：“‘变性官司’击中法律盲点”,载吴元浩主编：《权益纠纷》,上海人民出版社2009年版,第10页。
2 参见江中帆：“‘变性官司’击中法律盲点”,载吴元浩主编：《权益纠纷》,上海人民山版社2009年版,第11页。
1 另一个公共医疗保障计划是老年人医疗照顾(Medicare)。
2 Dean Spade, Documenting Gender, Hastings Law Journal, March 2008.
3 330 F.3d 630 (4th Cir.2003)
4 249 F.3d 755(8th Cir.2001)
5 211 F.2d 1275(9th Cir.2000)
6 221 F. Supp.2d 156 (D. Mass.2002)
7 130 F.Supp.2d 648 (E.D. Pa.2001)
8 731 F. Supp.792(W.D. Mich.1990)
1 Dean Spade, Documenting Gender, Hastings Law Journal, March 2008.
2 Dean Spade, Documenting Gender, Hastings Law Journal,March 2008.
1 OutFront Minnesota, Minnesota public benefits and gender reassignment, http://www.outfront.org/library/pubbenefits. (last visited Jan.28,2010).
2 Ralph Thomas, State Tries to Rule Out Aid for Sex Change Surgery, Seattle Times, Aug.7,2006.
3 Nick Gorton & Gabriel Arkles, Comments at the Transgender Access to Health Care Panel at the Williams Institute Annual Sexual Orientation Law Update, University of California at Los Angeles School of Law (Feb.23,2007).
1 754 N.Y.S.2d 846
2 Shannon Wilber et al.,CWLA Best Practices Guidelines:Serving LGBT Youth in Out-of-Home Care 58 (2006).
3 Dean Spade, Documenting Gender,Hastings Law Journal,March 2008.
4 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs.Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
5 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》,上海文艺出版社2005年版,第271-272页
1 刘国生、王正苍：“关于美国变性人歧视问题介绍”,载《法律与医学杂志》2007年第14卷(第4期)。
2 张奇林、杨红燕：《中国医疗保障制度改革研究》,武汉大学出版社2007年版,第16-21页。
1 Corbett v. Corbett,[1970] 2 All E.R.33,88.
2 Jason Allen, A Quest for Acceptance:the Real ID Act and the Need for Comprehensive Gender Recognition Legislation in the United States, Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,2008.
3 参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_Recognition_Act_2004,2009年12月14日访问。
1 Franklin H. Romeo. Beyond a Medical Model:Advocating for a New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
2 Tenn.Code Ann.§68-3-203(d)(2006).
3 在英美法中,事实问题(question of fact),指有争议的事实,通常由陪审团来认定,在无陪审团参加审判时,由法官认定。在上诉审中,一般不再审查事实问题。法律问题(question of law),指有关法律适用或法律解释的问题,由法官来决定。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第1134页。
4简易判决(summary judgment),指当事人对案件中的主要事实(material facts)不存在真正的争议(genuine issue)或案件仅涉及法律问题时,法院不经开庭审理而及早解决案件的一种方式。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》法律出版社2003年版第1309页。
5 9 S.W.3d 223
6 273 Kan.191.42 P.3d 120
1 884 So.2d 155
2 Karly A. Grossman, Transsexuals and the Legal Determination of Sex, Family Law Quarterly, Fall 2005.
3 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第749页。
4 刘国生：《关于变性手术后的法律文件更改实践及启示》,《法律与医学杂志》,2006年第13卷(第3期),第242 页。
1 张迎秀：《结婚制度研究》,山东大学出版社2009年版,第274页。
2 Richard F. Storrow, Naming the Grotesque Body in the "Nascent Jurisprudence of Transsexualism," Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,1997.
3 Walter Meyer III, M.D.,et al. The Harry Benjamin International Gender Dysphoria Association's Standards of Care for Gender Identity Disorders,Sixth Version.at http://www.wpath.org/publications_standards.cfm.
1 Franklin H. Romeo, Beyond a Medical Model:Advocating for a New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
1 Jerry L. Dasti.Advocating a Broader Understanding of the Necessity of Sex-Reassignment Surgery Under Medicaid, New York University Law Review. December,2002.
2 Franklin H. Romeo, Beyond A Medical Model:Advocating for A New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
3 355A.2d204
4 Taylor, No.03CA1753,2003 WL 22382512 at*1 (D.C. Super.2003).
5 816A.2d 68(Md.2003).
1 Kantaras v. Kantaras,884 So.2d 155 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App.2004)
2 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第749页。
3 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第748页。
1 根据日文版法律条文,由山东政法学院张永平老师翻译。日文版法律参见附录三。
2 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第749-750页。
1 Pinneke v. Preisser,623 F.2d 546(8th Cir.1980).
2 Smith v. Rasmussen,249 F.3d 755 (8th Cir.2001).
3 Karly A. Grossman, Transsexuals and the Legal Determination of Sex. Family Law Quarterly, Fall 2005.
4 American Psychological Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 532-37 (4th ed.1994).
1 Franklin H.Romeo, Beyond a Medical Model:Advocating for a New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
2 See Jerry L. Dasti,Advocating a Broader Understanding of the Necessity of Sex-Reassignment Surgery Under Medicaid, New York University Law Review, December,2002.
1 For example, Vecchione v Vecchione, Kantaras v Kantaras,In re Estate of Gardinar,In re Heiling, Attorney General v. Kevin, Attorney General v. Otahuhu Family Court, I.v. The United Kingdom;Goodvin v. The United Kingdom. See Julie A. Greenberg, The Roads Less Traveled:The Problem with Binary Sex Categories, in Paisley Currah. Richard M. Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press, P
2 本文对该法的介绍是根据维基网对该法的介绍及笔者对英文条文的翻译,参见http：//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_Recognition_Act_2004(2009年12月14日访问)。对该法尚有其他中文译法：“性别确认法”、“性别识别法”,此处根据本章主旨,兼顾前后文行文方便,在此译为《性别确认法》。
1 参见“无需做手术登记可‘变性’西班牙政府通过新提案”,载《新民晚报》2006年06月03日
2 Sara R. Benson, Hacking The Gender Binary Myth:Recognizing Fundamental Rights For the Intersexed, Cardozo Journal of Law & Gender, Fall 2005.
1 Richard F. Storrow, Naming the Grotesque Body in the "Nascent Jurisprudence of Transsexualism," Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,1997.
2 Megan Bell, Transsexuals and the Law, Northwestern University Law Review,Summer 2004.
3 In re Heilig,816 A.2d 87 (Md.2003).
4 M.T. v. J.T.,355 A.2d 209 (N.J.Super. Ct. App. Div.1976).
5 Katie D. Fletche, Judge Lola Maddox, In Re Marriage of Simmons:A Case for Transsexual Marriage Recognition, Loyola University Chicago Law Journal, Spring 2006.
1 Taylor Flynn, The Ties that [don't] Bind:Transgender Family Law and the Unmaking of Families,in Paisley Currah, Richard M. Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006, P35.
1 黄丁全：《医疗法律与生命伦理》,法律出版社2007年修订版,第746页。
2 刘国生：《关于变性手术后的法律文件更改实践及启示》,《法律与医学杂志》,2006年第13卷(第3期),第240-241页。
1 刘国生：《关于变性手术后的法律文件更改实践及启示》,《法律与医学杂志》,2006年第13卷(第3期),第241页。
2 Sylvia Rivera Law Project, The Fight for Fair Access to Birth Certificates Continues, http://srlp.org/index.php? sec=03H&page=nycbc_newpolicy(last visited Jan.23,2010).
1 Mass. Registry of Motor Vehicles. Sex Change Policy (2004).
2 Sylvia Rivera Law Project, The Fight for Fair Access to Birth Certificates Continues, http://srlp.org/index.php? sec=03H&page=nycbc_newpolicy(last visited Jan.23,2010).
3 Dean Spade, Documenting Gender,Hastings Law Journal, March 2008.
1 R. Nick Gorton, Jamie Buth & Dean Spade. Medical Therapy and Health Maintenance for Transgender Men:A Guide for Health Care Providers 80 (2005),available at http://www.nickgorton.org.
2 Dean Spade. Documenting Gender, Hastings Law Journal, March 2008.
3 Lambda Legal,Amending Birth Certificates To Reflect Your Correct Sex:In re Birth Certificate Amendment of John Doe (Nov.12,2002), http://www.lambdalegal.org/our-work/publications/facts-backgrounds/page-31991108.html(last visited Jan.22,2009).
Damien Cave, No Change in Definition of Gender, New York Times, Dec.6.
2 270 N.Y.S.2d 319(N.Y.Sup. Ct.1966)
3 293 N.Y.S.2d 834,835 (N.Y.Civ. Ct.1968).
1 347 N.Y. S.2d 515.
2 398 N.Y.S.2d 99 (N.Y.Sup. Ct.1977).
3 See Dean Spade, Leave Behind for Department of Vital Statistics, http://srlp.org/documents/bc leave behind.html(last visited Jan.15,2008).
4 Lisa Mottet & John M.Ohle, Transitioning Our Shelters, A Guide To Making Homeless Shelters Safe for Transgender People 12 (2003), http://thetaskforce.org/downloads/reports/reports/TransitioningOurShelters.pdf
1 See Harper Jean Tobin, Against the Surgical Requirement for Change of Legal Sex,38 Case W. Res. J.Int'l L.393,401(2006-07).
2 See Dean Spade, Leave Behind for Department of Vital Statistics, http: //srlp.org/documents/bc leave behind.html (last visited Jan.15,2008).
3 See Tenn. Code Ann.§68-3-203(d) (2006) ("The sex of an individual will not be changed on the original certificate of birth as a result of sex change surgery.").
4 See Dean Spade, Leave Behind for Department of Vital Statistics, http: //srlp.org/documents/bc_leave_behind.html (last visited Jan.15,2008).
1 陈焕然、陆利平：“变性手术立法刍议”,载《科技与法律》2002年第1期。
1 参见姚秀兰：“论中国户籍制度的演变与改革”,载《法学》2004年第5期。
2 陈焕然、陆利平：“变性手术立法刍议”,《科技与法律》2002年第1期。
1 邓志辉：“变性之后期待社会认同”,载《人民公安》,2003年第1期.
2 参见马金瑜：“中国第一例变性人夫妻的爱情生活”,载《南方人物周刊》2005年10月19日。
3 梁晓琴、唐胜建：“易性癖诊治前后的几点思考”,医学与哲学,2007年第8期。
1 Defense of Marriage Act, Pub. L. No.104-199,110 Stat.2419(1996) (codified at 1 U.S.C. §7 and 28 U.S.C. §1738C(2000)).
2 852 P.2d 44 (Haw.1993)
1 美国联邦宪法第四条第一款规定：“每个州对于他州的公共法律、案卷和司法程序,应给予充分信任和尊重(fullfaith and credit)。国会得以一般法律规定这类法律、案卷和司法程序如何证明和具有的效力。
2 Jason Manning, Backgrounder:The Defense of Marriage Act, Online News Hour, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/law/gay marriage/act.html (last visited Mar.29,2008)
3 Wash.Rev. Code Ann.§26.04.010 (West 2006).
4 see DOMA Watch, Issues by State, http://www.domawatch.org/stateissues/index.html (last visited Mar.20, 2008).
5 A. Spencer Bergstedt, Estate Planning and the Transgender Client,Western New England Law Review,2008.
6 825 N.E.2d 303 (111.App.Ct.2005)
7 884 So.2d 155,161(Fla. Dist. Ct. App.2004)
1 杨遂全等：《婚家庭法新论》,法律出版社2003年版,第8页。
2 巫昌祯：《婚姻与继承法学》,中国政法大学出版社2001年版,第26页。
3 杨大文：《姻婚家庭法》,中国人民大学出版社2000年版,第3页。
4 曾宪义：《以案说法新版—婚姻家庭法篇》,中国人民大学出版社2005年版第33页。
5 杨大文教授语。参见：代小琳：“兰州变性人可结婚法律专家：宽容成全变性人婚姻”,载《北京晨报》,2003年9月12日。
1 王炜：《整形外科学》(下册),浙江科学技术出版社1999年版,第1646页。
1 张迎秀：《结婚制度研究》,山东大学出版社2009年版,第286页。
2 743 S.W.2d 766(Mo.App.1997)
1 715 P.2d 56 (Nev. S. Ct.1986)
2 516 P.2d 132(Colo.App.1973)
3 884 So.2d 155
1 estoppel,含义为“不容否认”,是指禁止当事人提出与其以前的言行相反的主张；即对于当事人先前的行为、主张或否认,禁止其在此后的法律程序中反悔,否则将会对他人造成损害。它可分为三种：因立有契据而不容否认、因已记录在案而不容否认和因既有行为而不容否认,其中,前两种又称普通法上的不容否认,后一种称为衡平法上的不容否认。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第495页。
2 de facto,含义为“实际上的；事实上的”,指虽不合法,但因实际目的而必须予以承认的职位、政府或事实状态等。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第384页。
1 张迎秀：《结婚制度研究》,山东大学出版社2009年版,第288页。
1 张迎秀：《结婚制度研究》,山东大学出版社2009年版,第289页。
1 参见《消除对妇女一切形式歧视公约》(GCHIJ)第11(1)(a)条。
2 参见1958年国际劳工大会《就业和职业歧视公约》
1 Stephen B.Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 127 N.J.Super.13,316 A.2d 39 (N.J. Super. Ct., App. Div.1974).
3 liberty interest,自由权益,指美国宪法和州宪法的正当程序条款(due process clause)所确认和保障的权益(见美国宪法第五条和第十四条修正案),一般包括：(1)美国宪法修正案前八条所保护的自由权；(2)各州通过立法或行政途径对其裁量权进行限制,并要求决策应遵循特定标准而产生的自由利益。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第845页。
4 No.001060A,2000 WL 33162199 (Mass. Super. Ct. Oct.11,2000).
5 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs. Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
1 《1973年残疾人正常活动法》(Rehabilitation Act 1973),一项联邦立法。规定在各项由联邦提供财政支援的活动和计划中,对身心不健全者,不得仅仅因其残疾而拒绝其加、不给予其应享有的利益或存有任何歧视。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社，003年版第1172页。也有学者根据字面含义译为“修复法”、“复兴法”,但笔者认为根据法律内容,元照法律词典的解释更为适宜。
2 Stephen B.Thomas, Ed.D.and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 Shannon H.Tan, When Steve is Fired for Becoming Susan:Why Courts and Legislators Need to Protect Transgender Employees From Discrimination, Stetson Law Review, Winter 2008.
2 403 F. Supp.456(N. D. Cal.1975).
3 1975 U. S. Dist. LEXIS 16261 (September 10,1975).
4 KylarW. Broadus,The Evolution of Employment Discrimination Protections for Transgender People, in Paisley Currah, Richard M.Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006, P94-95.
5 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir.1984).
6 490 U.S.228(1989).
1 Meritor,477 U.S.57.
2 523 U.S.75(1998).
3 Shannon H.Tan,When Steve is Fired for Becoming Susan:Why Courts and Legislators Need to Protect Transgender Employees From Discrimination,Stetson Law Review, Winter 2008.
4 378 F.3d 566 (6th Cir.2004)
1 401 F.3d 729, cert, denied,126 S.Ct.624 (2005)
2 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs. Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
3 165 F. Supp.2d 964 (D.Minn.2001)
4 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs. Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
1 See the Taskforce, State Nondiscrimination Laws in the U.S(last updated on July 1,2009),in http: //www.thetaskforce.org/reports and research/nondiscrimination laws.
2 Abigail W. Lloyd, Student Author, Defining the Human:Are Transgendered People Strangers to the Law? Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law & Justice,2005.
3 No.98 BEM 3695,2001 WL 1602800(Mass. Comm'n Against Discrim. Oct.10,2001)
4 No.013117J,2002 WL 31492397 (Mass. Super. Ct. Oct.7,2002)
5 “初步证明的案件”prima facie case,有两种含义：(1)原告提出的证据足以支持其诉讼请求,从而可以将案件交付陪审团裁断；(2)原告已提出足以支持其诉讼请求的证据,如被告不能提出足以反驳的反证,法庭必然判决原告胜诉。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版第1088页。
6 777 A.2d 365(N.J.Super.Ct.App.Div.2001).
1 No. Civ.02-5441 RBK,2005 WL 2143972 (D.N.J. Sept.2,2005).
2 850 F.Supp.284 (E.D. Pa.1993)
3 No. CV 950553003,1997 WL 78585 (Conn. Super. Ct. Feb.4,1997)
4 857 F. Supp.96 (D.D.C.1994)
5 Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.Nolan, "Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs. Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
6 刘国生、王正苍：“关于美国变性人歧视问题介绍”,《法律与医学杂志》2007年第4期)。
7 337 F. Supp.2d 996 (N.D. Ohio 2003).
1 See Natl.Gay & Lesbian Task Force, Jurisdictions with Explicitly Transgender-Inclusive Nondiscrimination Laws, http://www.thetaskforce.org/downloads/reports/fact_sheets/alljurisdictions_w_pop_4_08.pdf (updated Apr.2008).
2 Chad A. Readier, Student Author, Local Government Anti-Discrimination Laws:Do They Make a Difference? 31 U. Mich.J.L. Reform 777,797(1998). University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform,Spring 1998.
3 Stephen B.Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 313 F.3d 758 (2d Cir.2002).
2 Ulane v. Eastern Airlines,742 F.2d 1081,1087 (7th Cir.1984).
3 Ashlie v. Chester-Upland Sch. Dist., No.78-4037,1979 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 12516, at a5 (E.D. Pa. May 9, 1979).
1 Sommers v. Budget Mktg.,Inc.,667 F.2d 748 (8th Cir.1982)
2 Doe v.Boeing,846 P.2d 531 (Wash.1993)
3 Goins v. West Group, CX-00-706,2001 Minn.LEXIS 839 (Minn.Dec.31,2001).
4 850 F.Supp.284 (E.D. Pa.1993).
3 Stephen B. Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 Nelda H. Cambron-Mccabe, Martha M. Mccarthy,& Stephen B. Thomas, Public School Law,5th ed. Allyn and Bacon Publishers,2004, p.367.
2 524 U.S.775,118 S.Ct.2275,141 L.Ed.2d 662(1998);
3 524 U.S.742,118 S.Ct.2257,141 l.Ed.2d 633(1998).
4 Nelda H. Cambron-Mccabe, Martha M. Mccarthy,& Stephen B. Thomas, Public School Law,5th ed. Allyn and Bacon Publishers,2004, p.368-369.
5 626 N.Y.S.2d 391 (N.Y.Sup. Ct.1995).
6 Stephen B. Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges, & Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
1 No. C-1-00-780,2002 U. S. Dist. LEXIS 26207(S.D. Ohio March 8,2002).
2 Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins,490 U.S.228,109 S.Ct.1775,104 L.Ed.2d 268(1989).
3 McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green,411 U.S.792,93 S.Ct.1817,36 L.Ed.2d 668(1973).
4 No. IP02-0320-C-H/K,2003 WL 21525058,2003 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 11373(S.D. Ind. June 6,2003).
1 No.03-CV-0375E(SC),2003 WL 22757935,2003 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 23757(W.D.N.Y. Sept.26,2003)。
2 218 F.3d 932(8th Cir.2000).
3 155 F.3d 435 (4th Cir.1998).
4 Stephen B. Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder,Colleges.& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
5 378 F.3d 566 (6th Cir.2004).
1 就业机会均等委员会EEOC(cqual employment opportunity commission),这是根据1964年《民权法》设立的组织,1965年7月2日开始工作。其设立的目的,在于消除因种族、肤色、宗教、年龄、性别、民族等不同而产生的在就业、升迁、解雇、工资、考核、培训、培训期以及所有其他就业条件等方面的歧视,并促使雇主、工会和社区组织自愿提出以使就业机会均等能真正被付诸实施的行动计划。参见薛波主编：《元照英美法词典》,法律出版社2003年版,第479页。
2 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》，上海文艺出版社2005年版,第261页。
3 参见马金瑜：“中国第一例变性人夫妻的爱情生活”,《南方人物周刊》2005年10月19日。
4 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》,上海文艺出版社2005年版,第257页。
5 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》，上海文艺出版社2005年版,第184页。
6 参见吴兴人：《纠正上帝的错误》，上海文艺出版社2005年版,第246-253页。
1 徐显明：“百年前人权观念在中国的传播与百年后的人权入宪(代序)”,徐显明主编：《人权研究》第四卷,山东人民出版社2004年版,第8页。
2 王广辉：《比较宪法学》,北京大学出版社2007年版,第163-164页。
1 郑弋：“‘反就业歧视’呼唤立法”,载《江苏法制报》2007年1月8日。
1 薛宁兰：“由‘性骚扰’诉讼引发的立法思考”,载中国法学网http://www.iolaw.org.cn/showarticle.asp?id=1134.
1 刘士国：“类型化与民法解释”,《法学研究》2006年第6期。
1 邵娜：“论禁止歧视的宪法学之门”,载《广西政法管理干部学院学报》2009年第6期。
1 Karly A. Grossman, Transsexuals and the Legal Determination of Sex, Family Law Quarterly, Fall 2005.
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1.Mark A.Hall, Mary Anne Bobinski, David Orentlicher, Bioethics And Public Health Law, Aspen Publishers,2008.
2.Susan Stryker, Transgender History, Seal Press,2008.
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4.Paisley Currah, Richard M. Juang, and Shannon Price Minter, Transgender Rights, University of Minnesota Press,2006.
5.Richard Ekins, Dave King, The Transgender Phenomenon, SAGE Publications Ltd.,2006.
6.Helmut Graupner, Phillip Tahmindjis, Sexuality and Human Rights, Harrington Park Press,2005.
7.Colette Chiland, Exploring Transsexualism, H.Karnac(Books) Ltd.,2005.
8.Viviane Namaste, Sex Change, Social Change, Women's press,2005.
9.Nan D.Hunter, Courtney G. Joslin, Sharon M. McGowan, The Rights of Lesbians, Gay Men, Bisexuals, and Transgender People, Fourth Edition, Southern Illinois University Press,2004.
10.George J. Annas,American Bioethics:Crossing Human Rights and Health Law, Oxford University Press,2004.
11.Colette Chiland, Transsexualism, Wesleyan University Press,2003.
12.Leslie J.Moran, Daniel Monk and Sarah Beresford, Legal Queeries:Lesbians, Gay and Transgender Legal Studies, Cassell Wellington House,1998.
13.John Money, Sex Errors of the Body and Related Syndromes:A Guide to Counseling Children,Adolescents, and Their Families, Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., 1994
14.Anne Fausto-Sterling, Sexing the Body:Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality Basic Books,2000.
1.Brian P.McCarthy, Trans Employees and Personal Appearance Standards Under Title VII,Arizona Law Review,2008.
2.Bailey Dirmann Morse, Comparing Civilian Treatment of Transsexual Marriage: Why Louisiana Should Implement the French Approach, Loyola Law Review, Spring 2008.
3.Erika Birch, Rachel Otto, Is Legislation Necessary to Protect the Rights of Transgendered Employees? Advocate, October 2008.
4. Shannon H. Tan, When Steve is Fired for Becoming Susan:Why Courts and Legislators Need to Protect Transgender Employees From Discrimination, Stetson Law Review, Winter 2008.
5.Michele Westhoff, An Examination of Prisoners' Constitutional Right to Healthcare:Theory and Practice,Health Lawyer, August,2008.
6.Jason Allen, A Quest for Acceptance:The Real Id Act and the Need for Comprehensive Gender Recognition Legislation in the United States, Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,2008.
7.Kristin Wenstrom, "What the Birth Certificate Shows":An Argument to Remove Surgical Requirements From Birth Certificate Amendment Policies, Law and Sexuality:A Review of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues,2008.
8.Amanda S.Eno, The Misconception of "Sex" in Title VII:Federal Courts Reevaluate Transsexual Employment Discrimination Claims, Tulsa Law Review, Spring 2008.
9.J. Denise Diskin, Taking It to the Bank:Actualizing Health Care Equality for San Francisco's Transgender City and County Employees, Hastings Race and Poverty Law Journal, Winter 2008.
10. Sheelagh McGuinness, Amel Alghrani, Gender and Parenthood:The case for Realignment, Medical Law Review, Summer 2008.
11.Michael O'Flaherty, John Fisher, Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity and International Human Rights Law:Contextualising the Yogyakarta Principles, Human Rights Law Review,2008.
12.Holning Lau,Sexual Orientation & Gender Identity:American Law in Light of East Asian Developments, Harvard Journal of Law & Gender, Winter 2008.
13.Andrew Gilden, Toward a More Transformative Approach:The Limits of Transgender Formal Equality, Berkeley Journal of Gender, Law & Justice,2008.
14.Sonja Shield,The Doctor Won't See You Now:Rights of Transgender Adolescents to Sex Reassignment Treatment,New York University Review of Law and Social Change,2007.
15.Leah Shams-Molkara, Crossing the Great Sexual Divide:Transsexuals Seeking Redress Under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Saint John's Law Review, Winter 2007.
16.Colleen C.Keaney, Expanding the Protectional Scope of Title VII "Because of Sex" to Include Discrimination Based on Sexuality and Sexual Orientation,Saint Louis University Law Journal, Winter 2007.
17.Yael Lee Aura Shy, "Like any Other Girl":Male-to-Female Transsexuals and Professional Sports, Sports Lawyers Journal, Spring 2007.
18.Elisabeth McDonald, Discrimination and Trans People:The Abandoned Peoposal to Amend to Amend the Human Rights Act 1993,New Zealand Journal of Public and International Law, December 2007.
19.Anne C.DeCleene, The Reality of Gender Ambiguity:A Road Toward Transgender, Law and Sexuality:A Review of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues,2007.
20.Dr. Lisa Fishbayn, "Not Quite One Gender or the Other" Marriage Law and the Containment of Gender Trouble in the United Kingdom, American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy and the Law,2007.
21.Harper Jean Tobin, Against the Surgical Requirement for Change of Legal sex, Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law,2006-2007.
22.James T. Tsai, Foreword:International Justice and Shifting Paradigms Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law,2006-2007.
23.Darren Rosenblum, Parity/Disparity:Electoral Gender Inequality on the Tightrope of LIBERAL Constitutional Traditions, U.C.Davis Law Review, March 2006.
24.Nikko Harada,Trans-Literacy Within Eighth Amendment Jurisprudence: De/Fusing Gender and Sex, New Mexico Law Review, Summer 2006.
25.Kari J.Carter, The Best Interest Test and Child Custody:Why Transgender Should not be a Factor in Custody Determinations, Health Matrix:Journal of Law-Medicine, Winter 2006.
26.Mari Newman, Workplace Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity, Colorado Lawyer, April 2006.
27.Laura K. Langley, Self-determination in a Gender Fundamentalist State:Toward Legal Liberation of Transgender Identities, Texas Journal on Civil Liberties & Civil Rights, Fall 2006.
28.Francine Tilewick Bazluke,Jeffrey J.,"Because of Sex":The Evolving Legal Riddle of Sexual vs.Gender Identity, Journal of College and University Law,2006.
29.Rebecca Mann, The Treatment of Transgender Prisoners, not Just an American Problem--a Comparative Analysis of American, Australian, and Canadian Prison Policies Concerning the Treatment of Transgender Prisoners and a "Universal" Recommendation to Improve treatment, Law and Sexuality:A Review of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Legal Issues,2006.
30.Susan J.Becker, Many are Chilled, but Few are Frozen:How Transformative Learning in Popular Culture, Christianity, and Science Will Lead to the Eventual Demise of Legally Sanctioned Discrimination Against Sexual Minorities in the United States, American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy and the Law,2006.
31.Noa Ben-Asher, The Necessity of Sex Change:A Struggle for Intersex and Transsex Liberties,Harvard Journal of Law & Gender, Winter 2006.
32.Leslie A. Farber, A Primer to Transgender Legal Issues and Practice, New Jersey Lawyer, the Magazine April,2006.
33.Katie D. Fletche, Judge Lola Maddox, In Re Marriage of Simmons:A Case for Transsexual Marriage Recognition, Loyola University Chicago Law Journal, Spring 2006.
34.Michael Starr, Amy L.Strauss, Sex Stereotyping in Employment:Can the Center Hold? Labor Lawyer, Winter/Spring 2006.
35.Charles Thomas Little, Transsexuals and the Family Medical Leave Act, John Marshall Journal of Computer and Information Law, Winter 2006.
36.Sydney Tarzwell, The Ggender Lines are Marked with Razor Wire:Addressing State Prison Policies and Practices for the Management of Transgender Prisoners, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Fall 2006.
37. Stephen B. Thomas, Ed.D. and Valerie Riedthaler, Gender Identity Disorder, Colleges,& Federal Employment Law, West's Education Law Reporter, November 2,2006.
38.Leena D. Phadke, When Women aren't Women and Men aren't Men:The Problem of Transgender Sex Discrimination Under Title IX, University of Kansas Law Review, April 2006.
39.Susan Frelich Appleton, Contesting Gender in Popular Culture and Family Law: Middlesex and Other Transgender Tales, Indiana Law Journal,Spring 2005.
40. Franklin H. Romeo, Beyond a Medical Model:Advocating for a New Conception of Gender Identity in the Law, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, Summer 2005.
41.Robert E. Rains, Legal Recognition of Gender Change for Transsexual Persons in the United Kingdom:The Human Rights Act 1998 and "Compatibility" with European Human Rights Law, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, Winter 2005.
42.Christine G. Cooper,The Search for Sex Equality:A Perspective From the Podium on Law and Cultural Change, Loyola University of Chicago Law Journal,Winter 2005.
43.Julie A. Greenberg, Marybeth Herald, You can't Take it With You: Constitutional Consequences of Interstate Gender-identity Rulings, Washington Law Review, November 2005.
44.Dylan Vade, Expanding Gender and Expanding the Law:Toward a Social and Legal Conceptualization of Gender That is More Inclusive of Transgender People, Michigan Journal of Gender and Law,2005.
45.Marybeth Herald,Transgender Theory:Reprogramming Our Automated Setting, Thomas Jefferson Law Review, Fall 2005.
46.Karly A. Grossman, Transsexuals and the Legal Determination of Sex,Family Law Quarterly, Fall 2005.
47.Neil Dishman, The Expanding Rights of Transsexuals in the Workplace, Labor Lawyer, Fall 2005.
48.Joseph Landau,"Soft Immutability" and "Imputed Gay Identity":Recent Developments in Transgender and Sexual-Orientation-Based Asylum Law, Fordham Urban Law Journal, March 2005.
49.Marika E.Kitamura, Once a Woman, Always a Man? What Happens to the Children of Transsexual Marriages and Divorces?:The Effects of a Ttranssexual Marriage on Child Custody and Support Proceedings, Whittier Journal of Child and Family Advocacy, Fall 2005.
50.Bruce Carolan, Judicial Impediments to Legislating Equality for Same-sex Couples in the European Union, Tulsa Law Review, Spring 2005.
51.Nikolas Andreopoulos, Criminal Law-Kosilek v.Maloney:In Prison While Imprisoned in the Body of the Opposite Sex:Examining the Issue of "Cruel and Unusual Punishment" Presented by an Incarcerated Transsexual,Western New England Law Review, 2005.
52.Frederick J.Lewis, Whitney K.Fogerty, An Exemplar of Unintended Consequences:The Expanding View of "Sex" Protections in Post-oncale Title VII Cases, University of Memphis Law Review, Fall 2005.
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