任务型英语听力理解测试初探
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摘要
从上世纪末起,基于任务的语言教学就受到学者们的广泛认同,受此影响,基于任务的语言测试随之成为研究热点。它要求学生完成的任务模拟他们今后在测试环境以外参与活动时所表现出的行为,通过完成任务能体现出学生的综合能力,并能预测他们今后的能力表现,考察学生能做什么,而不是学到了什么。
在设计测试任务时如何确定任务难度是任务型语言测试中一个颇有争议的问题。虽然这项研究近几年有些发展,但是涉及到学习者本身的研究很少。然而,学生对任务难度的看法是最直接和最真实的。
本项研究以Skehan(1998)的任务认知难度框架为基础,从学生的视角初步研究了在任务型听力测试中影响任务难度的因素。任务难度框架中的难度因素是对学生认知过程的要求,以及对每一项任务所需要的条件,并考虑到学生各方面的综合能力指标而确定的。设计的假设是通过任务型听力测试可以了解到学生是否具有完成任务所需要的语言能力。研究结果表明:
学生自己对听力任务难度的理解可以用来预测其实际成绩;学生完成听力任务的表现与最初假设的任务难度成正相关,支持Skehan的任务认知难度框架。
这项研究从学生的视角归纳了在外语学习环境下影响听力任务难度的因素,并提出了在发展Skehan的任务认知难度框架的基础上建立一个适合我国英语教育任务型听力测试中任务难度判断框架的可行性。按认知难度排列教育任务并以这样的排序作为设计教学大纲的依据,这样将有助于设计语言新知识的学习顺序,可以据此重新建构外语教学目标,有效地促进外语教学的发展。
TBLT has been approbated by many specialists since 1990s. In succession, TBLA becomes a focus. It requires learners to perform activities that simulate the performances they will have to engage in outside the test situation and assesses their comprehensive competence by accomplishing tasks they will meet and operate in target language in future. It tests what candidates can do, but what they have learned.
To develop TBLA, how to identify task difficulty is a controversial problem. Although there are some researches on it in recent years, the disquisitions are at a rough level, and few of them come down to learners themselves, whose perspectives are the most directed and authentic. The study analyzes the factors that affect listening task difficulty from the learner’s perspective via the framework proposed by Skehan (1998), in which the items parallel to the demands of learners’cognitive process, including the guideline of their comprehensive competence. The results of the study show that:
Students’self-perception of task difficulty can be used to predict their actual task performance;
The hypothesized task difficulty set by the framework of Skehan (1998) does have influence on students’actual task performance.
The thesis concludes the factors affecting listening task difficulty from learners’perspective. It is feasible that a task difficulty framework, to be fit for task-based assessment of listening in China, should be set up, and can be used as a basis to arrange and rank teaching tasks in curriculum. It is helpful to frame the order of knowledge in language learning, re-construct the target of FLT, and promote it effectively.
在设计测试任务时如何确定任务难度是任务型语言测试中一个颇有争议的问题。虽然这项研究近几年有些发展,但是涉及到学习者本身的研究很少。然而,学生对任务难度的看法是最直接和最真实的。
本项研究以Skehan(1998)的任务认知难度框架为基础,从学生的视角初步研究了在任务型听力测试中影响任务难度的因素。任务难度框架中的难度因素是对学生认知过程的要求,以及对每一项任务所需要的条件,并考虑到学生各方面的综合能力指标而确定的。设计的假设是通过任务型听力测试可以了解到学生是否具有完成任务所需要的语言能力。研究结果表明:
学生自己对听力任务难度的理解可以用来预测其实际成绩;学生完成听力任务的表现与最初假设的任务难度成正相关,支持Skehan的任务认知难度框架。
这项研究从学生的视角归纳了在外语学习环境下影响听力任务难度的因素,并提出了在发展Skehan的任务认知难度框架的基础上建立一个适合我国英语教育任务型听力测试中任务难度判断框架的可行性。按认知难度排列教育任务并以这样的排序作为设计教学大纲的依据,这样将有助于设计语言新知识的学习顺序,可以据此重新建构外语教学目标,有效地促进外语教学的发展。
TBLT has been approbated by many specialists since 1990s. In succession, TBLA becomes a focus. It requires learners to perform activities that simulate the performances they will have to engage in outside the test situation and assesses their comprehensive competence by accomplishing tasks they will meet and operate in target language in future. It tests what candidates can do, but what they have learned.
To develop TBLA, how to identify task difficulty is a controversial problem. Although there are some researches on it in recent years, the disquisitions are at a rough level, and few of them come down to learners themselves, whose perspectives are the most directed and authentic. The study analyzes the factors that affect listening task difficulty from the learner’s perspective via the framework proposed by Skehan (1998), in which the items parallel to the demands of learners’cognitive process, including the guideline of their comprehensive competence. The results of the study show that:
Students’self-perception of task difficulty can be used to predict their actual task performance;
The hypothesized task difficulty set by the framework of Skehan (1998) does have influence on students’actual task performance.
The thesis concludes the factors affecting listening task difficulty from learners’perspective. It is feasible that a task difficulty framework, to be fit for task-based assessment of listening in China, should be set up, and can be used as a basis to arrange and rank teaching tasks in curriculum. It is helpful to frame the order of knowledge in language learning, re-construct the target of FLT, and promote it effectively.
引文
①Heaton, J. B. Testing for Language Tests [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000: 5.
②韩宝成.语言测试的新进展:基于任务的语言测试[J].外语教学与研究, 2003, (5): 352.
①Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998: 115.
②Nunan, D., Keobke, K. Task Difficulty from the Learners Perspective : Perceptions and Reality [J]. Hong Kong Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching, 1995, (18): 2.
③Brown, R. Group Work, Task Difference, and Second Language Acquisition [J]. Applied Linguistics, 1991, (11): 1-12
④Foster, P., Skehan, P. The Influence of Planning on Performance in Task-based Learning [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1996, (18): 299-324.
⑤Elder, C. et al. Estimating the difficulty of oral proficiency tasks: what does the test-taker have to offer? [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (19): 347.
⑥Ibid.
⑦Robinson, P. Task Complexity, Task Difficulty and Task Production: Exploring Interactions in a Componential Framework [J]. Applied Linguistics, 2001, (21): 27–57.
①杨惠中.语言测试与语言教学[J].外语界,1999,(1): 19.
①Heaton, J. B. Writing English Language Tests [M]. London: Longman Group UK Limited, 1988: 19.
②Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Language: Learning, Teaching, Assessment [M]. Cambridge University Press, 2001: 101.
③Bachman, L. F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990: 82.
①Ibid: 109.
②Canale, M. On Some Dimension of Language Proficiency [A], In J. W. Oller (Ed.) Issues in Second Language Testing Research [C]. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983: 1-11.
①Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998: 159.
②Bachman, L. F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990: 85.
③Ibid: 84.
①Bachman, L. F. and Palmer, A. S. Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996: 67.
②Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998: 163-164.
①Brown, J. D. et al. An Investigation of Second Language Task-based Performance Assessments [M]. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002: 9.
②Mislevy, R. et al. Design and Analysis in Task-based Language Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (19): 477-496.
①Nunan, D. Task-based Language Teaching [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004: 145.
②Bachman, L. F. Some Reflections on Task-based Language Performance Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (4): 453.
①Bachman, L. F. Language Assessment: Opportunities and Challenges [R]. AAAL 2007 Annual Conference Hilton Hotel Costa Mesa, California April 21-24, 2007.
②Brown, H. D. and Hudson, T. The Alternatives in Language Assessment [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 1998, (4): 653-675.
①Stiggins, R. J. Design and Development of Performance Assessments [J]. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 1987, (3): 33.
②Bachman, L. F. Modern Language Testing at the Turn of the Century: Assuring That What We Counts [J]. Language Testing, 2000, (1): 1-42.
①Ross, R. S. Speech Communication [M]. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, INC., 1989: 134.
①徐芳,短时记忆、外语听力理解与输入假设[J].国外外语教学,2005,(1): 28.
①Buck, G. Assessing Listening [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001: 129.
②Chapelle, C. A. Construct Definition and Validity Inquiry in SLA Research [A]. In L. F. Bachman and A. D. Cohen (Ed.) Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and Language Testing Research [C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
①McNamara, T. Measuring Second Language Performance [M]. London: Longman, 1996: 44.
①Nunan, D. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom [M]. Beijing: People’s Education Press, 2000: 10.
②Ellis, R. Task-based Language Teaching [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003: 3.
①Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001: 14.
①Candlin, C. Towards Task-based Language Learning [A]. In C. N. Candlin and D. F. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice Hall, 1987: 11-18.
②Wright, T. Instructional Task and Discoursal Outcome in the L2 Classroom [A]. In C. Candlin and D. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice-Hall, 1987: 56.
③Nunan, D. Task-based Language Teaching [M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 2004: 40-73.
①Feez, S. Text-based Syllabus Design [M]. Sydney: National Center for English Teaching and Research, 1998: 17.
①Feez, S. Text-based Syllabus Design [M]. Sydney: National Center for English Teaching and Research, 1998: 17.
②Candlin, C. Towards Task-based Language Learning [A]. In C. N. Candlin and D. F. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice Hall, 1987: 19-20.
③Prabhu, N. S. Second Language Pedagogy [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987: 87.
①Norris J. M., et al. Examinee Abilities and Task Difficulty in Task-based Second Language Performance Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (4): 395-418.
[1] Bachman, L. F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.
[2] Bachman, L. F. and Palmer, A. S. Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
[3] Bachman, L. F. Modern Language Testing at the Turn of the Century: Assuring That What We Counts [J]. Language Testing, 2000, (1).
[4] Bachman, L. F. Some Reflections on Task-based Language Performance Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (4).
[5] Bachman, L. F. Language Assessment: Opportunities and Challenges [R]. AAAL 2007 Annual Conference Hilton Hotel Costa Mesa, California April 21-24, 2007.
[6] Blundell, L. Task Listening [M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
[7] Breen, M. P. Learner Contributions to Task Design [A]. In C. Candlin and D. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice-Hall, 1987.
[8] Brindley, G. Describing Language Development? Rating Scale and SLA [A]. In L. F. Bachman and A. D. Cohen (Ed.) Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and Language Testing Research [C]. London: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
[9] Brown, H. D. and Hudson, T. The Alternatives in Language Assessment [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 1998, (4).
[10] Brown, J. D., et al. An Investigation of Second Language Task-based Performance Assessments [M]. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
[11] Brown, R. Group Work, Task Difference, and Second Language Acquisition [J]. Applied Linguistics, 1991, (11).
[12] Buck, G. Assessing Listening [M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
[13] Bygate, M., Skehan, P., and Swain, M. Researching Pedagogic Tasks: SecondLanguage Learning, Teaching and Testing [M]. London: Longman, 2001.
[14] Canale, M., and Swain, M. Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing [J]. Applied Linguistics, 1980, (1).
[15] Candlin, C. Towards Task-based Language Learning [A]. In C. N. Candlin and D. F. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice Hall, 1987.
[16] Chapelle, C. A. Construct Definition and Validity Inquiry in SLA Research [A]. In L. F. Bachman and A. D. Cohen (Ed.) Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and Language Testing Research [C]. London: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
[17] Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment [M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
[18] Crookes, G. Task Classification: A Cross Disciplinary Review [R]. Technical Report 4: Center for Second Language Classroom Research. Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1986.
[19] Elder, C., et al. Estimating the Difficulty of Oral Proficiency Tasks: What Does the Test-taker have to Offer? [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (19).
[20] Ellis, R. Task-based Language Teaching [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
[21] Feez, S. Text-based Syllabus Design [M]. Sydney: National Center for English Teaching and Research, 1998.
[22] Foster, P., Skehan, P. The Influence of Planning on Performance in Task-based Learning [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1996, (18).
[23] Heaton, J. B. Writing English Language Tests [M]. London: Longman, 1988.
[24] Heaton, J. B. Testing for Language Tests [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.
[25] McNamara, T. Measuring Second Language Performance [M]. London: Longman, 1996.
[26] Mislevy, R. Design and Analysis in Task-based Language Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (19).
[27] Norris J. M., et al. Examinee Abilities and Task Difficulty in Task-based Second Language Performance Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (4).
[28] Nunan, D. Communicative Language Teaching: Making It Work [J]. ELT Journal, 1987, (2).
[29] Nunan, D. Communicative Tasks and the Language Curriculum [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 1991, (2).
[30] Nunan, D. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom [M]. Beijing: People’s Education Press, 2000.
[31] Nunan, D. Task-based Language Teaching [M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
[32] Prabhu, N. S. Second Language Pedagogy [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
[33] Richards, J. C., Platt, J. and Weber, H. A Dictionary of Applied Linguistics [M]. London: Longman, 1986.
[34] Robinson, P. Task Complexity, Task Difficulty and Task Production: Exploring Interactions in a Componential Framework [J]. Applied Linguistics, 2001, (21).
[35] Ross, R. S. Speech Communication [M]. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, INC., 1989.
[36] Rost, M. Listening in Language Learning [M]. London: Longman Inc, 1990.
[37] Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
[38] Stiggins, R. J. Design and Development of Performance Assessments [J]. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 1987, (3).
[39] Willis, D. A Framework for Task-based Learning [M]. London: Longman, 1996.
[40] Williams, M. and Burden, R. Psychology for Language Teachers [M].London: Cambridge University Press.
[41] Wright, T. Instructional Task and Discoursal Outcome in the L2 Classroom [A]. In C. Candlin and D. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice-Hall, 1987.
[42]郭丽.大学英语校内测试模式的调查与分析[J].外语界, 2003,(2).
[43]韩宝成.高校学生英语能力测试改革势在必行[J].外语教学与研究, 2002,(6).
[44]韩宝成.语言测试:理论、实践与发展[J].外语教学与研究,2000,(1).
[45]韩宝成.语言测试的新进展:基于任务的语言测试[J].外语教学与研究, 2003,(5).
[46]何七香.基于任务的语言测试在大学英语测试中的应用[D].中国石油大学硕士学位论文,2006.
[47]江澜,冯晓媛.对教师自行设计的英语考试内容效度和表面效度的调查与反思[J].外语教学, 2003,(5).
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[51]牛强.现行高校英语测试中的问题[J].外语教学与研究,2001,(2).
[52]徐芳,短时记忆、外语听力理解与输入假设[J].国外外语教学,2005,(1).
[53]杨惠中.语言测试与语言教学[J].外语界,1999,(1).
[54]张新元.大学英语测试质疑述评[J].外语界,2004,(2).
[55]周越美,张艳莉.透视大学英语教学考试质量—案例分析[J].外语界, 2002,(6).
②韩宝成.语言测试的新进展:基于任务的语言测试[J].外语教学与研究, 2003, (5): 352.
①Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998: 115.
②Nunan, D., Keobke, K. Task Difficulty from the Learners Perspective : Perceptions and Reality [J]. Hong Kong Papers in Linguistics and Language Teaching, 1995, (18): 2.
③Brown, R. Group Work, Task Difference, and Second Language Acquisition [J]. Applied Linguistics, 1991, (11): 1-12
④Foster, P., Skehan, P. The Influence of Planning on Performance in Task-based Learning [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 1996, (18): 299-324.
⑤Elder, C. et al. Estimating the difficulty of oral proficiency tasks: what does the test-taker have to offer? [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (19): 347.
⑥Ibid.
⑦Robinson, P. Task Complexity, Task Difficulty and Task Production: Exploring Interactions in a Componential Framework [J]. Applied Linguistics, 2001, (21): 27–57.
①杨惠中.语言测试与语言教学[J].外语界,1999,(1): 19.
①Heaton, J. B. Writing English Language Tests [M]. London: Longman Group UK Limited, 1988: 19.
②Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Language: Learning, Teaching, Assessment [M]. Cambridge University Press, 2001: 101.
③Bachman, L. F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990: 82.
①Ibid: 109.
②Canale, M. On Some Dimension of Language Proficiency [A], In J. W. Oller (Ed.) Issues in Second Language Testing Research [C]. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983: 1-11.
①Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998: 159.
②Bachman, L. F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990: 85.
③Ibid: 84.
①Bachman, L. F. and Palmer, A. S. Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996: 67.
②Skehan, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998: 163-164.
①Brown, J. D. et al. An Investigation of Second Language Task-based Performance Assessments [M]. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002: 9.
②Mislevy, R. et al. Design and Analysis in Task-based Language Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (19): 477-496.
①Nunan, D. Task-based Language Teaching [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004: 145.
②Bachman, L. F. Some Reflections on Task-based Language Performance Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (4): 453.
①Bachman, L. F. Language Assessment: Opportunities and Challenges [R]. AAAL 2007 Annual Conference Hilton Hotel Costa Mesa, California April 21-24, 2007.
②Brown, H. D. and Hudson, T. The Alternatives in Language Assessment [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 1998, (4): 653-675.
①Stiggins, R. J. Design and Development of Performance Assessments [J]. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 1987, (3): 33.
②Bachman, L. F. Modern Language Testing at the Turn of the Century: Assuring That What We Counts [J]. Language Testing, 2000, (1): 1-42.
①Ross, R. S. Speech Communication [M]. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, INC., 1989: 134.
①徐芳,短时记忆、外语听力理解与输入假设[J].国外外语教学,2005,(1): 28.
①Buck, G. Assessing Listening [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001: 129.
②Chapelle, C. A. Construct Definition and Validity Inquiry in SLA Research [A]. In L. F. Bachman and A. D. Cohen (Ed.) Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and Language Testing Research [C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
①McNamara, T. Measuring Second Language Performance [M]. London: Longman, 1996: 44.
①Nunan, D. Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom [M]. Beijing: People’s Education Press, 2000: 10.
②Ellis, R. Task-based Language Teaching [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003: 3.
①Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001: 14.
①Candlin, C. Towards Task-based Language Learning [A]. In C. N. Candlin and D. F. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice Hall, 1987: 11-18.
②Wright, T. Instructional Task and Discoursal Outcome in the L2 Classroom [A]. In C. Candlin and D. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice-Hall, 1987: 56.
③Nunan, D. Task-based Language Teaching [M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 2004: 40-73.
①Feez, S. Text-based Syllabus Design [M]. Sydney: National Center for English Teaching and Research, 1998: 17.
①Feez, S. Text-based Syllabus Design [M]. Sydney: National Center for English Teaching and Research, 1998: 17.
②Candlin, C. Towards Task-based Language Learning [A]. In C. N. Candlin and D. F. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice Hall, 1987: 19-20.
③Prabhu, N. S. Second Language Pedagogy [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987: 87.
①Norris J. M., et al. Examinee Abilities and Task Difficulty in Task-based Second Language Performance Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (4): 395-418.
[1] Bachman, L. F. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.
[2] Bachman, L. F. and Palmer, A. S. Language Testing in Practice: Designing and Developing Useful Language Tests [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
[3] Bachman, L. F. Modern Language Testing at the Turn of the Century: Assuring That What We Counts [J]. Language Testing, 2000, (1).
[4] Bachman, L. F. Some Reflections on Task-based Language Performance Assessment [J]. Language Testing, 2002, (4).
[5] Bachman, L. F. Language Assessment: Opportunities and Challenges [R]. AAAL 2007 Annual Conference Hilton Hotel Costa Mesa, California April 21-24, 2007.
[6] Blundell, L. Task Listening [M]. London: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
[7] Breen, M. P. Learner Contributions to Task Design [A]. In C. Candlin and D. Murphy (Ed.) Language Learning Tasks [C]. London: Prentice-Hall, 1987.
[8] Brindley, G. Describing Language Development? Rating Scale and SLA [A]. In L. F. Bachman and A. D. Cohen (Ed.) Interfaces between Second Language Acquisition and Language Testing Research [C]. London: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
[9] Brown, H. D. and Hudson, T. The Alternatives in Language Assessment [J]. TESOL Quarterly, 1998, (4).
[10] Brown, J. D., et al. An Investigation of Second Language Task-based Performance Assessments [M]. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
[11] Brown, R. Group Work, Task Difference, and Second Language Acquisition [J]. Applied Linguistics, 1991, (11).
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