美国在阿富汗反恐战争的政治影响（1998-2008）
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摘要
本文的主题是美国在阿富汗反恐战争的政治影响(1998-2008)。在不久的将来,人类安全的威胁似乎不会来自稳定政府下的强大的发达国家,而是会来自失败国家。本文考察了1998年非洲(坦桑尼亚和肯尼亚)美国大使馆爆炸事件以来基地组织运动的影响,同时进一步研究了9·11美国世贸中心和五角大楼爆炸事件。本文还将考察美国、北约及世界各国如何进行反恐斗争,尤其是针对基地组织,它的一次恐怖行动在21世纪初将世界带入瘫痪的境地。作为一个超级大国,美国与世界的利益冲突是不可避免的,但从9·11基地组织的爆炸袭击中我们学到的最关键的一课便是:未雨绸缪。
第一章:伊斯兰圣战的形成和国际反恐公约
1979年12月25日,苏联第40集团军打着建立社会主义制度的旗号开进阿富汗。从此,被激怒的逊尼派伊斯兰开始激进的号召开展圣战,它被称为伊斯兰教第六支柱。逊尼派圣战的性质同欧洲和亚洲的革命运动相似,它开始于苏联入侵(圣战者称1979-1980年的战争为“圣战之母”)。9·11事件前,逊尼派穆斯林对美国在中东的利益相对并没有威胁。这是因为冷战时期,美国更多关注于苏联,他们称其为“邪恶帝国”。当时任何国家或地区只要帮助美国对抗苏联,便会被当做美国的盟友。甚至是逊尼派穆斯林也被美国当做同“邪恶苏维埃无神论”斗争的信徒。这些逊尼派支持者后来投身于圣战运动中,而其便是基地组织的前身。在战争中他们被极大的忽视,因为美国认为当时主要是冷战的世界。当时,甚至是巴基斯坦原教旨主义独裁者穆罕默德·齐亚·哈克将军也被其忽视,他曾积极暗中帮助破坏苏维埃在阿富汗的影响力。而他对抗苏联的行动使得其发展大规模杀伤性核武器和武装逊尼派极端主义者的行为被忽略,美国总统里根甚至视其为盟友。还有瓦哈比教派拒绝建立同“苏维埃无神论异教徒”的外交联系,并暗中摧毁苏联在阿拉伯世界的利益。正是由于这些行动,当然还有该地显而易见的石油储量使得阿拉伯世界的人权问题,对巴基斯坦恐怖主义的资助,对民主反对派的压制,对妇女选举权利的剥夺,以及清教徒式的瓦哈比教派都获得了美国在外交上的承认。激进的逊尼派伊斯兰走私可兰经和颠覆性的文学作品到苏联,从摩洛哥到印尼,逊尼派穆斯林在伊玛目领导下去抱怨苏联对穆斯林同胞的压迫。伴随着许多秘密的间谍行动—情报信息—军事行动,美国帮助逊尼派穆斯林使得苏联深陷阿富汗的泥沼之中。随后便是美国中央情报局,英国军情6处,巴基斯坦三军情报局,沙特阿拉伯军事情报部门,埃及情报部门穆克哈巴拉克,还有令人惊讶的以色列摩萨德的行动,这些都使得潜伏的伊斯兰圣战意识在现实的逊尼派穆斯林世界中得以苏醒,并使苏维埃对阿富汗的占领导致了苏联极大的失败。而这种“中央情报局—圣战”是在各个地区政府情报部门下进行的,这是其行动的非官方的基本的组成部分。这些行动的后果是,失控的人民运动锻造了圣战同胞,而后他们在西方和世界其他地区开展恐怖活动。人们普遍相信人权会使社会远离冲突并给世界带来和平。当代恐怖主义是对全球社会的威胁,没有一个国家可以单独解决它,它需要世界各国的共同努力。本文将研究1968年到2008年将恐怖主义非法化的国际准则的形成和发展。其中有两种类型的关于恐怖主义的国际公约,第一种是13条正式批准的公开准则,虽然只有12条正式生效。第二种类型是区域性多边反恐协定,例如2006年反恐欧洲理事会会议。这些准则的中心是建立于2001年的联合国反恐委员会,它负责监督安全理事会1373号的执行。安全理事会由15个成员国组成,联合国反恐委员会推动各国签订现有的关于反对恐怖主义的联合国公约,还有相关的区域性协定,并推动各国国内相关必要法律的制定。
第二章:霸权竞争与正义战争理论在21世纪的应用
基地组织的实力及影响促使学者们建立相关模型来评估其战略意义。在最基础的层面,学者们需要重新考虑意识形态及“次国家”因素在均势及霸权理论的概念和政策应用中所扮演的角色。基地组织本身并不构成严重的威胁,但它的意识形态运动却有可能在全球性大国中植根并蔓延开来。与此同时,基地组织的“霸权”战略并不寄希望于动员“圣战”份子来挑战美国权威,而是通过它潜在的意识形态和政治力量来将不同国家或政府排挤到美国的霸权体系之外。基地组织正在使用不同手段来鼓动并支持恐怖团体在各自国家内的颠覆活动。因此,基地组织正在成为全球革命与暴力意识形态的中心,它通过发动暴乱的手法、用不对称的方式来威胁并挑战美国的霸权地位。基地组织的意识形态将会使国家陷入不稳定状态,直至爆发内战。阿富汗和索马里就是很好的例子。国家认同与民族荣耀需要相互结合。美国的实践与政策就代表了这样的一种认同,纪律性机制受到自我认同与民族荣耀的驱使,而国内和国际上的各种势力就可据此使用战术性的手段——例如恐怖主义——来操纵这种认同感,胁迫美国放弃其一贯的政策。恐怖主义者可以采用非常规的手段来实现其目的,这些手段也许会遭到国际社会的批评,并使美国和相关国家蒙羞,并最终牵涉到国家荣誉。也正因为如此,人们使用正义战争理论来判断反恐战争和针对“流氓国家”的军事行动的道德成分及合法性。这也就将我们指向了美国的阿富汗战争。正义战争是指任何一场符合“国际正义”之标准的战争。从这种视角来看,正义战争成为一种在国家诉诸武力时帮助其验证或阐明正义性的工具。恐怖主义也许依赖一些支持其行动的国家给予秘密援助,但这些国家对其恐怖主义行径并不予以公开支持。对正义战争的思考需要公众权威自身维护其利益,但这种目标是难以实现的,因为不存在一个可以作为假想敌的国家来将此战略付诸实施。因此,国家社会大致决议用“正义”的名义来向恐怖主义宣战。
第三章:阿富汗反恐战争的过程,以及宗教和现实暴力中的安全政治
冷战结束后的国际冲突大多是违反了美国自由主义下国家主权神圣不可侵犯的原则。为了永久的自由,自2001年10月9日起,美英两国的船舰和潜艇开赴印度洋和波斯湾,数百枚战斧式巡航导弹发射至阿富汗。美国空军习惯于用联合直接弹药和激光制导炸弹对已知的基地组织训练场所进行轰炸。美国对基地组织的猛袭表明本·拉登预言的伊斯兰圣战在中亚成为现实。本·拉登成为全球众所周知的人物。文明之间的冲突开始在国际反恐斗争中显现,特别是在9·11事件之后。这是伊斯兰文明与其他文明,特别是西方文明之间的冲突。本文认为,伊斯兰原教旨主义大多是在穆斯林世界建立,本文指出,大多伊斯兰原教旨主义存在于穆斯林世界;总的来说,与其他文明相比伊斯兰文明更易倾向于使用恐怖主义手段来与他国对抗。奥萨玛和他的基地组织给阿富汗带来的困境应给其他国家以教训,即绝不要支持恐怖主义。对于阿富汗人民来说,最好的办法是坚决打击塔利班并迫使他们驱逐本·拉登和他的基地组织离开阿富汗,而不是遭受这些混乱,在2001年美国入侵中失去生命财产,饱受精神折磨和心灵创伤,经历非人化的磨难。而布什反恐战争的中心目标是通过消灭和去合法化恐怖活动来影响其他国家的外交政策,并告之他们必须承担控制其国内恐怖主义的责任。
第四章:解决冲突中行动影响观念的方式和反恐战争的可选择战略
决定反恐行动成功与否,最关键的一点是对全球反恐战争如何影响国家主权的概念的判定。尽管联合国宪章第二章中已经明确规定了国家主权互不干涉原则,但政治决策还是不停地违背,决策者总是在呼吁解决诸如科索沃的滥用人权,伊拉克的核发展,阿富汗恐怖主义的蔓延等国际问题。这些行动受到有关国家在国际社会中的权利和义务的国际规范的影响。全球第一次组成了同盟对阿富汗进行反恐斗争。在这一案例中,尽管联合国已经谴责塔利班政权支持基地组织,但其还是没有在反恐中履行其国际义务。基地组织和塔利班的关系虽然不是新建立的,但9·11事件是国际社会将反恐斗争作为其政治上优先的转折点。在这一事件中,关于军事干涉正当性的新理由出现,其试图重构对国家主权的争论。在国际体系中,一个国家只有被其他国家所承认,才能拥有独立自主的主权。权利和义务只有在国际社会的背景下才能呈现出不同。在欧洲,北大西洋公约组织曾代表遭遇种族清洗威胁的阿尔巴尼亚的科索沃人和波斯尼亚人干涉前南斯拉夫。在亚洲,联合国曾武装干涉柬埔寨,帮助其建立国家。众多的案例表明,干涉反映出人们对国家主权观念的改变。反恐战争提供了一次研究国家主权概念是否在国家主体中发生改变的机会。随着冷战的结束,恐怖袭击的增多,特别是在一些主要的非国家体中,全球反恐斗争可以说已经取代冷战,它号召各国共同对抗恐怖主义。在这一时期的美国历史中,没有人可以将反恐从其政治中剥离开来。布什政府具有侵略性的过火反应在9·11事件后初期是必要的,它使美国人民相信政府可以保护他们,同时有必要的话,是可以反应过火的。国家可以通过加强其安全系统来阻止恐怖事件的发生。这其中包括训练有素的国内情报部门,严格的边境管理办法,港口安全举措等一系列方法,以使恐怖分子难以发动袭击。恐怖分子居住在各个国家并仍然可以被管理,轰炸美国的恐怖分子并没有回到阿富汗获取武器,他们使用飞机作为导弹。正因为如此,政府应该对移民有所警惕,需要更加细心的检查各个护照。非法商人应被密切监视,还有军火商也应对其更加警觉,以防他们可能就是恐怖分子。基地组织是已经出现的最暴烈的恐怖组织,因此必须将其消灭。
第五章:国际冲突中的布什主义和新反恐战的影响
本章考察了9·11后在政治上影响美国外交政策的两个因素。首先是具有扩张性和侵略性的布什主义的发展,其特点是先发制人性质的预防战争。其次是政策舆论圈中关于美帝国和霸权主义的积极言论的复兴。这显示并归类出左派政治上发展的一系列原因,他们探索持续性的基础,试图在布什政府的外交政策方针上寻求改变。从2001年到2006年,布什主义关于国家安全战略经历了三个阶段的变化。而这种变化同布什2000年竞选总统时期有极大的不同,当时布什的外交政策只发挥了很小的作用。2002年,布什政府提出在单边行动,先发制人性的军事打击以及预防任何对美国霸权产生威胁的对手的出现的基础上,整合建立一个更加深远的外交政策。而从安全战略文件中已经可以看出其支持先发制人式的军事行动,或许也更加准确的显示出布什政府试图将激进的预防性战争的概念合法化。这些辩解很容易被任何一个国家用作攻击其他国家的理由,但一直以来在法律界先发制人式战争都是不合法的。战争和政治的区别越发不明显,战争不仅仅变成了政治的工具,还成为了其必不可少的要素。基地组织和布什政府的行动表明战争不再需要政治上的思考。美国甚至将对阿富汗的反恐战争视作对9·11事件一次公平、必需的回应。本文探讨了美国对阿富汗反恐战争的政治结果,其中包括缺点,经验和教训。我们可以得出以下结论:阿富汗的反恐战争必须与缉毒行动相结合才能收获成效;二者缺一不可。
This work investigates The Political Consequences of the American War on Terror in Afghanistan (1998-2008). The real security risk in the near future does not seem to come from strong and developed countries, with stable governments, but from failed states. This work examines the impact of the Al Qaeda movement since 1998, with the US Embassy bombings in Africa (Tanzania and Kenya). The work goes further to investigate the despicable bombings of the World Trade Center and Pentagon buildings in USA on September 11, 2001. The work examines how US, NATO and the globe have waged wars on terrorist groups, especially Al Qaeda, which among all the other terrorist groups brought the world to a standstill in a single operation in this 21st Century. As a superpower, a clash between US’s interest and the world is inevitable. But a critical lesson that was learnt from the 2001 Al Qaeda bombings was that it must go to the trouble before the trouble gets at its door.
CHAPTER 1. THE FORMATION OF AN ISLAMIC CALIPHATE AND INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON TERRORISM.
On December 25th 1979, the USSR 40th“Limited Contingent”rolled into Afghanistan to install a socialist regime. Through this, an embittered radical strain in the Sunni Islam called for a Jihad, which they referred to as the Sixth Pillah of Islam. To understand the rise of the Sunni Jihadism as a revolutionary movement both in Europe and Asia, all started with the USSR’s invasion, (the 1979 - 1980s conflict is referred to in Jihad circles as the“Mother of Jihads”). Before the 9/11, the Sunni Muslims by contrast were less threatening to American interests in the Middle East. The preference for this was that during the cold war, America focused more on USSR, whom they viewed as the“Evil Empire.”Any state or region at this time which could assist the American struggle and power over USSR was regarded as an ally. Even the Sunni Muslims were defined by America as fellow believers in the black and white struggle with the“evil Soviet atheism.”These Sunni allies later contributed to the forging of the Jihad movement that Al Qaeda emanated from. The fault of these Sunni allies with their war were largely ignored as US viewed the world during this time through the lenses of the cold war. During all these events, even the Pakistani fundamentalist dictator, General Zia ul Haq, who actively helped to undermine Soviet influence in Afghanistan, was overlooked. Because of his actions against USSR, his propensity for developing bona fide nuclear weapons of mass destruction and arming Sunni extremists was overlooked, as President Reagan of US saw him as an ally. Even the Wahhabi Saudis refused to establish diplomatic ties with the“Soviet atheist infidels”; and helped to undermine Soviet interest in the Arab world. Because of this and most notably the oil, the Saudis human rights record, sponsorship of Palestinian terrorism, repression of democratic opposition, disenfranchisement of women, and the medieval interpretation of puritanical Wahhabi Islam were accepted by US diplomats. Radical Sunni Islamic Brotherhood smuggled Qurans and subversive Islamic literature into USSR. From Morocco to Indonesia, Sunni Muslims were led by imams to bemoan the oppressions of their fellow Muslim brothers and sisters in the USSR. With great covert espionage– intelligence– military operation, US helped the Sunni Muslims to turn Afghanistan into quagmire for the Soviets. The subsequent operation driven by the CIA, British M16, Pakistan Inter-Service Intelligence, Saudi Istikhabarat (Military Intelligence), Egyptian Mukhabarat (General Intelligence), and most surprisingly, the Israeli Mossad, was to revive the dormant concept of Jihad in the Secular Sunni world and turn the Soviet occupation into a bloody defeat for USSR. While much of this“Operation CIA-Jihad”was conducted under the supervision of the various intelligence agencies under their governments and regions, there was an unofficial grass-root component to the operation itself. The result of all this was to breed an uncontrollable people’s movement which forged the Jihadist brotherhood, that would subsequently wage terror on the West and other parts of the world. People generally believe that the implementation of human rights will remove conflicts from societies and bring peace in the universe. Modern terrorism consists of threats to the global community, a threat which no nation can resolve alone, except with the help of a global response. The work has examined the creation and development of these international norms that had delegitimized terrorism between 1968 to 2008. There are two types of international conventions on terrorism. There are those that are open to ratification. There are 13 in number, although only 12 are in force. The second type is the regional multilateral terrorist conventions such as the Council of European Convention for Prevention of Terrorism (2006). At the center of all, lies United Nations Counter Terrorism Committee (CTC), created in 2001 to monitor the implementation of Security Council Resolution 1373. Consisting of all 15 members of
the Security Council, the CTC pushes states to ratify all existing UN Conventions on terrorism - as well as related regional agreements, and to enact the domestic legislation necessary for their enforcement. So far, all the conventions obligate states to refrain from organizing, instigating, financing, assisting and abetting terrorist acts.
CHAPTER 2. HEGEMONIC COMPETITION AND THE APPLICATION OF THE JUST WAR THEORY IN THE 21ST CENTURY.
The powers of Al Qaeda and its influence require scholars to develop models that consider its strategic significance. At the most basic level, scholars need to reconsider the role of ideology and the relevance of sub-national actors in the theoretical and policy implications of balance of power and hegemonic theories. It is not Al Qaeda itself that becomes the threat, but its ideological movement which might take root in the globally powerful states. Al Qaeda’s hegemonic nature rests not on its ultimate ability to use the power of a global champion to challenge the US for hegemony, but its potential to undermine US ideologically and politically; while breaking nations and regimes out of the US hegemonic system. It does provide inspirational, operational supports, and an ideology for many groups who seek to overthrow the status quo in their nations and regions. Because of this, Al Qaeda as the centerpiece of a revolutionary and violently militant ideology can be seen as a global insurgency which presents an asymmetric challenge to US hegemony throughout the world. Al Qaeda ideology could plunge nations into instability or civil wars. Examples of these are Afghanistan and Somalia. The self-identity needs of states are manifested in their sense of honor. Thus the US practice represents policies that reflect identity commitments. Because these disciplinary mechanisms are driven by self-identity and protecting the honor of the US, domestic and international actors can use tactics as terrorism to manipulate such identity in order to coerce the US into ending its practices. Terrorists can expose practices in ways that contradicts the private efficiency of modern punishment. Such manipulations can produce criticism in the international community, to shame US or any other state involved; and such shame is inversely associated with honor. Because of this, the just war theory has been used of late to evaluate the morality of military actions by states against terrorists and rogue states. This has come about as a result of America’s involvement in Afghanistan. Just War refers to any war that generally accepts international criteria of justification. Through this view, a Just War is a means of national self help through which states attempt to enforce rights actually or allegedly based on International Law. While the terrorist group may depend on clandestine assistance from states willing to help them secretly, they are not publicly responsible to them. Since contemplation of Just War requires public authorities to act on their behalf, that objective cannot be met because there is no identifiable enemy state against which to act. As a result of this, the international community has decided to declare war against terrorism in general as“just.”But to remove barriers and confusion from the international community in this 21st century, the Just War theory must be revisited to meet challenges of terrorist activities and rogue states.
CHAPTER 3. COURSES, PROCESSES OF THE WAR ON TERROR AND THE SECURITY POLITICS BEHIND RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR VIOLENCE IN AFGHANISTAN
Events around the globe since the end of the Cold War have been those of conflicts, many of which are violations of the sanctity of state sovereignty in the definitive character of the US liberal doctrine. Operation Enduring Freedom, which began on October 9, 2001 took the form of hundreds of Tomahawk cruise missiles launched from US and British ships and submarines operating in the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf on Afghanistan. During the resulting bombing campaign, US air power was used to rain Joint Direct Ammunitions (JDAM) and laser guided bombs on all known Al Qaeda training facilities. The US response to Al Qaeda assault indicates the glorious Jihad predicted by bin Laden, which would materialize in Central Asia. Bin Laden has become the most known figure in the globe. An emerging clash of civilization has revealed itself in international terrorism especially after 9/11. This is a conflict between Islamic civilization and other civilizations, particularly the West. The embarrassment which Osama and his group brought to the Afghans should be a lesson to other nations, not to support terrorists in any way. It would have been better for the Afghans to stand firmly against the Taliban and force them to drive out bin Laden and his group than to have gone through all the chaos, loss of lives and properties, mental torture, trauma, and the dehumanization they went through during the US invasion in 2001. The central goal of Bush’s War on Terror however is to eliminate or de-legitimate terror as a method to influence other states in formulating their foreign policies; and to send a message to other states that they must assume responsibility for controlling terrorists within their borders. The War on Terror is not a war against Muslims. Bin Laden was a wanted man by the UN for his involvement in the 1998 Africa terrorist bombings. Even his citizenship was taken away from him in 1994 by the Saudi government, where he was born; all because of his evil ideology.
CHAPTER 4. HOW ACTIONS AFFECT IDEAS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS, AND ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES TO COMBAT TERRORISM
The cost and success of an actions outcome are critical in predicting how global war on terrorism affects notions of sovereignty. Although the norm of sovereignty and non-intervention are clearly stated in the UN Charter under Article 2, yet they are continually violated by political decision-making bodies to address pressing international issues such as human right abuse– Kosovo, nuclear development– Iraq, and the spread of terrorism– Afghanistan. All these actions are influenced by international norms concerning states rights and responsibilities in the global community. The case in Afghanistan is the first time a global coalition has intervened on behalf of counter-terrorism. In this case, the Taliban regime failed to fulfill its international obligation in thwarting terrorism, though there had been previous condemnation by UN against the Taliban for its support of Al Qaeda. While the relationship between the Al Qaeda and Taliban is not new, 9/11 served as a turning point for the international community to prioritize combating terrorism in their policy. Amidst events, new justification for military intervention has emerged which sought to reframe the debate on sovereignty. A state cannot be sovereign unless it is recognized so by other states in the international system. Rights and obligations vary according to the international context. In Europe, NATO intervened in the former Yugoslavia on behalf of Albanian Kosovars and Bosnians threatened by ethnic cleansing. In Asia, the UN military intervened in Cambodia and helped build the country. In many of these cases, the decision to intervene has reflected peoples changing ideas about state sovereignty. The War on Terror provides an opportunity to observe whether or not conceptions of sovereignty have changed among state actors. With the end of the cold war and the rise in terrorist attacks, especially on major powers by non-state actors, the global War on Terror arguably replaces the cold war, as it has called on states to collectively fight terrorism. At this time of the US history, one cannot take terrorism out of its politics. The aggressive overreaction by the Bush administration at the initial stage of the 9/11 attacks was necessary, to assure the citizens that the government was able to protect them, and can also overreact if the need arise. Terrorist activities can be checked by states through strengthening their security system. This can include well trained domestic intelligence, strict border control measures, port security initiatives, and any other measures that can make it harder for terrorists to successfully attack a state. Terrorists can live in any state and still operate. Those that bombed US did not go back to Afghanistan to acquire weapon; they made use of airplanes as missiles. It is because of this that immigration in states should be vigilant, by inspecting every passport more carefully. Illegal arms merchants must be under close scrutiny, while weapon dealers should be more vigilant about individuals who might be terrorists. Al Qaeda is yet the most violent terrorist group that has come up. It therefore needs harsh options to either put fear in them or crush them totally.
CHAPTER 5. UNDERSTANDING THE BUSH DOCTRINE IN INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS, AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE NEW TERROR
This work examines two aspects of the politics of post 9/11 foreign policy. These include the development of an expansive and aggressive Bush Doctrine, characterized by preemptive and preventive war. Secondly, the revival of a positive discourse on US Empire and hegemony within policy and opinion circle is examined. It shows and categorizes a range of interpretations of these developments from the political left, which seeks to explore elements of continuity and change in the foreign policy approach of the Bush Administration. The Bush Doctrine evolved through three phases from 2001 to 2006 National Security Strategy. This change was quite different from that in his 2000 campaign in which foreign policy played only a minor role. In 2002, the Bush administration put together the elements of a more far-reaching foreign policy doctrine based on unilateral action, preemptive military strikes, and prevention of the emergence of any strategic rivals to US supremacy. While the security strategy document has been seen to endorse preemptive military action, it might more accurately be seen as attempting to legitimize the radical concept of preventive war; or a decision to attack now to prevent a real threat in the future. While such justification could easily be used by any country to attack any other, it has long been established in the legal circles that preemptive war is completely illegitimate. The difference between war and politics is becoming more obscure as war is not merely an instrument of politics but has become an essential form of it. The actions of both Al Qaeda and Bush show that war no longer needs political reasoning. US even see the war on terror in Afghanistan as a just and necessary reaction to 9/11, while Al Qaeda saw the bombing as the hand of god falling on the enemy. This work investigates the political outcome of the War on Terror on both US and Afghanistan, which includes the flaws, victories and losses. It makes a conclusion that counter terrorism can only be achieved in Afghanistan when it is fought side by side with counter narcotics operations; one cannot succeed without the other.
第一章:伊斯兰圣战的形成和国际反恐公约
1979年12月25日,苏联第40集团军打着建立社会主义制度的旗号开进阿富汗。从此,被激怒的逊尼派伊斯兰开始激进的号召开展圣战,它被称为伊斯兰教第六支柱。逊尼派圣战的性质同欧洲和亚洲的革命运动相似,它开始于苏联入侵(圣战者称1979-1980年的战争为“圣战之母”)。9·11事件前,逊尼派穆斯林对美国在中东的利益相对并没有威胁。这是因为冷战时期,美国更多关注于苏联,他们称其为“邪恶帝国”。当时任何国家或地区只要帮助美国对抗苏联,便会被当做美国的盟友。甚至是逊尼派穆斯林也被美国当做同“邪恶苏维埃无神论”斗争的信徒。这些逊尼派支持者后来投身于圣战运动中,而其便是基地组织的前身。在战争中他们被极大的忽视,因为美国认为当时主要是冷战的世界。当时,甚至是巴基斯坦原教旨主义独裁者穆罕默德·齐亚·哈克将军也被其忽视,他曾积极暗中帮助破坏苏维埃在阿富汗的影响力。而他对抗苏联的行动使得其发展大规模杀伤性核武器和武装逊尼派极端主义者的行为被忽略,美国总统里根甚至视其为盟友。还有瓦哈比教派拒绝建立同“苏维埃无神论异教徒”的外交联系,并暗中摧毁苏联在阿拉伯世界的利益。正是由于这些行动,当然还有该地显而易见的石油储量使得阿拉伯世界的人权问题,对巴基斯坦恐怖主义的资助,对民主反对派的压制,对妇女选举权利的剥夺,以及清教徒式的瓦哈比教派都获得了美国在外交上的承认。激进的逊尼派伊斯兰走私可兰经和颠覆性的文学作品到苏联,从摩洛哥到印尼,逊尼派穆斯林在伊玛目领导下去抱怨苏联对穆斯林同胞的压迫。伴随着许多秘密的间谍行动—情报信息—军事行动,美国帮助逊尼派穆斯林使得苏联深陷阿富汗的泥沼之中。随后便是美国中央情报局,英国军情6处,巴基斯坦三军情报局,沙特阿拉伯军事情报部门,埃及情报部门穆克哈巴拉克,还有令人惊讶的以色列摩萨德的行动,这些都使得潜伏的伊斯兰圣战意识在现实的逊尼派穆斯林世界中得以苏醒,并使苏维埃对阿富汗的占领导致了苏联极大的失败。而这种“中央情报局—圣战”是在各个地区政府情报部门下进行的,这是其行动的非官方的基本的组成部分。这些行动的后果是,失控的人民运动锻造了圣战同胞,而后他们在西方和世界其他地区开展恐怖活动。人们普遍相信人权会使社会远离冲突并给世界带来和平。当代恐怖主义是对全球社会的威胁,没有一个国家可以单独解决它,它需要世界各国的共同努力。本文将研究1968年到2008年将恐怖主义非法化的国际准则的形成和发展。其中有两种类型的关于恐怖主义的国际公约,第一种是13条正式批准的公开准则,虽然只有12条正式生效。第二种类型是区域性多边反恐协定,例如2006年反恐欧洲理事会会议。这些准则的中心是建立于2001年的联合国反恐委员会,它负责监督安全理事会1373号的执行。安全理事会由15个成员国组成,联合国反恐委员会推动各国签订现有的关于反对恐怖主义的联合国公约,还有相关的区域性协定,并推动各国国内相关必要法律的制定。
第二章:霸权竞争与正义战争理论在21世纪的应用
基地组织的实力及影响促使学者们建立相关模型来评估其战略意义。在最基础的层面,学者们需要重新考虑意识形态及“次国家”因素在均势及霸权理论的概念和政策应用中所扮演的角色。基地组织本身并不构成严重的威胁,但它的意识形态运动却有可能在全球性大国中植根并蔓延开来。与此同时,基地组织的“霸权”战略并不寄希望于动员“圣战”份子来挑战美国权威,而是通过它潜在的意识形态和政治力量来将不同国家或政府排挤到美国的霸权体系之外。基地组织正在使用不同手段来鼓动并支持恐怖团体在各自国家内的颠覆活动。因此,基地组织正在成为全球革命与暴力意识形态的中心,它通过发动暴乱的手法、用不对称的方式来威胁并挑战美国的霸权地位。基地组织的意识形态将会使国家陷入不稳定状态,直至爆发内战。阿富汗和索马里就是很好的例子。国家认同与民族荣耀需要相互结合。美国的实践与政策就代表了这样的一种认同,纪律性机制受到自我认同与民族荣耀的驱使,而国内和国际上的各种势力就可据此使用战术性的手段——例如恐怖主义——来操纵这种认同感,胁迫美国放弃其一贯的政策。恐怖主义者可以采用非常规的手段来实现其目的,这些手段也许会遭到国际社会的批评,并使美国和相关国家蒙羞,并最终牵涉到国家荣誉。也正因为如此,人们使用正义战争理论来判断反恐战争和针对“流氓国家”的军事行动的道德成分及合法性。这也就将我们指向了美国的阿富汗战争。正义战争是指任何一场符合“国际正义”之标准的战争。从这种视角来看,正义战争成为一种在国家诉诸武力时帮助其验证或阐明正义性的工具。恐怖主义也许依赖一些支持其行动的国家给予秘密援助,但这些国家对其恐怖主义行径并不予以公开支持。对正义战争的思考需要公众权威自身维护其利益,但这种目标是难以实现的,因为不存在一个可以作为假想敌的国家来将此战略付诸实施。因此,国家社会大致决议用“正义”的名义来向恐怖主义宣战。
第三章:阿富汗反恐战争的过程,以及宗教和现实暴力中的安全政治
冷战结束后的国际冲突大多是违反了美国自由主义下国家主权神圣不可侵犯的原则。为了永久的自由,自2001年10月9日起,美英两国的船舰和潜艇开赴印度洋和波斯湾,数百枚战斧式巡航导弹发射至阿富汗。美国空军习惯于用联合直接弹药和激光制导炸弹对已知的基地组织训练场所进行轰炸。美国对基地组织的猛袭表明本·拉登预言的伊斯兰圣战在中亚成为现实。本·拉登成为全球众所周知的人物。文明之间的冲突开始在国际反恐斗争中显现,特别是在9·11事件之后。这是伊斯兰文明与其他文明,特别是西方文明之间的冲突。本文认为,伊斯兰原教旨主义大多是在穆斯林世界建立,本文指出,大多伊斯兰原教旨主义存在于穆斯林世界;总的来说,与其他文明相比伊斯兰文明更易倾向于使用恐怖主义手段来与他国对抗。奥萨玛和他的基地组织给阿富汗带来的困境应给其他国家以教训,即绝不要支持恐怖主义。对于阿富汗人民来说,最好的办法是坚决打击塔利班并迫使他们驱逐本·拉登和他的基地组织离开阿富汗,而不是遭受这些混乱,在2001年美国入侵中失去生命财产,饱受精神折磨和心灵创伤,经历非人化的磨难。而布什反恐战争的中心目标是通过消灭和去合法化恐怖活动来影响其他国家的外交政策,并告之他们必须承担控制其国内恐怖主义的责任。
第四章:解决冲突中行动影响观念的方式和反恐战争的可选择战略
决定反恐行动成功与否,最关键的一点是对全球反恐战争如何影响国家主权的概念的判定。尽管联合国宪章第二章中已经明确规定了国家主权互不干涉原则,但政治决策还是不停地违背,决策者总是在呼吁解决诸如科索沃的滥用人权,伊拉克的核发展,阿富汗恐怖主义的蔓延等国际问题。这些行动受到有关国家在国际社会中的权利和义务的国际规范的影响。全球第一次组成了同盟对阿富汗进行反恐斗争。在这一案例中,尽管联合国已经谴责塔利班政权支持基地组织,但其还是没有在反恐中履行其国际义务。基地组织和塔利班的关系虽然不是新建立的,但9·11事件是国际社会将反恐斗争作为其政治上优先的转折点。在这一事件中,关于军事干涉正当性的新理由出现,其试图重构对国家主权的争论。在国际体系中,一个国家只有被其他国家所承认,才能拥有独立自主的主权。权利和义务只有在国际社会的背景下才能呈现出不同。在欧洲,北大西洋公约组织曾代表遭遇种族清洗威胁的阿尔巴尼亚的科索沃人和波斯尼亚人干涉前南斯拉夫。在亚洲,联合国曾武装干涉柬埔寨,帮助其建立国家。众多的案例表明,干涉反映出人们对国家主权观念的改变。反恐战争提供了一次研究国家主权概念是否在国家主体中发生改变的机会。随着冷战的结束,恐怖袭击的增多,特别是在一些主要的非国家体中,全球反恐斗争可以说已经取代冷战,它号召各国共同对抗恐怖主义。在这一时期的美国历史中,没有人可以将反恐从其政治中剥离开来。布什政府具有侵略性的过火反应在9·11事件后初期是必要的,它使美国人民相信政府可以保护他们,同时有必要的话,是可以反应过火的。国家可以通过加强其安全系统来阻止恐怖事件的发生。这其中包括训练有素的国内情报部门,严格的边境管理办法,港口安全举措等一系列方法,以使恐怖分子难以发动袭击。恐怖分子居住在各个国家并仍然可以被管理,轰炸美国的恐怖分子并没有回到阿富汗获取武器,他们使用飞机作为导弹。正因为如此,政府应该对移民有所警惕,需要更加细心的检查各个护照。非法商人应被密切监视,还有军火商也应对其更加警觉,以防他们可能就是恐怖分子。基地组织是已经出现的最暴烈的恐怖组织,因此必须将其消灭。
第五章:国际冲突中的布什主义和新反恐战的影响
本章考察了9·11后在政治上影响美国外交政策的两个因素。首先是具有扩张性和侵略性的布什主义的发展,其特点是先发制人性质的预防战争。其次是政策舆论圈中关于美帝国和霸权主义的积极言论的复兴。这显示并归类出左派政治上发展的一系列原因,他们探索持续性的基础,试图在布什政府的外交政策方针上寻求改变。从2001年到2006年,布什主义关于国家安全战略经历了三个阶段的变化。而这种变化同布什2000年竞选总统时期有极大的不同,当时布什的外交政策只发挥了很小的作用。2002年,布什政府提出在单边行动,先发制人性的军事打击以及预防任何对美国霸权产生威胁的对手的出现的基础上,整合建立一个更加深远的外交政策。而从安全战略文件中已经可以看出其支持先发制人式的军事行动,或许也更加准确的显示出布什政府试图将激进的预防性战争的概念合法化。这些辩解很容易被任何一个国家用作攻击其他国家的理由,但一直以来在法律界先发制人式战争都是不合法的。战争和政治的区别越发不明显,战争不仅仅变成了政治的工具,还成为了其必不可少的要素。基地组织和布什政府的行动表明战争不再需要政治上的思考。美国甚至将对阿富汗的反恐战争视作对9·11事件一次公平、必需的回应。本文探讨了美国对阿富汗反恐战争的政治结果,其中包括缺点,经验和教训。我们可以得出以下结论:阿富汗的反恐战争必须与缉毒行动相结合才能收获成效;二者缺一不可。
This work investigates The Political Consequences of the American War on Terror in Afghanistan (1998-2008). The real security risk in the near future does not seem to come from strong and developed countries, with stable governments, but from failed states. This work examines the impact of the Al Qaeda movement since 1998, with the US Embassy bombings in Africa (Tanzania and Kenya). The work goes further to investigate the despicable bombings of the World Trade Center and Pentagon buildings in USA on September 11, 2001. The work examines how US, NATO and the globe have waged wars on terrorist groups, especially Al Qaeda, which among all the other terrorist groups brought the world to a standstill in a single operation in this 21st Century. As a superpower, a clash between US’s interest and the world is inevitable. But a critical lesson that was learnt from the 2001 Al Qaeda bombings was that it must go to the trouble before the trouble gets at its door.
CHAPTER 1. THE FORMATION OF AN ISLAMIC CALIPHATE AND INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON TERRORISM.
On December 25th 1979, the USSR 40th“Limited Contingent”rolled into Afghanistan to install a socialist regime. Through this, an embittered radical strain in the Sunni Islam called for a Jihad, which they referred to as the Sixth Pillah of Islam. To understand the rise of the Sunni Jihadism as a revolutionary movement both in Europe and Asia, all started with the USSR’s invasion, (the 1979 - 1980s conflict is referred to in Jihad circles as the“Mother of Jihads”). Before the 9/11, the Sunni Muslims by contrast were less threatening to American interests in the Middle East. The preference for this was that during the cold war, America focused more on USSR, whom they viewed as the“Evil Empire.”Any state or region at this time which could assist the American struggle and power over USSR was regarded as an ally. Even the Sunni Muslims were defined by America as fellow believers in the black and white struggle with the“evil Soviet atheism.”These Sunni allies later contributed to the forging of the Jihad movement that Al Qaeda emanated from. The fault of these Sunni allies with their war were largely ignored as US viewed the world during this time through the lenses of the cold war. During all these events, even the Pakistani fundamentalist dictator, General Zia ul Haq, who actively helped to undermine Soviet influence in Afghanistan, was overlooked. Because of his actions against USSR, his propensity for developing bona fide nuclear weapons of mass destruction and arming Sunni extremists was overlooked, as President Reagan of US saw him as an ally. Even the Wahhabi Saudis refused to establish diplomatic ties with the“Soviet atheist infidels”; and helped to undermine Soviet interest in the Arab world. Because of this and most notably the oil, the Saudis human rights record, sponsorship of Palestinian terrorism, repression of democratic opposition, disenfranchisement of women, and the medieval interpretation of puritanical Wahhabi Islam were accepted by US diplomats. Radical Sunni Islamic Brotherhood smuggled Qurans and subversive Islamic literature into USSR. From Morocco to Indonesia, Sunni Muslims were led by imams to bemoan the oppressions of their fellow Muslim brothers and sisters in the USSR. With great covert espionage– intelligence– military operation, US helped the Sunni Muslims to turn Afghanistan into quagmire for the Soviets. The subsequent operation driven by the CIA, British M16, Pakistan Inter-Service Intelligence, Saudi Istikhabarat (Military Intelligence), Egyptian Mukhabarat (General Intelligence), and most surprisingly, the Israeli Mossad, was to revive the dormant concept of Jihad in the Secular Sunni world and turn the Soviet occupation into a bloody defeat for USSR. While much of this“Operation CIA-Jihad”was conducted under the supervision of the various intelligence agencies under their governments and regions, there was an unofficial grass-root component to the operation itself. The result of all this was to breed an uncontrollable people’s movement which forged the Jihadist brotherhood, that would subsequently wage terror on the West and other parts of the world. People generally believe that the implementation of human rights will remove conflicts from societies and bring peace in the universe. Modern terrorism consists of threats to the global community, a threat which no nation can resolve alone, except with the help of a global response. The work has examined the creation and development of these international norms that had delegitimized terrorism between 1968 to 2008. There are two types of international conventions on terrorism. There are those that are open to ratification. There are 13 in number, although only 12 are in force. The second type is the regional multilateral terrorist conventions such as the Council of European Convention for Prevention of Terrorism (2006). At the center of all, lies United Nations Counter Terrorism Committee (CTC), created in 2001 to monitor the implementation of Security Council Resolution 1373. Consisting of all 15 members of
the Security Council, the CTC pushes states to ratify all existing UN Conventions on terrorism - as well as related regional agreements, and to enact the domestic legislation necessary for their enforcement. So far, all the conventions obligate states to refrain from organizing, instigating, financing, assisting and abetting terrorist acts.
CHAPTER 2. HEGEMONIC COMPETITION AND THE APPLICATION OF THE JUST WAR THEORY IN THE 21ST CENTURY.
The powers of Al Qaeda and its influence require scholars to develop models that consider its strategic significance. At the most basic level, scholars need to reconsider the role of ideology and the relevance of sub-national actors in the theoretical and policy implications of balance of power and hegemonic theories. It is not Al Qaeda itself that becomes the threat, but its ideological movement which might take root in the globally powerful states. Al Qaeda’s hegemonic nature rests not on its ultimate ability to use the power of a global champion to challenge the US for hegemony, but its potential to undermine US ideologically and politically; while breaking nations and regimes out of the US hegemonic system. It does provide inspirational, operational supports, and an ideology for many groups who seek to overthrow the status quo in their nations and regions. Because of this, Al Qaeda as the centerpiece of a revolutionary and violently militant ideology can be seen as a global insurgency which presents an asymmetric challenge to US hegemony throughout the world. Al Qaeda ideology could plunge nations into instability or civil wars. Examples of these are Afghanistan and Somalia. The self-identity needs of states are manifested in their sense of honor. Thus the US practice represents policies that reflect identity commitments. Because these disciplinary mechanisms are driven by self-identity and protecting the honor of the US, domestic and international actors can use tactics as terrorism to manipulate such identity in order to coerce the US into ending its practices. Terrorists can expose practices in ways that contradicts the private efficiency of modern punishment. Such manipulations can produce criticism in the international community, to shame US or any other state involved; and such shame is inversely associated with honor. Because of this, the just war theory has been used of late to evaluate the morality of military actions by states against terrorists and rogue states. This has come about as a result of America’s involvement in Afghanistan. Just War refers to any war that generally accepts international criteria of justification. Through this view, a Just War is a means of national self help through which states attempt to enforce rights actually or allegedly based on International Law. While the terrorist group may depend on clandestine assistance from states willing to help them secretly, they are not publicly responsible to them. Since contemplation of Just War requires public authorities to act on their behalf, that objective cannot be met because there is no identifiable enemy state against which to act. As a result of this, the international community has decided to declare war against terrorism in general as“just.”But to remove barriers and confusion from the international community in this 21st century, the Just War theory must be revisited to meet challenges of terrorist activities and rogue states.
CHAPTER 3. COURSES, PROCESSES OF THE WAR ON TERROR AND THE SECURITY POLITICS BEHIND RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR VIOLENCE IN AFGHANISTAN
Events around the globe since the end of the Cold War have been those of conflicts, many of which are violations of the sanctity of state sovereignty in the definitive character of the US liberal doctrine. Operation Enduring Freedom, which began on October 9, 2001 took the form of hundreds of Tomahawk cruise missiles launched from US and British ships and submarines operating in the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf on Afghanistan. During the resulting bombing campaign, US air power was used to rain Joint Direct Ammunitions (JDAM) and laser guided bombs on all known Al Qaeda training facilities. The US response to Al Qaeda assault indicates the glorious Jihad predicted by bin Laden, which would materialize in Central Asia. Bin Laden has become the most known figure in the globe. An emerging clash of civilization has revealed itself in international terrorism especially after 9/11. This is a conflict between Islamic civilization and other civilizations, particularly the West. The embarrassment which Osama and his group brought to the Afghans should be a lesson to other nations, not to support terrorists in any way. It would have been better for the Afghans to stand firmly against the Taliban and force them to drive out bin Laden and his group than to have gone through all the chaos, loss of lives and properties, mental torture, trauma, and the dehumanization they went through during the US invasion in 2001. The central goal of Bush’s War on Terror however is to eliminate or de-legitimate terror as a method to influence other states in formulating their foreign policies; and to send a message to other states that they must assume responsibility for controlling terrorists within their borders. The War on Terror is not a war against Muslims. Bin Laden was a wanted man by the UN for his involvement in the 1998 Africa terrorist bombings. Even his citizenship was taken away from him in 1994 by the Saudi government, where he was born; all because of his evil ideology.
CHAPTER 4. HOW ACTIONS AFFECT IDEAS IN RESOLVING CONFLICTS, AND ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES TO COMBAT TERRORISM
The cost and success of an actions outcome are critical in predicting how global war on terrorism affects notions of sovereignty. Although the norm of sovereignty and non-intervention are clearly stated in the UN Charter under Article 2, yet they are continually violated by political decision-making bodies to address pressing international issues such as human right abuse– Kosovo, nuclear development– Iraq, and the spread of terrorism– Afghanistan. All these actions are influenced by international norms concerning states rights and responsibilities in the global community. The case in Afghanistan is the first time a global coalition has intervened on behalf of counter-terrorism. In this case, the Taliban regime failed to fulfill its international obligation in thwarting terrorism, though there had been previous condemnation by UN against the Taliban for its support of Al Qaeda. While the relationship between the Al Qaeda and Taliban is not new, 9/11 served as a turning point for the international community to prioritize combating terrorism in their policy. Amidst events, new justification for military intervention has emerged which sought to reframe the debate on sovereignty. A state cannot be sovereign unless it is recognized so by other states in the international system. Rights and obligations vary according to the international context. In Europe, NATO intervened in the former Yugoslavia on behalf of Albanian Kosovars and Bosnians threatened by ethnic cleansing. In Asia, the UN military intervened in Cambodia and helped build the country. In many of these cases, the decision to intervene has reflected peoples changing ideas about state sovereignty. The War on Terror provides an opportunity to observe whether or not conceptions of sovereignty have changed among state actors. With the end of the cold war and the rise in terrorist attacks, especially on major powers by non-state actors, the global War on Terror arguably replaces the cold war, as it has called on states to collectively fight terrorism. At this time of the US history, one cannot take terrorism out of its politics. The aggressive overreaction by the Bush administration at the initial stage of the 9/11 attacks was necessary, to assure the citizens that the government was able to protect them, and can also overreact if the need arise. Terrorist activities can be checked by states through strengthening their security system. This can include well trained domestic intelligence, strict border control measures, port security initiatives, and any other measures that can make it harder for terrorists to successfully attack a state. Terrorists can live in any state and still operate. Those that bombed US did not go back to Afghanistan to acquire weapon; they made use of airplanes as missiles. It is because of this that immigration in states should be vigilant, by inspecting every passport more carefully. Illegal arms merchants must be under close scrutiny, while weapon dealers should be more vigilant about individuals who might be terrorists. Al Qaeda is yet the most violent terrorist group that has come up. It therefore needs harsh options to either put fear in them or crush them totally.
CHAPTER 5. UNDERSTANDING THE BUSH DOCTRINE IN INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS, AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE NEW TERROR
This work examines two aspects of the politics of post 9/11 foreign policy. These include the development of an expansive and aggressive Bush Doctrine, characterized by preemptive and preventive war. Secondly, the revival of a positive discourse on US Empire and hegemony within policy and opinion circle is examined. It shows and categorizes a range of interpretations of these developments from the political left, which seeks to explore elements of continuity and change in the foreign policy approach of the Bush Administration. The Bush Doctrine evolved through three phases from 2001 to 2006 National Security Strategy. This change was quite different from that in his 2000 campaign in which foreign policy played only a minor role. In 2002, the Bush administration put together the elements of a more far-reaching foreign policy doctrine based on unilateral action, preemptive military strikes, and prevention of the emergence of any strategic rivals to US supremacy. While the security strategy document has been seen to endorse preemptive military action, it might more accurately be seen as attempting to legitimize the radical concept of preventive war; or a decision to attack now to prevent a real threat in the future. While such justification could easily be used by any country to attack any other, it has long been established in the legal circles that preemptive war is completely illegitimate. The difference between war and politics is becoming more obscure as war is not merely an instrument of politics but has become an essential form of it. The actions of both Al Qaeda and Bush show that war no longer needs political reasoning. US even see the war on terror in Afghanistan as a just and necessary reaction to 9/11, while Al Qaeda saw the bombing as the hand of god falling on the enemy. This work investigates the political outcome of the War on Terror on both US and Afghanistan, which includes the flaws, victories and losses. It makes a conclusion that counter terrorism can only be achieved in Afghanistan when it is fought side by side with counter narcotics operations; one cannot succeed without the other.
引文
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48 Ibid.
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54 Inauguration speech.
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59 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2003.
60 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
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64 Ibid.
65 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
66 Ibid, 2007.
67 JAMES MANN. Rise of the Vulcan: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet. [M]. London, UK: Penguin Books Ltd. 2004.
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69 BERNARD LEWIS. The Islam Expert. [N]. ECHO, November 2003.
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71NILS PETTER GLEDITSCH. Peace and Democracy. [ J]. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, 2008: 1430-1437.
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74 BERNARD LEWIS. From Barbel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East. [M]. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2004.
75 Ibid, 2004.
76 ROBERT SNYDER. The Intersection of US Foreign Policy, Islamist Militancy, and Terrorism. [J]. Journal of International Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn, 2005:743-754.
77 ROBERT FISK. Bush’s & Rumsfeld’s war Dossier: Blindness, Hypocrisy and Lies. [N]. The Independent, September 16, 2002.
78 RUSSELL GOLDMAN. Muslim Cleric Anwar Awlaki Linked to Fort Hood, Northwest Flight 253 Attacks. ABC World News Report, December 29, 2009.
79 NILS PETTER GLEDITSCH. Peace and Democracy. [J]. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, 2008: 1430-1437.
80 WILLIAM NORMAN GRIGG. Our enemy, Our ally: Russia supposedly our ally in the War on Terrorism (Cover Story). [N]. The New American, April 21, 2003.
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83 bin Laden: Al Jazeera radio station, October 7, 2001.
84 OSAMA BIN LADEN, BRUCE LAWRENCE. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. [M]. UK: Verso, 2005.
85 Ibid, 2005.
86 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
87 JOHN G. IKENBERRY. American Grand Strategy in the age of Terror. After Victory: Institution, Strategic Restraint and the Rebuilding of Order after major wars. [J]. Survival, Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 2001-02:19-34.
88 ROBERT KEOHANE. After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. [M]. USA: Princeton University Press,1984.
89 Ibid, 1984.
90 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd. 2005.
91 RICHARD CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
92 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
93 Ibid, 2008.
94 Ibid, 2008.
95 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Rebellion Within. [J]. The New Yorker, Vol. 84, No. 16, June 2, 2008: 36-53.
96 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
97 LISA BAYER. Inside the Kingdom. [J]. Times Magazine, Vol. 162, No. 11, September 15, 2003: 1.
98Ibid, September 15, 2003: 1.
99 STANLEY HOFFMAN. World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era. [M]. USA & UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc.,1998.
100 ANTHONEY HAYMAN. Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-81. [M]. New York: St Martins Press, 1983.
101 This subject of Islam called Jihadism or Azzamism after its founder, Abdullah Azzam, a Palestinian Jihad recruiter, who organized the first transnational volunteer Jihad movement in the 1980s in Afghanistan.
102 Ibid.
103 HASSAN M. KAKAR. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. [M]. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
104 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. USA: University of California Press, 2002.
105 Ibid, 2002.
106 RONALD REAGAN. Radio address to the nation on the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, December 28, 1985. Available at http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/resource/speeches/a985/122885a.htm.
107 Ibid.
108 DAVID K. SHIPLER. Our Vietnam and the Soviets. [N]. The New York Times, February 15, 1989: A 15.
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110 Ibid.
111 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. USA: University of California Press, 2002.
112 The transnational community of Muslim believers that knew no race, or blood.
113 Ibid, 2002.
114 Often on flights funded by the Saudi government.
115 ROBERT D. KAPLAN. Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
116 Many returned home without limbs.
117 LOHBEK KURT. Holy War, Unholy Victory: Eyewitness to the CIA’s Secret War in Afghanistan. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing Inc., 1993.
118 ROBERT D. KAPLAN. Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
119 CHRISTOPHER ANDREW, VASILI MITROKHIN. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. [C]. New York: Basic Books, 1999. (This shows that bin Laden and Saddam Hussein were no friends).
120 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogy of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. USA: University of California Press, 2002.
121 Ibid, 2002.
122 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. ltd, 2005.
123 Ibid, 2005. (Dostrum was in the North and Ismail Khan in the West. The civil war lasted from 1994 to 1996).
124 This was the real Saladin-style victor of the 20th century’s greatest Jihad against the unbelievers.
125 Ibid, 2005.
126 ROBERT D. KAPLAN. Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
127 CHRISTOPHER ANDREW, VASILI MITROKHIN. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. [C]. USA: Basic Books, 1999.
128 Ibid, 1999.
129 Ibid, 1999.
130 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. California: University of California Press, 2002.
132 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
134 The Afghan-Arab association with the civil war in Sudan, and where Bin Laden was based in the early 1990s.
135 Ibid, 2005.
136 Ibid,2005.
137 Ibid, 2005.
138 ASTA OLESEN. Islam and Politics in Afghanistan. [M]. Richmond, UK: Curzon Press, 1996.
139 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
140ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2003.
141 Ibid, 2003.
142 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. Regnery Publishing, 2006.
145 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
146 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2003.
148 Bin LADEN. In one of his tape-recorded speeches, Al Jazeera radio station, December 27, 2001.
149 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
150 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
151 LAWRENCE FREEDMAN. Deterrence. [M]. New York: Polity Press, 2004.
152 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
153 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counter-Terrorism Committee, and the fight against terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2003:333.
154 Ibid, 2005.
155 UNITED NATIONS: International Instruments Related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism. United Nations Publication, No. E. 08. V2, 2008.
156 SNYDER D. BAILEY. The UN Security Council and Terrorism. [J]. International Relations, Vol.11, No. 2, December 6, 1993: 536.
157 MARTHA CRENSHAW. Current Research on Terrorism: The Academic Perspective. [J]. Studies in Conflicts and Terrorism, Vol.15, No. 1, January–March, 1992:3-4.
158 IAN O. LESSER. Countering the New Terrorism. [M]. USA: RAND, 1999.
159 ALDEN ROBERT. US Casts a Veto in UN on Mideast, Citing Terrorism.”[N]. New York Times, September
11, 1972.
160 M. J PETERSON.“Using the General Assembly,”in JANE BOULDEN and THOMAS G. WEISS eds. Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11th . [C]. Bloomington, USA: Indiana University Press, 2003.
161 ALDEN ROBERT.“Waldheim Bids UN Act on Terrorism.”[N]. New York Times, September 13, 1972.
162 ALDEN ROBERT . Rogers Ask UN to Set 1973 Parley on World Terror. [N]. New York Times, September 27, 1972.
163 SNYDER D.BAILEY.“The UN Security Council and Terrorism.”[J]. USA: MIT Press. December 6, 1993: 538., Resolution377.
164 KATHLEEN TELTSCH.“African Nations Bid UN Council Meet on Israeli Raid.”[N]. New York Times, July 7, 1976.
165 KATHLEEN TELTSCH.“Africans Abandon Anti-Israel move in UN’s Council”[N]. New York Times, 15 July, 1976.
166 Resolution S/13616 on November 9 , 1979 and Resolution 457 on December 4, 1979 respectively
167 Adoption of Resolution 461 on December31, 1979.
168 Adoption of Resolution S/13735 on January 13, 1980.
169 Adoption of Resolution S/17554 on October 9, 1985
170 Resolution 579 on December 18, 1985, which followed a letter from US permanent representative - S/17685.
171 RICHARD BERNSTEIN. Raid on Bagdad: The United Nations; US Presents Evidence to U.N. Justifying Its Missile Attacks on Iraq. [N]. New York Times, June 28, 1993: A7. (Excerpts from speech of US Permanent Representative, Madeline K. Albright to the Security Council).
172 This was because of the Al Qaeda US Embassy bombings of Kenya and Tanzania.
173 STEVEN ERLANGER. After the Attacks: The Diplomacy. [N]. USA: New York Times. August 23, 1998.
174 GUY GUGLIOTTA & JULIET EILPERIN. Tough Response Appeals to Clinton Critics. [N]. Washington Post. August 21, 1998: A17.
175 Remarks by the President to the Opening Session of the 53rd UN General Assembly. September 21, 1998. available at http://clinton6.nara.gov/1998/09/1998-09-21-remarks-by-the-president-to53rd-un.html.
176 EDWARD C. LUCK. The United States Counter-Terrorism, and the Prospect of a Multilateral Alternative, in Boulden and Weiss, eds. 2004 Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11th. [C]. Bloomington, USA: Indiana University Press. 2004: 83.
177 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
178 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
179 This was done through Resolution 1054 of August 26, 1996.
180 The chief sanctions resolutions were 1267, october15, 1999 and 1333 of December 19, 2000.
181 This was done in Resolution 1390, January 16, 2002.
182 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counterterrorism Committee, and the Fight Against Terrorism[J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2003:333.
183 Ibid, 2003:333.
184 JEREMY GREENSTOCK. Report to Security Council of Counter-Terrorism Committee. October 4, 2002.
185 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
186 Ibid, 2008.
187 These best practices are summarized by center for Global Counter-Terrorism Cooperation: 2006 esp. appendix B and at www.un.org/ctc/bestpractices.s html.
188 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
189 In Resolution 1566 (2004), para. 7.
190 Index of International, regional and sub-regional organizations, 2003.
191 MARTHA CRENSHAW. Terrorism and International Cooperation. [J]. USA: Institute for East-West Security Studies. Vol. 11, No.1.1989: 25-30.
192 PAUL PILLAR. Terrorism and US Foreign Policy. [M]. Washington DC, USA: Brookings Institution Press. 2001: 76-78.
193 Ibid, 1989: chpt.4.
194 DOUG HOPTON. Money Laundering: A Concise Guide for all Business. [M]. Aldershot, UK: Gower Publishing Limited, 2006.
195 Ibid, 2006.
196 DANIEL W. DREZNER. All Politics is Global: Explaining International Regulatory Regimes. [M]. USA: Princeton University Press. 2007:142-45.
197 The Security Resolutions are available at www.fatf-gafi.org.
198 THOMAS J.BIERSTEKER, SUE E.ECKERT and PETER ROMANIUK. International Initiatives to Combat the Financing of Terrorism, in Thomas J. Biersteker, & Sue E. Eckert eds. Combating the Financing of Global Terrorism. [C]. New York, USA & London: ROUTLEDGE– Taylor and Francis. 2007. And also available at www.cgmontgroup.org.
199 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American Neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
200 Ibid, 2008.
201 Ibid, 2008.
202 States have added an additional treaty to the 12 already in existence– the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, adopted in April, 2005.
203 JANE BOULDEN, THOMAS GEORGE WEISS. Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11. [C]. Bloomington, USA: Indiana University Press, 2004.
204 SNYDER D. BAILEY. The UN Security Council and Terrorism. [J]. International Relations, Vol. 11, No. 2, December 6, 1993:536.
205 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counter-terrorism Committee, and the fight against Terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2003:333.
206 DANIEL BYMAN. Global War on Terror. [J]. USA: International Studies Review, Vol. 30, No. 2. November 24, 2005: 7-15.
207 STANLEY HOFFMAN. World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era. [[M]. USA & UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc., 1998.
208 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
209 PAUL PILLAR. Terrorism and US Foreign Policy. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001.
210 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
213 Ibid. (This also calls for the attention of Article 3 of the Geneva Convention).
214 Arab countries and members of the non-aligned movements.
215 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan; 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
216 DOUGH HOPTON. Money Laundering: A Concise Guide for all Business. [M]. Aldershort, UK: Gower Publishing Limited, 2006.
217 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American Neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
218 Ibid.
219 ROHAN GUNARATNA. Inside Al Qaeda. [M]. New York, USA: Berkley Books, 2002.
220 THOMAS MOCKAITIS. Winning Hearts and Minds in the War on Terrorism: Small wars and Insurgencies, [J]. USA: Roultledge, Vol. 14, Issue 1. March 2003:21-38.
221 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
222 ROBERT JERVIS. International Primacy: Is the Game worth the Candle. [J]. International Security, Vol. 17, No. 4. Spring, 1993: pp.52-67. (Sample of debate over unipolarism).
223 A humanitarian venture to save the country from famine and disorder.
224 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [C] USA: Barnes & Nobles, 2006
225 Ibid, 2006.
226 Ibid, 2006.
227 Ibid, 2006.
228 PETER L. BERGEN. The Osama Bin Laden I Know. [M]. New York: Regnery Publishing , 2006.
229 ROBERT KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
230 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
231 Ibid.
232 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
233 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [M]. USA: Barnes & Nobles, 2006.
234 Ibid.
235 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2006.
236 ROBERT SNYDER. The Myth of Preemption: More than a War against Iraq. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 47, Issue 4, Autumn2005: 653-660.
237 Ibid, 2006.
238 PAUL PILLAR. Terrorism and US Foreign Policy. [ M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001.
239 TIM WEINER, STEVEN LEE MYERS. US Defends Attack on Sudanese Drug Plant. [N]. New York Times, September 3, 1998.
240 Ibid.
241 JOSEPH NYE. The Power to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
242 BILL BOWING. The Degradation of the International Legal Order? The Rehabilitation of Law and the Possibility of Politics. [M]. London: Routledge, 2008.
243 JONATHAN FOX and SHMUEL SANDLER. Bringing Religion into the International Relations. [M]. Basingstoke, UK: Pelgrave Macmillan, 2004.
244 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [N]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
245 JOEL KILPATRICK. The Faith of George W. Bush Companion Study Guide. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
246 Ibid.
247 PETER BAYER. Religion and Globalization. [M]. London, UK: Sage, 1994.
248 JEFFREY HAYNES. Transnational Religious Actors and International Politics. [J. Third World Quarterly. Vol. 22, No. 2. 2001:143-58.
249 JEFFREY HAYNES. Comparative Politics in a Globalizing World. [M]. UK: Polity Press, 2005.
250 SUSANNE H.RUDOLPH, JAMES P. PISCATORI. Transnational Religion and Fading states. [ C]. Boulder, USA: Westview Press, 1997: 12.
251 Human Security Center. Overview: Human Security Report 2005. War and Peace in the 21st century, Vancouver, BD: Simon Frazer University. Available at http://www.humansecurityreport.inf/ Last accessed on 2nd December, 2009.
252 ROBERTO. KOEHANE. Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World. [M]. London: Routledge, 2002.
253 JEREMY WALDRN. Security and Liberty: The Image of Balance. [J]. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Vol. 11, Issue 2, 2003: pp. 191-210.
254 CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Globalized World. [M]. Washington DC: USA: AEI Press, 2004.
255 YORAM SCHWEITZER., SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
256 JOHN L. ESPOSITO. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press Inc,. 2002.
257 Ibid, 2002.
258 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
259 Ibid, 2003.
260 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
261 SIMON CHESTERMAN. Just War or Just Peace? [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
262 Ibid, 2004.
263 NICHOLAS J. WHEELER. Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
264 OSAMA BIN LADEN, BRUCE LAWRENCE. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden. [C]. UK: Verso, 2005.
265 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
266 Ibid.
267 Ibid.
268 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
269 Ibid.
270 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
271 Ibid.
272 VON CLAUSEWITZ: On War. [M]. USA: Princeton University Press, 1989.
273 ALEXANDER WENDT. Social Theory of International Politics. [M]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
274 WILLIAM JAMES BOOTH. Rejoinder to Tierney. [J]. SAGE Publications, in Political Theory, Vol. 19, No.4. 1991: 531
275 Ibid.
276 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
277 JOHN L. ESPOSITO. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2002.
278 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
279 FREDERICK H. RUSSEL. The Just War in the Middle Ages. [C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
280 PHILIP A. CROWL.“The Strategist’s Short Catechism: Six Questions Without an answer,”[M]. in REICHART and STURM, eds. American Defense Policy. [C]. Fifth Edition. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1982.
282 George W. Bush passed all this criteria before waging the War on Terror in Afghanistan.
283 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
284 ARISTOTLE. Politics. [M], in ERNEST BARKER, ed. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946. Book 1, Chapter 2 and Book 111, Chapter 6– 7.
285 SIMON CHESTERMAN. Just War or Just Peace? [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
286 See Article 3 of the Geneva Convention.
287 JOHN L. ESPOSITO. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2002.
288 DAVID MALONE. The US Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004.
289 Ibid.
290 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
291 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publisher, 2003.
292 Ibid.
293 MICHAEL WALZER. Just War and Unjust Wars: Amoral Argument with Historical Illustrations. [M]. Third Edition. New York: Basic Books, 2003.
294 Ibid.
295 Ibid.
299 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
300 THOMAS HOBBES. Leviathan. [M], in EDWIN CURLEY, ed. [M]. Indianapolis, USA: Hackett, 1994: Chapter 13, Para.8.
301 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century . [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
302 Available at www.whitehouse.gov/nss.html.
303 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law ant the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
304 JENIFER M. WELSH. Humanitarian Intervention and International Relations. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2004.
305 Ibid, 2003: 168.
306 MICHAEL WALZER. Just War and Unjust wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. [M]. Third Edition. New York, USA: Basic Books, 2003.
307 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. Georgetown University Press, 2003.
308 Ibid.
309 Ibid.
310 Ibid.
311 FRANCESCA SUAREZ.“The Three Theological Virtues.”Disputation xiii, in Selection From Three Works, ed. G.L. Williams, A. Brown and J. Waldon. Classics of International Law. Vol. 2. ed James Brown Scott. [M]. Oxford, England: Clarenden Press, 1944: 836.
312 BRIAN OREND. War and International Justice: A Kantian Perspective. [M]. New York, USA: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2000.
313DAVIDA E. KELLOGG. Jus Post Bellum: The Importance of War Crime Trials.”[J]. Parameters, Vol. 32, No. 2, Autumn 2002: 22.
314 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
315 JOANNE MEYEROWITZ. History and September 11th. [M]. Philadelphia, USA: Temple University Press, 2003.
316 ALLAN O’DAY. The International Library of Essays in Terrorism: The War on Terrorism. [C]. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004.
317 Ibid.
318 ROBERT KAPLAN, Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
319 LAWRENCE S. KAPLAN. NATO United: The Evolution of an Alliance. [M]. Connecticut & London: Praeger Publishers, 2004.
320 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2003.
322 JOHN G. IKENBERRRY. American Grand Strategy in the Age of Terror After Victory: Institution, Strategic Restraint and the Rebuilding of Order After Major Wars. [J]. Survival, Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 2001/02: 19-34.
323 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
325 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
326 Ibid, 2008.
327 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. California University Press,2002.
328 Ibid, 2002.
329 SEAN M. MALONEY. On a Pale Horse: Conceptualizing Narcotics Production in Southern Afghanistan and its Relationship to the Narcotic Nexus. [J]. War and Conflict Studies, Vol. 29, Issue 1, March 2009: 203-214.
330 Ibid.
331 SETH G. JONES. Counter-insurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies , Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
332 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy.. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
333 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
334 Ibid.
335 ROSEMARIE SKAINE. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. [M]. UK: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2002.
336 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University of Kentucky, 2007.
337 ANTHONY H. CORDESMAN. Energy Developments in the Middle East. [M]. Washington DC: Praeger, 2004.
338 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
339 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
340 Ibid, 2006.
341 CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World. [M]. Washington DC: AEI Press, 2004.
342 JEFFERY D. SIMON. The Terrorist Trap: America’s Experience with Terrorism. [M]. Second Edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.
343 BENJAMINE E. SCHWARTZ. America’s Struggle Against the Wahhabi/neo-Salafi Movement. ORBIS, Vol.
51, Issue 1, Winter 2007: 107-128.
344 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
345 Seth G. Jones. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. {na}, May 25, 2008: 3-77.
346 Ibid, May 25, 2008: 3-77.
347 ROSEMARI SKAINE. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. [M]. UK & USA: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2002.
348 SERGE TRIKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
349 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. USA: Regenry Publishing, 2006.
350 ROSEMARIE SKAINE. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. [M]. UK: Mc Farland & Company Inc. Publishers, 2002.
351 RAM SWARUP. Understanding Islam Through Hadis. [M]. Voice of Dharma, 1982.
352 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
353 PAUL PILLAR. No Torture, No Exception. [N]. Washington Monthly, January 2008.
354 PETER L. BERGEN. The Osama Bin Laden I Know. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2006.
355 Ibid, 2006.
356 SETH G. JONES. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
357 Ibid, 2008.
358 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
359 Ibid, 2007.
360 BERNARD LEWIS. The Islam Expert. [N]. ECHO, November 2003.
361 Ibid, 2003.
362 JAMES MANN. Rise of the Vulcan: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet. [M]. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004.
363Xinjiang, which is occupied by the Uighurs
364 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnary Publishing, 2003.
365 ROBERT FISK. Bush’s & Rumsfeld’s War Dossier: Blindness, Hypocrisy and Lies. [N]. The Independent, September 16, 2002.
366 GILLS DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
367 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
368 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. USA: Regenry Publishing, 2006.
369 SETH JONES. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
371 BERNARD LEWIS. From Barbel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East. [M]. UK: Oxford University Press, 2004.
374 PERVEZ MUSHARRAF. A Plea for Enlightened Moderation: [N]. Washington Post, June 1, 2004.
375 ANTONIA GIUSTUZZI. Koran, Kalashikov and Laptop: The neo-Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan. [M]. London, UK: Hurst, 2007.
376 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
377 ROBERT L. IVIE. Images of Savagery in American Justifications of War. [J]. USA: Taylor & Francis, Communication Monograph, Vol. 47, No. 4, 1980: 289.
378 Protocol 11 of 8th June 1977. Part iv, Article 13, section 2. Available at URL:http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/).
379 JOHN H. STEVEN. The Duty of Union in a Just War, a Discourse, Delivered in Stoneham, (mass)…April 8, 1813, being the day of the State Fast. [M]. India: Biblio Life, LLC, 2009.
380 Ibid, 2009.
381 PAUL MURPHY. Intelligence and Security Committee Reports into the London terrorist attacks on 7 July 2005.Available at http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys.files/documents/2006/05/11/isc_7july_report.pdf.
382 LOU DOUBBS. In CNN NEWS. Terror in Jordan: Republicans Lose Big in off year election. Aired November 9, 2005 at 18: 00 ET.
383 BBC News. Dozens Killed in Algeria Blasts. Aired Tuesday 11 December, 2007 at 18: 29 GMT.
384 JOE GANDELMAN. Mumbai Terror Strike: It is not India”s 9/11. [N]. The Moderate Voice, November 27, 2008.
385 PETER FORD. Europe cringes at Bush‘crusade’against terrorists. [N]. USA: Christian Science Monitor, September 19, 2001: 12.
386 TAMOTSU SHIBUTANI. On the Personification of Adversaries. Pp. 223-233 in Tamotsu Shibutani (ED). Human Nature and Collective Behavior. [M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970: 227.
387 Ronald Reagan’s Speech to the house of Commons, London, UK on June 8, 1982.
388 ANDREW SULLIVAN. The way we live now, 12-9-01: High Impact. [N]. The New York Times, December 9, 2001: Section 6, 25.
389 CHRISTOPHER BELLANY. He may look medieval, but bin Laden is a modern tactician of rare genius. [N]. The Independent, September 24, 2001: 4.
390 JOHN F. BURNS. A nation challenged: The wanted man: bin Laden taunts US and praises hijackers. [N]. The New York Times, October 8, 2001: A1.
391 Ibid, October 8, 2001: A1.
392 CHRISTOPHER BELLANY. He May Look Medieval, but Bin Laden is a Modern tactician of rare Genius. [N]. The Independent, September 24, 2001: 4.
393 Quran in English. Surat 2, vs 190-92.
394 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. USA: Regenry Publishing, 2006.
395 RAM SWARUP. Understanding Islam Through Hadis. [M]. USA: Voice of Dharma, 1982.
398 ANDREW MCGREGOR. Jihad and the Rifle Alone: Abdullah Azzam and Islamist Revolution. [J]. USA: Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2. Fall 2002: 92-113.
399 BENJAMIN BARBER. Jihad vs McWorld: Terrorism’s Challenge to Democracy [M]. New York, USA: Ballantine, 2003: xi-xviii.
400 JOHN K. COOLEY. Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism. [M]. Second Edition. London, UK: Pluto Press, 2000.
401 Ibid, 2000.
402 BIN LADEN. In one of his recorded messages through Al Jazeera Radio Station, December 27, 2001.
403 PETER L. BERGEN. The Osama Bin Laden I Know. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2006.
404 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
405 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counter-Terrorism Committee, and the Fight Against Terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2. 2003: 333.
406 Ibid, 2003: 333.
407KENNETH WALTZ. Theory of International Politics. [M]. New York, USA: Random House, 1979.
408 STEPHEN D. KRASNER. Sovereignty: An International Perspective. [J]. USA: Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1988: 90.
409 ROBERT KEOHANE & JOSEPH S. NYE. Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition. [C]. Second Edition. Boston, USA: Little & Brown, 1977.
410 JOHN RUGGIE. International Regimes: Beyond Intractability. [M]. New York, USA: Colombia University Press, 1986: 143.
411HEDLEY BULL. The Anarchical Society. [M]. New York, USA: Colombia University Press, 1977, 9.
412 KENNETH WATZ. Theory of International Politics. [M]. New York USA: Random House, 1979: 69.
413 UNITED NATIONS: UN Monthly Chronicle. Office of Public Information, Vol. 38-39, 2001.
414 BENJAMIN R. BARBER. An Aristocracy to Everyone. [M]. New York, USA: Ballantine/Del Ray/Fawcett/Ivy, 1992
417 ROBERT FISK. Bush’s & Rumsfeld’s war Dossier: Blindness, Hypocrisy and Lies. [N]. The Independent, September 16, 2002.
418 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
419 Ibid, September 16, 2002.
420 Ibid, September 16, 2002.
421 JOEL KILPATRICK. The Faith of George W. Bush: Companion Study Guide. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
422 Most of these Amendments were done in the USA Patriot Act.
423 ROBERT KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
424 Ibid, 2007.
425 The American Civil Liberties are Availaible at http://www.aclu.org/natsec/index.html.
426 JOHN KANE. American Values of Human Rights? USA Foreign Policy and the Fractured Myth of Virtuous Power. [J]. Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 33, Issue 4, December 2003: 729-772.
427 Ibid, December 2003: 729-772.
428 This activity was also allowed through the USA Patriot Act.
429 TOM FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
430 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2006.
431 Ibid, 2008.
433 Ibid, 2008.
434 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York, Knopf, 2006.
435 ED STOCKLY. Curse of Wartime Presidents. [N]. Los Angeles Times, July 4, 2003.
436 Ibid, July 4, 2003.
437 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
438 Ibid, 2004.
439 ETHAN A.NADELMANN. Global Prohibition Regime: The Evolution of Norms in International Society. [J]. USA: International Organizations, Vol. 44, No. 4, Autumn 1990: 479-526.
440 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
443 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [C]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
444 MICHAEL WALZER. Just War and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. [M] Third Edition. New York: Basic Books, 2003.
445 DAVID BENJAMIN, STEVEN SIMON. The Age of Sacred Terror. [M]. USA: Random House, 2002.
446 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counterterrorism Committee, and the Fight Against Terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2003: 333.
447 PAM MORRIS. Realism: New Critical Idiom. [M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.
448 JOHN BELLANY FORSTER. Terrorism and the War Crisis. [J]. Monthly Review, Vol. 53, Issue 6, September 22, 2001.
449 Ibid, September 22, 2001.
450 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
451 Ibid, 2006.
452 ROBERT SNYDER. The Intersection of US Foreign Policy, Islamist Militancy, and Terrorism. [J]. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 743-754.
453 White House 2006. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, 2006. Available at http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/wh/71803.htm#challenges.
454 Ibid.
455 JEFFERY D. SIMON. The Terrorist Trap: America’s Experience with Terrorism. [M]. Second Edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.
456United States. United Nations Security Council., January 31, 1996. Available at http://unbisnet.un.org/.
457 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. USA: Barnes & Nobles, 2006.
458 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. USA: Barnes & Nobles, 2006.
459 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
460 Ibid, 2008.
461 Ibid, 2008.
462 NILS PETER.GLEDITSCH. Peace and Democracy. [M]. In Lester Kurtz ed. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2008.
463 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
464 Ibid, 2006.
465 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
466 GILLES DORRONSO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
467 Ibid, 2006.
468 PETER L. BERGEN. The Osama Bin Laden I Know. [M]. New York: Free Press, 2006.
469 SETH G. JONES. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
470 Ibid, May 25, 2008.: 3-77.
471 Bringing regime changes to the two nations.
472 Ibid, 2006.
473 IVAN ARREGUIN-TOFT. How the Weak Win Wars: A Theory of Asymmetric Conflict. [M]. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
474 Ibid, 2005.
475 MICHAEL RADU. Terrorism After the Cold War: Trends and Challenges. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 46, Issue 2, Spring 2002: 275-287.
476 THOMAS DONNELLY. Countering Aggressive Rising Powers: A Clash of Strategic Cultures. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 50, Issue 3, Summer 2006: 413-428.
477 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
478 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [C]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2006.
479 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
480 BENJAMIN E. SCHWATZ. America’s Struggle Against the Wahahabi/neo-Salafi Movement. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 51, Issue 1, Winter 2007: 107-128.
481 MICHAEL MOUSSEAU. Market Civilization and its Clash with Terror. [J]. International Security, Vol. 27, No. 3, Winter, 2002/2003: 19-20.
482 STANLEY HOFFMAN. World Disorder: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era. [M]. USA & UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc., 1998.
483 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regenery Publishing, 2003.
484 BARRY POSEN. The Struggle Against Terrorism: Grand Strategy, and Tactics. [J]. International Security, Vol. 26, No. 3, Winter 2001/02: 39-55.
485 IVAN ARREGUIN-TOFT. How the Weak Win Wars: A Theory of Asymmetric Conflict. [M]. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
486 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. UAS: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
487 CHALES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World. [M]. Washington DC: ARI Press, 2004.
488 The 2002 USA National Security Strategy, 151.
490 PAUL PILLAR. Terrorism and US Foreign Policy. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001.
491 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
492 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
493 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
494 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knofp, 2006.
495 Ibid, 2006.
496 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
497 CSCAP Memorandum No. 7 (2002). The relationship between Terrorism and Transnational Crime. Available at http://www.cscap.org).
498 Available at http://www.aseansec.org or http://www.apecsec.org.sg/apec_groups_/som_special_task_groups/counter_terrorism.html
499 See Joint Communique of the Second and Third ASEAN Ministerial Meetings on Transnational Crime. Available at www.aseansec.org.
500 JOSEPH NYE: The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
502 MUSHAHID ALI. Towards An Asian Security Community. [J]. Singapore: Institute of Defense and Strategic Studies, November 20, 2003. Online journal. Available at http://www.ntu.edu.sq/idss/Perspective/research_050340.htm.
503 Ibid, November 20, 2003.
504 The United Kingdom National Intelligence Model is one of the key strategies of the Association of Chief of Police Officers of England, Wales and Northern Ireland for seeking common standards and discipline for the intelligence process.
505 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
506 CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World. [M]. Washington DC, USA: AEI Press, 2004.
507 Ibid, 2004.
508 CHRISTOPHER HILL. Rationalizing or Regrouping? EU Foreign Policy Since 11 September 2001. [J]. Journal of Market Studies, Vol. 42, Issue 1, February 2004: 143-163.
509 ANTHONY M. MESSINA. Pathways from September 11: Politics, Policy, and State Sovereignty in an Age of Terror. [J]. Political Science and Politics, Vol. 41, Issue 2, April 2008: 419.
511 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
512 Available at the White House website: http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html.
513 OLIVER BURKEMAN, NICK PATON WALSH. Bush Vows to Snuff out Potential Enemies. [N]. Guardian, September 21, 2002.
514 RAHUL MAHAJAN. Full Spectrum Dominance: US Power in Iraq and Beyond. [M]. New York, USA: Seven Stories Press, 2003.
515 Ibid, September 21, 2002.
516 Ibid, 2003.
517 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
518 DAN FROOMKIN. What is the Bush Doctrine, Anyway? [N]. The Washington Post, September 12, 2008.
519 ROBERT KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
520 WALTER La FEBER. The Bush Doctrine: Diplomatic History [J]. USA: VOL, 26, No. 4. Fall 2002: 550.
521 JULIAN BORGER. Hate of the Union. [N]. USA: Guardian, 30th January, 2002.
522 Bush speech is available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/released/2002/06/2002061-3.html.
523 THOMAS E. RICKS. Empire or Not? A Quiet Debate Over US Role. [N]. USA: Washington Post, 21 August 2001.
524 Ibid, 2001.
525 JAMES KURTH. Global Threats and American Strategies: From Communism in 1955 to Islamism in 2005. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 631-648.
526 Ibid, Autumn 2005: 631-648.
527 MICHAEL IGNATIEFF. The Burden. [N]. New York, USA: New York Times, 15 January, 2001.
528 ROBERT SNYDER. The Intersection of US Foreign Policy, Islamist Militancy, and Terrorism. [J]. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 1995: 275-287.
529 PETER FORD. Europe cringes at Bush‘crusade’against terrorists. [N]. USA: Christian Science Monitor, September 19, 2001: 12.
530 NILS PETER GLEDITSCH. Peace and Democracy. [M]. In Lester Kurtz ed. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2008.
531 Ibid, 2008.
532 NOAM CHOMSKY. Hegemony or Survival: America’s Quest for Global Dominance. [M]. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2003
533.Ibid, 2003.
534 PETER GOWAN. US Hegemony Today. [J]. Monthly Review, Vol. 55, No. 3, July-August, 2003: pp. 47-48.
535 TOM BARRY.“The US Power Complex: What’s New.”[J]. Foreign Policy in Focus, Vol. 10, No. 11, November, 2002: 256.
536 DAVID ARMSTRONG. Dick Cheney’s Song of America. [J]. Harper’s Magazine, Vol. 395, No. 1829, October 2002: 76-83.
537United Nations Charter, 1945. Preamble.
538 BARRY BUZAN and OLE WAEVER. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. [C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004..
539 JOHN RAWLS. The Law of Peoples With”The Idea of Public Reason Revisited.”[M]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999
540 CLARK EVERLING. Dialectics of Class Struggle in the Global Economy. [M]. USA: Routledge, 2009.
541 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004.
542 MAX HILAIRE: United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
543 BARRY BUZAN, OLE WAEVER. Regions And Powers: The Structure of International Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
544 NITED NATIONS. International Instruments Related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism. [J]. Canada: United Nations Publications, Vol. 2, No. E. 08, 2007.
545 Ibid, 2004.
546 George W. Bush. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, 2002.
547 DIANA FRANCIS. Re-thinking War and Peace. [M]. Ann Arbor, UK: Pluto Press, 2004.
548 Ibid, 2004.
549 THOMAS DONNELLY. Countering Aggressive Rising Powers: A Clash of Strategic Cultures. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 50, Issue 3, Summer 2006: 413-428.
550 CLARK EVERLING. Dialectics of Class Struggle in the Global Economy. [M]. USA: Routledge, 2009.
551 Ibid, 2009.
552 Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nssall.html.
553 JAMES KURTH. Global Threats and American Strategies: From Communism in 1955 to Islamism in 2005. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 631-648.
556 ROBERT SNYDER. The Myth of Preemption: More than a War Against Iraq. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 47, Issue 4, Autumn 2003: 653-660.
559 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
560 JAMES KURTH. Global Threats and American Strategies: From Communism in 1955 to Islamism in 2005. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 631-648.
561 Ibid, 2004.
562 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. California: University of California Press, 2002.
563 ROSEMARIE SKAINE. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. [M]. UK: McFarland & Company Inc. Publishers, 2002.
564 TOM FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
565 Ibid, 2008.
566 JAMES MANN. Rise of the Vulcan: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet. [M]. London: Penguin Books, 2004.
567 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
568 Ibid, 20008.
571 Ibid, 2008.
572 JOEL KILPATRICK. The Faith of George W. Bush Companion Study Guide. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
573 SAMUEL P. HUNTINGTON. Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order. [M]. USA: Free Press, 1996.
574 FFRANCIS FUKUYAMA. The End of History and the Last Man. [M]. New York, USA: Avon Books, 1992.
575 JOEL KILPATRICK. The Faith of George W. Bush Companion Study Guide. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
576 Ibid, 2004.
577 Ibid, 2004.
578 HANS MORGENTHAU. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. [M]. Sixth Edition. New York: Knopf, 1985.
579 Presidential message on Drug Control Program. Congressional Quarterly Almanac, Vol. 24, 1969:95A.
580 PETER ANDREAS, EVA BERTRAM, MORRIS BACHMAN and KENNETH SHARPE. Drug War Politics: The Price of Denial. [C].Berkeley, USA: University of California Press, 1996.
581 ALFRED W. MCCOY. Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade. [M]. New York, USA: Harper & Row Publishers Inc., 1972.
582.Ibid: 437.11.
583 Ibid, 1996
584 Ibid, 1996.
586 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: Afghanistan Opium Survey 2007. August 2007: 9.
587 Ibid. 16-17.8.
588 CONDOLEEZZA RICE. Remarks at the Afghanistan Compact Meeting. London, January 31, 2006. Available at http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2006/60098.htm.).
589 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. USA: Regenry Publishing, 2006.
590 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
591 Ibid.
592 SETH G. JONES. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
593 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Afghanistan Opium Puppy Survey 2007. Available at www.unodc.org/pdc/research/AFGO7_ExSum_web.pdf.
594 Ibid, May 25, 2998: 3-77.
595 United States Department of State. Counter-narcotics Strategy for Afghanistan, 2007, 2.13.
596 USAID/Afghanistan website.‘About Us’. Available at http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/Page.About.aspx.
597 Ibid.
598 USAID/Afghanistan. Strategic Plan, 2005-2010. (May 2005).
599 USAID/Afghanistan website. Available at http://afghanistan.usaid.gov//en/Program.31.aspx.
600 BRIAN MICHAEL JENKINS. Countering Al Qaeda: An Appreciation of the Situation and Suggestions for Strategy. Rand Corporation, 2002: 31.8.
601 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [C]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2006.
602 JOHN KEIN. American Values of Human Rights? USA Foreign Policy and the Fractured Myth of Virtuous Power. [J]. Presidential Quarterly, Vol. 33, Issue 4, December 2003: 729-772.
603 Ibid, December 2003: 729-772.
604 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine.. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
606 CHRISTOPHER M. BLANCHARD. Afghanistan: Narcotics and US Policy. Congressional Research Service, December 6, 2007: 41.
608 RAYMOND W. BAKER. Capitalism’s Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free Market System. [M]. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Willey & Sons Inc. 2005.
609 Ibid, 2007: 41.
610 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counterterrorism Committee and the Fight Against Terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vo. 97, No. 2, 2003: 333.
611 DAN FROOMKIN. What is the Bush Doctrine Anyway? [N]. The Washington Post, September 12, 2008.
612 SUSAN PAGE. Bush Approval Rating hits new Low. [N]. USA Today, August 5, 2006.
613 SIMON TISDALL. Congress Approval Rating Just 10% as Bush goes from‘Lame to Dead Duck.’[N]. The Guardian, October 1, 2008.
614 BARRY BUZAN, OLE WAEVER. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. [C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
615 Ibid, 2004.
616 ANTHONY M. MESSINA. Pathways from September 11: Politics, Policy, and State Sovereignty in an Age of Terrorism. [J]. Political Science and Politics, Vol. 41, Issue 2, April 2008: 419.
617 Ibid, April 2008: 419.
618 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
619 GEORGE TENET. The Worldwide Threat in 2003: Evolving dangers in a complex world. February 11, 2003. Available at http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/library/reports/2003/dci_speech_02112003.html
620 TOBY HARNDEN. Bush keeps photo hit-list. [N]. USA: Telegraph, February 4, 2002.
621 OSAMA BIN LADEN, BRUCE LAWRENCE. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. [M]. UK: Verso, 2005.
622 TOM FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
623 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Rebellion Within. [J]. The New Yorker, Vol. 84, No. 16, June 2, 2008: 36-53.
624 BRUCE HOFFMAN. Rethinking Terrorism and Counter-terrorism since 9/11. [J]. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 25, No. 5. 2002: 303-316.
625 UN“Report of the Monitoring Group Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1455 in 2003.
626 Poll results of Pew Charitable Trust: The Pew Global Attitudes Project, View of changing world. June 2003, p.20. Available at http://www.pewtrusts.com/pdf/vf_pew_research_global_attitudes_0603.pdf
627 SIOBAHN GORMAN. Worlds Apart. [J]. National Journal, Vol. 65, No. 4, August 2, 2003. 2487-2488.
628 IMMANUEL WALLERSTEIN. Liberalism and the Legitimation of Nation States: An Historical Interpretation. [J]. Social Justice, Vol. 19, No. 1, Spring 1992: 12-22.
630 MILTON BEARDEN. Afghanistan, Graveyard of Empires. [J]. Foreign Affaires, Vol. 80, No. 6, November/December 2001: 17-30.
631 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [C]. USA: Barnes& Noble, 2006.
632 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI, The Globalization of Terror; The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
633 JOHN L. ESPOSITO. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2002.
634 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
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2 OMAR MALIK. Enough of the Definition of Terrorism[M]. London, UK: Chatham House Books, 2000.
3Ibid, 2000.
4 Ibid, 2000.
5 Ibid, 2000.
6 BRUCE HOFFMAN. Holy Terror: The Implications of Terrorism Motivated by a Religious Imperative [J]. RAND Corporation, 1993. Available at http://nwcitizen.com/publicgood/reports/holywar3.htm.
7 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American Neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
8 JEFFREY D. SIMON. The Terrorist Trap– America’s Experience with Terrorism. [M]. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1994.
9 C.V.WEDGWOOD. The Thirty Years War (1938): The Colombia Electronic Encyclopedia. [M]. Sixth Edition. USA: Colombia University Press, 2007.
10 Ibid, 2007.
11 ROBERT SNYDER. The Intersection of US Foreign Policy, Islamist Militancy, and Terrorism[J]. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 743-754.
12 MICHAEL RADU. Terrorism After the Cold War: Trends and Challenges. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 46, Issue 2, Spring 2002: 275-287.
13 JAMAL HALABY. George Habash, at 81; led PLO Plane-highjacking faction. [N]. The Boston Globe, January 27, 2008.
14 THOMAS DONNELLY. Countering Aggressive Rising Powers: A Clash of Strategic Cultures. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 50, Issue 3, Summer 2006: 413-428.
15 Ibid.
16 OSAMA bin LADEN is the leader of the Al Qaeda movement.
17 SYED ABDULLAH ABID. War in Afghanistan and FATA Strife. [N]. Lahore, Pakistan: The Frontier Post, October 8, 2008.
18 PRESIDENT CLINTON had earlier bombed terrorist cells in Afghanistan in 1998, after the Al Qaeda attacks on American Embassies in Africa.
19 BENJAMIN E. SCHWARTZ. America’s Struggle Against the Wahhabi/Neo-Salafi Movement. ORBIS, Vol. 51, Issue 1, Winter 2007: 107-128.
20 DANIEL KLEIN. Deductive Economic Methodology in the French Enlightenment: Condillac and Destutt de Tracy. [J]. History of Political Economy, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1985: 51-71.
21 GEORGE W. BUSH. Address to Joint Session of Congress and Americans. September 20, 2001.
22 THOM SHANKER & JIM RUTENBERG. President Wants to Increase Size of Armed Forces. [N]. The New York Times. December 20 2006.
23 SUDHIR HAZAREESING. Political Traditions in Modern France. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
24 JOSEPH NYE. Redefining the National Interest. [J]. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 78, No. 4, 1999: 22-35.
25 Ibid.
26 NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI. The Prince. In Rufus Goodwin and Benjamin Martinez edition. [C]. Boston: Dante University Press of America, 2003., NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI. The Discourses. [M]. In Bernard Crick, 1st edition. London: Penguin Pelican Classics, 1970.
27 HANS MORGENTHAU. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. [M]. Sixth Edition. New York: Knopf, 1985.
28 Ibid.
29 MARTHA FINNEMORE. National Interests in International Society. [M]. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1996.
30 The Good News Bible, in the Book of Genesis. (The theme of good against evil run through out the Bible}.
31 PAM MORRIS. Realism: New Critical Idiom. [M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.
32 MARC A. GENEST. Conflict and Cooperation: Evolving Theories of International Relations. [M]. Beijing: Peking University Press, 1996.
33 Ibid.
34 ROBERT D. KAPLAN. Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
35 Bin LADEN, in a speech through the Al Jazeera Radio Station, December 27, 2001.
36 HARVEY SICHERMAN. Cheap Hawks, Cheap Doves, and the Pursuit of Strategy. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 613-629.
37 A good example is NATO force in Afghanistan.
38 ROBERT S. SNYDER. The Myth of Preemption: More than a war against Iraq. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 47, Issue 4, Autumn 2003: 653-660.
39 IMMANUEL WALLERSTEIN. Liberalism and the Legitimation of Nation-States: An historical interpretation. [J]. Social Justice, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1992: 12-22.
40 Ibid.
41 JOHN KANE. American values or human rights? USA Foreign Policy and the Fractured Myth of Virtuous Power. [J]. Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 33, Issue 4, December 2003: 729-772.
42 NOAM CHOMSKY. Powers and Prospects: Reflections on Human Nature and the Social Order. [M]. USA: Viva Books Private, 2007.
43 JOHN LOCK. Letter Concerning Toleration. [M]. In James H. Tully edition. Indiana: Hackett, 1983.
44 Ibid.
45 RANDALL ROTHENBERG. The neoliberals: Creating the new American Politics. [M]. USA: Simon and Schutster, 1984.
46 GEORG W. F. HEGEL. Dialectic. [M]. In Roy Bhaskar edition, The Pulse of Freedom. UK & USA: Verso, 1993.
47 IMMANUEL KANT. Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch. [M]. In Ted Humphrey Edition. Indianapolis, IN: Heckett Publishing Company, Inc., 2003.
48 Ibid.
49 GEORG W. F. HEGEL. Dialectic. [M]. In Roy Bhaskar edition, The Pulse of Freedom. UK & USA: Verso,1993.
50 JOHN G. IKENBERRY. America’s Imperial Ambition. [ J]. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 81, No. 5,September/October 2002: 45.
51 JOSEPH NYE. The Power to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
52 Liberal International Manifesto: 1997.
53 ISAIAH BERLIN. Four Essays on Liberty [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969.
54 Inauguration speech.
55 CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World. [M]. Washington DC, US: AEI Press, 2004.
56 ROBERT KOEHANE, HELEN MILNER. Internationalization and Democratic Politics. [C]. In Robert O. Koehane, Helen V. Milner edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
57 ROBERT O. KOEHANE. Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World.[M]. Londom, UK: ROUTLEDGE-Taylor & Francis, 2002.
58 JEREMY WALDRON. Security and Liberty: The Image of Balance. [J]. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Vol. 11, Issue 2, 2003: 191-210.
59 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2003.
60 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
61 CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World. [M. Washington DC: AEI Press, 2004.
62 PAUL R. PILLAR. No Torture. No Exception. [N]. Washington Monthly, January 2008.
63 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAY. The Globalization of Terror; The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
64 Ibid.
65 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
66 Ibid, 2007.
67 JAMES MANN. Rise of the Vulcan: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet. [M]. London, UK: Penguin Books Ltd. 2004.
68 UWE SIEMON-NETTO. The 68er Regime in Germany. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 48, Issue 4, Autumn 2004: 641-656.
69 BERNARD LEWIS. The Islam Expert. [N]. ECHO, November 2003.
70 FRANCIS FUKUYAMA. The End of History and the Last Man. [M]. New York, USA: Avon Books. 1992.
71NILS PETTER GLEDITSCH. Peace and Democracy. [ J]. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, 2008: 1430-1437.
72Ibid, 2008:1430-1437.
73 MICHAEL MOUSSEAU. Market Civilization and its Clash with Terror. [J]. International Security, Vol. 27, No. 3,Winter 2002-2003:19-20.
74 BERNARD LEWIS. From Barbel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East. [M]. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2004.
75 Ibid, 2004.
76 ROBERT SNYDER. The Intersection of US Foreign Policy, Islamist Militancy, and Terrorism. [J]. Journal of International Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn, 2005:743-754.
77 ROBERT FISK. Bush’s & Rumsfeld’s war Dossier: Blindness, Hypocrisy and Lies. [N]. The Independent, September 16, 2002.
78 RUSSELL GOLDMAN. Muslim Cleric Anwar Awlaki Linked to Fort Hood, Northwest Flight 253 Attacks. ABC World News Report, December 29, 2009.
79 NILS PETTER GLEDITSCH. Peace and Democracy. [J]. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, 2008: 1430-1437.
80 WILLIAM NORMAN GRIGG. Our enemy, Our ally: Russia supposedly our ally in the War on Terrorism (Cover Story). [N]. The New American, April 21, 2003.
81 THOMAS SCHWARTZ, KIRONN K. SKINNER. The Myth of the Democratic Peace. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 46, Issue, 1, Winter 2002: 159-172.
82 JAMES KURT. Global Threats and American Strategies: From Communism in 1955 to Islamism in 2005. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 49, Issue, 4, Autumn 2005:631-648.
83 bin Laden: Al Jazeera radio station, October 7, 2001.
84 OSAMA BIN LADEN, BRUCE LAWRENCE. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. [M]. UK: Verso, 2005.
85 Ibid, 2005.
86 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
87 JOHN G. IKENBERRY. American Grand Strategy in the age of Terror. After Victory: Institution, Strategic Restraint and the Rebuilding of Order after major wars. [J]. Survival, Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 2001-02:19-34.
88 ROBERT KEOHANE. After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. [M]. USA: Princeton University Press,1984.
89 Ibid, 1984.
90 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd. 2005.
91 RICHARD CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
92 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
93 Ibid, 2008.
94 Ibid, 2008.
95 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Rebellion Within. [J]. The New Yorker, Vol. 84, No. 16, June 2, 2008: 36-53.
96 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
97 LISA BAYER. Inside the Kingdom. [J]. Times Magazine, Vol. 162, No. 11, September 15, 2003: 1.
98Ibid, September 15, 2003: 1.
99 STANLEY HOFFMAN. World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era. [M]. USA & UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc.,1998.
100 ANTHONEY HAYMAN. Afghanistan Under Soviet Domination, 1964-81. [M]. New York: St Martins Press, 1983.
101 This subject of Islam called Jihadism or Azzamism after its founder, Abdullah Azzam, a Palestinian Jihad recruiter, who organized the first transnational volunteer Jihad movement in the 1980s in Afghanistan.
102 Ibid.
103 HASSAN M. KAKAR. Afghanistan: The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979-1982. [M]. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
104 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. USA: University of California Press, 2002.
105 Ibid, 2002.
106 RONALD REAGAN. Radio address to the nation on the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, December 28, 1985. Available at http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/resource/speeches/a985/122885a.htm.
107 Ibid.
108 DAVID K. SHIPLER. Our Vietnam and the Soviets. [N]. The New York Times, February 15, 1989: A 15.
109FARMINGTON HILLS. Discovering World History. Gale Research , 1997. Reproduced in student Resource Center. [M]. Mich: Gale Group, December 2000. Doc. No. CD 2105240902. Available at http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/ SRC/.
110 Ibid.
111 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. USA: University of California Press, 2002.
112 The transnational community of Muslim believers that knew no race, or blood.
113 Ibid, 2002.
114 Often on flights funded by the Saudi government.
115 ROBERT D. KAPLAN. Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
116 Many returned home without limbs.
117 LOHBEK KURT. Holy War, Unholy Victory: Eyewitness to the CIA’s Secret War in Afghanistan. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing Inc., 1993.
118 ROBERT D. KAPLAN. Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
119 CHRISTOPHER ANDREW, VASILI MITROKHIN. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. [C]. New York: Basic Books, 1999. (This shows that bin Laden and Saddam Hussein were no friends).
120 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogy of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. USA: University of California Press, 2002.
121 Ibid, 2002.
122 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. ltd, 2005.
123 Ibid, 2005. (Dostrum was in the North and Ismail Khan in the West. The civil war lasted from 1994 to 1996).
124 This was the real Saladin-style victor of the 20th century’s greatest Jihad against the unbelievers.
125 Ibid, 2005.
126 ROBERT D. KAPLAN. Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
127 CHRISTOPHER ANDREW, VASILI MITROKHIN. The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB. [C]. USA: Basic Books, 1999.
128 Ibid, 1999.
129 Ibid, 1999.
130 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. California: University of California Press, 2002.
132 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
134 The Afghan-Arab association with the civil war in Sudan, and where Bin Laden was based in the early 1990s.
135 Ibid, 2005.
136 Ibid,2005.
137 Ibid, 2005.
138 ASTA OLESEN. Islam and Politics in Afghanistan. [M]. Richmond, UK: Curzon Press, 1996.
139 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
140ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2003.
141 Ibid, 2003.
142 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. Regnery Publishing, 2006.
145 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
146 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2003.
148 Bin LADEN. In one of his tape-recorded speeches, Al Jazeera radio station, December 27, 2001.
149 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
150 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
151 LAWRENCE FREEDMAN. Deterrence. [M]. New York: Polity Press, 2004.
152 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
153 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counter-Terrorism Committee, and the fight against terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2003:333.
154 Ibid, 2005.
155 UNITED NATIONS: International Instruments Related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism. United Nations Publication, No. E. 08. V2, 2008.
156 SNYDER D. BAILEY. The UN Security Council and Terrorism. [J]. International Relations, Vol.11, No. 2, December 6, 1993: 536.
157 MARTHA CRENSHAW. Current Research on Terrorism: The Academic Perspective. [J]. Studies in Conflicts and Terrorism, Vol.15, No. 1, January–March, 1992:3-4.
158 IAN O. LESSER. Countering the New Terrorism. [M]. USA: RAND, 1999.
159 ALDEN ROBERT. US Casts a Veto in UN on Mideast, Citing Terrorism.”[N]. New York Times, September
11, 1972.
160 M. J PETERSON.“Using the General Assembly,”in JANE BOULDEN and THOMAS G. WEISS eds. Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11th . [C]. Bloomington, USA: Indiana University Press, 2003.
161 ALDEN ROBERT.“Waldheim Bids UN Act on Terrorism.”[N]. New York Times, September 13, 1972.
162 ALDEN ROBERT . Rogers Ask UN to Set 1973 Parley on World Terror. [N]. New York Times, September 27, 1972.
163 SNYDER D.BAILEY.“The UN Security Council and Terrorism.”[J]. USA: MIT Press. December 6, 1993: 538., Resolution377.
164 KATHLEEN TELTSCH.“African Nations Bid UN Council Meet on Israeli Raid.”[N]. New York Times, July 7, 1976.
165 KATHLEEN TELTSCH.“Africans Abandon Anti-Israel move in UN’s Council”[N]. New York Times, 15 July, 1976.
166 Resolution S/13616 on November 9 , 1979 and Resolution 457 on December 4, 1979 respectively
167 Adoption of Resolution 461 on December31, 1979.
168 Adoption of Resolution S/13735 on January 13, 1980.
169 Adoption of Resolution S/17554 on October 9, 1985
170 Resolution 579 on December 18, 1985, which followed a letter from US permanent representative - S/17685.
171 RICHARD BERNSTEIN. Raid on Bagdad: The United Nations; US Presents Evidence to U.N. Justifying Its Missile Attacks on Iraq. [N]. New York Times, June 28, 1993: A7. (Excerpts from speech of US Permanent Representative, Madeline K. Albright to the Security Council).
172 This was because of the Al Qaeda US Embassy bombings of Kenya and Tanzania.
173 STEVEN ERLANGER. After the Attacks: The Diplomacy. [N]. USA: New York Times. August 23, 1998.
174 GUY GUGLIOTTA & JULIET EILPERIN. Tough Response Appeals to Clinton Critics. [N]. Washington Post. August 21, 1998: A17.
175 Remarks by the President to the Opening Session of the 53rd UN General Assembly. September 21, 1998. available at http://clinton6.nara.gov/1998/09/1998-09-21-remarks-by-the-president-to53rd-un.html.
176 EDWARD C. LUCK. The United States Counter-Terrorism, and the Prospect of a Multilateral Alternative, in Boulden and Weiss, eds. 2004 Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11th. [C]. Bloomington, USA: Indiana University Press. 2004: 83.
177 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
178 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
179 This was done through Resolution 1054 of August 26, 1996.
180 The chief sanctions resolutions were 1267, october15, 1999 and 1333 of December 19, 2000.
181 This was done in Resolution 1390, January 16, 2002.
182 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counterterrorism Committee, and the Fight Against Terrorism[J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2003:333.
183 Ibid, 2003:333.
184 JEREMY GREENSTOCK. Report to Security Council of Counter-Terrorism Committee. October 4, 2002.
185 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
186 Ibid, 2008.
187 These best practices are summarized by center for Global Counter-Terrorism Cooperation: 2006 esp. appendix B and at www.un.org/ctc/bestpractices.s html.
188 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
189 In Resolution 1566 (2004), para. 7.
190 Index of International, regional and sub-regional organizations, 2003.
191 MARTHA CRENSHAW. Terrorism and International Cooperation. [J]. USA: Institute for East-West Security Studies. Vol. 11, No.1.1989: 25-30.
192 PAUL PILLAR. Terrorism and US Foreign Policy. [M]. Washington DC, USA: Brookings Institution Press. 2001: 76-78.
193 Ibid, 1989: chpt.4.
194 DOUG HOPTON. Money Laundering: A Concise Guide for all Business. [M]. Aldershot, UK: Gower Publishing Limited, 2006.
195 Ibid, 2006.
196 DANIEL W. DREZNER. All Politics is Global: Explaining International Regulatory Regimes. [M]. USA: Princeton University Press. 2007:142-45.
197 The Security Resolutions are available at www.fatf-gafi.org.
198 THOMAS J.BIERSTEKER, SUE E.ECKERT and PETER ROMANIUK. International Initiatives to Combat the Financing of Terrorism, in Thomas J. Biersteker, & Sue E. Eckert eds. Combating the Financing of Global Terrorism. [C]. New York, USA & London: ROUTLEDGE– Taylor and Francis. 2007. And also available at www.cgmontgroup.org.
199 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American Neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
200 Ibid, 2008.
201 Ibid, 2008.
202 States have added an additional treaty to the 12 already in existence– the International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism, adopted in April, 2005.
203 JANE BOULDEN, THOMAS GEORGE WEISS. Terrorism and the UN: Before and After September 11. [C]. Bloomington, USA: Indiana University Press, 2004.
204 SNYDER D. BAILEY. The UN Security Council and Terrorism. [J]. International Relations, Vol. 11, No. 2, December 6, 1993:536.
205 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counter-terrorism Committee, and the fight against Terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2003:333.
206 DANIEL BYMAN. Global War on Terror. [J]. USA: International Studies Review, Vol. 30, No. 2. November 24, 2005: 7-15.
207 STANLEY HOFFMAN. World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era. [[M]. USA & UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc., 1998.
208 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
209 PAUL PILLAR. Terrorism and US Foreign Policy. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001.
210 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
213 Ibid. (This also calls for the attention of Article 3 of the Geneva Convention).
214 Arab countries and members of the non-aligned movements.
215 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan; 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
216 DOUGH HOPTON. Money Laundering: A Concise Guide for all Business. [M]. Aldershort, UK: Gower Publishing Limited, 2006.
217 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American Neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
218 Ibid.
219 ROHAN GUNARATNA. Inside Al Qaeda. [M]. New York, USA: Berkley Books, 2002.
220 THOMAS MOCKAITIS. Winning Hearts and Minds in the War on Terrorism: Small wars and Insurgencies, [J]. USA: Roultledge, Vol. 14, Issue 1. March 2003:21-38.
221 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
222 ROBERT JERVIS. International Primacy: Is the Game worth the Candle. [J]. International Security, Vol. 17, No. 4. Spring, 1993: pp.52-67. (Sample of debate over unipolarism).
223 A humanitarian venture to save the country from famine and disorder.
224 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [C] USA: Barnes & Nobles, 2006
225 Ibid, 2006.
226 Ibid, 2006.
227 Ibid, 2006.
228 PETER L. BERGEN. The Osama Bin Laden I Know. [M]. New York: Regnery Publishing , 2006.
229 ROBERT KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
230 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
231 Ibid.
232 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
233 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [M]. USA: Barnes & Nobles, 2006.
234 Ibid.
235 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2006.
236 ROBERT SNYDER. The Myth of Preemption: More than a War against Iraq. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 47, Issue 4, Autumn2005: 653-660.
237 Ibid, 2006.
238 PAUL PILLAR. Terrorism and US Foreign Policy. [ M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001.
239 TIM WEINER, STEVEN LEE MYERS. US Defends Attack on Sudanese Drug Plant. [N]. New York Times, September 3, 1998.
240 Ibid.
241 JOSEPH NYE. The Power to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
242 BILL BOWING. The Degradation of the International Legal Order? The Rehabilitation of Law and the Possibility of Politics. [M]. London: Routledge, 2008.
243 JONATHAN FOX and SHMUEL SANDLER. Bringing Religion into the International Relations. [M]. Basingstoke, UK: Pelgrave Macmillan, 2004.
244 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [N]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
245 JOEL KILPATRICK. The Faith of George W. Bush Companion Study Guide. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
246 Ibid.
247 PETER BAYER. Religion and Globalization. [M]. London, UK: Sage, 1994.
248 JEFFREY HAYNES. Transnational Religious Actors and International Politics. [J. Third World Quarterly. Vol. 22, No. 2. 2001:143-58.
249 JEFFREY HAYNES. Comparative Politics in a Globalizing World. [M]. UK: Polity Press, 2005.
250 SUSANNE H.RUDOLPH, JAMES P. PISCATORI. Transnational Religion and Fading states. [ C]. Boulder, USA: Westview Press, 1997: 12.
251 Human Security Center. Overview: Human Security Report 2005. War and Peace in the 21st century, Vancouver, BD: Simon Frazer University. Available at http://www.humansecurityreport.inf/ Last accessed on 2nd December, 2009.
252 ROBERTO. KOEHANE. Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World. [M]. London: Routledge, 2002.
253 JEREMY WALDRN. Security and Liberty: The Image of Balance. [J]. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Vol. 11, Issue 2, 2003: pp. 191-210.
254 CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Globalized World. [M]. Washington DC: USA: AEI Press, 2004.
255 YORAM SCHWEITZER., SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
256 JOHN L. ESPOSITO. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press Inc,. 2002.
257 Ibid, 2002.
258 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
259 Ibid, 2003.
260 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
261 SIMON CHESTERMAN. Just War or Just Peace? [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
262 Ibid, 2004.
263 NICHOLAS J. WHEELER. Saving Strangers: Humanitarian Intervention in International Society. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
264 OSAMA BIN LADEN, BRUCE LAWRENCE. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama bin Laden. [C]. UK: Verso, 2005.
265 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
266 Ibid.
267 Ibid.
268 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
269 Ibid.
270 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
271 Ibid.
272 VON CLAUSEWITZ: On War. [M]. USA: Princeton University Press, 1989.
273 ALEXANDER WENDT. Social Theory of International Politics. [M]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
274 WILLIAM JAMES BOOTH. Rejoinder to Tierney. [J]. SAGE Publications, in Political Theory, Vol. 19, No.4. 1991: 531
275 Ibid.
276 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
277 JOHN L. ESPOSITO. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2002.
278 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
279 FREDERICK H. RUSSEL. The Just War in the Middle Ages. [C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
280 PHILIP A. CROWL.“The Strategist’s Short Catechism: Six Questions Without an answer,”[M]. in REICHART and STURM, eds. American Defense Policy. [C]. Fifth Edition. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1982.
282 George W. Bush passed all this criteria before waging the War on Terror in Afghanistan.
283 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
284 ARISTOTLE. Politics. [M], in ERNEST BARKER, ed. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946. Book 1, Chapter 2 and Book 111, Chapter 6– 7.
285 SIMON CHESTERMAN. Just War or Just Peace? [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
286 See Article 3 of the Geneva Convention.
287 JOHN L. ESPOSITO. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2002.
288 DAVID MALONE. The US Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004.
289 Ibid.
290 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
291 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publisher, 2003.
292 Ibid.
293 MICHAEL WALZER. Just War and Unjust Wars: Amoral Argument with Historical Illustrations. [M]. Third Edition. New York: Basic Books, 2003.
294 Ibid.
295 Ibid.
299 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
300 THOMAS HOBBES. Leviathan. [M], in EDWIN CURLEY, ed. [M]. Indianapolis, USA: Hackett, 1994: Chapter 13, Para.8.
301 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century . [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2004.
302 Available at www.whitehouse.gov/nss.html.
303 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law ant the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
304 JENIFER M. WELSH. Humanitarian Intervention and International Relations. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2004.
305 Ibid, 2003: 168.
306 MICHAEL WALZER. Just War and Unjust wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. [M]. Third Edition. New York, USA: Basic Books, 2003.
307 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. Georgetown University Press, 2003.
308 Ibid.
309 Ibid.
310 Ibid.
311 FRANCESCA SUAREZ.“The Three Theological Virtues.”Disputation xiii, in Selection From Three Works, ed. G.L. Williams, A. Brown and J. Waldon. Classics of International Law. Vol. 2. ed James Brown Scott. [M]. Oxford, England: Clarenden Press, 1944: 836.
312 BRIAN OREND. War and International Justice: A Kantian Perspective. [M]. New York, USA: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2000.
313DAVIDA E. KELLOGG. Jus Post Bellum: The Importance of War Crime Trials.”[J]. Parameters, Vol. 32, No. 2, Autumn 2002: 22.
314 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
315 JOANNE MEYEROWITZ. History and September 11th. [M]. Philadelphia, USA: Temple University Press, 2003.
316 ALLAN O’DAY. The International Library of Essays in Terrorism: The War on Terrorism. [C]. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004.
317 Ibid.
318 ROBERT KAPLAN, Soldiers of God with Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [M]. USA: Vintage, 2001.
319 LAWRENCE S. KAPLAN. NATO United: The Evolution of an Alliance. [M]. Connecticut & London: Praeger Publishers, 2004.
320 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnery Publishing, 2003.
322 JOHN G. IKENBERRRY. American Grand Strategy in the Age of Terror After Victory: Institution, Strategic Restraint and the Rebuilding of Order After Major Wars. [J]. Survival, Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 2001/02: 19-34.
323 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
325 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
326 Ibid, 2008.
327 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. California University Press,2002.
328 Ibid, 2002.
329 SEAN M. MALONEY. On a Pale Horse: Conceptualizing Narcotics Production in Southern Afghanistan and its Relationship to the Narcotic Nexus. [J]. War and Conflict Studies, Vol. 29, Issue 1, March 2009: 203-214.
330 Ibid.
331 SETH G. JONES. Counter-insurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies , Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
332 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy.. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
333 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
334 Ibid.
335 ROSEMARIE SKAINE. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. [M]. UK: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2002.
336 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University of Kentucky, 2007.
337 ANTHONY H. CORDESMAN. Energy Developments in the Middle East. [M]. Washington DC: Praeger, 2004.
338 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
339 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
340 Ibid, 2006.
341 CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World. [M]. Washington DC: AEI Press, 2004.
342 JEFFERY D. SIMON. The Terrorist Trap: America’s Experience with Terrorism. [M]. Second Edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.
343 BENJAMINE E. SCHWARTZ. America’s Struggle Against the Wahhabi/neo-Salafi Movement. ORBIS, Vol.
51, Issue 1, Winter 2007: 107-128.
344 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
345 Seth G. Jones. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. {na}, May 25, 2008: 3-77.
346 Ibid, May 25, 2008: 3-77.
347 ROSEMARI SKAINE. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. [M]. UK & USA: McFarland & Company, Inc. Publishers, 2002.
348 SERGE TRIKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
349 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. USA: Regenry Publishing, 2006.
350 ROSEMARIE SKAINE. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. [M]. UK: Mc Farland & Company Inc. Publishers, 2002.
351 RAM SWARUP. Understanding Islam Through Hadis. [M]. Voice of Dharma, 1982.
352 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
353 PAUL PILLAR. No Torture, No Exception. [N]. Washington Monthly, January 2008.
354 PETER L. BERGEN. The Osama Bin Laden I Know. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2006.
355 Ibid, 2006.
356 SETH G. JONES. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
357 Ibid, 2008.
358 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
359 Ibid, 2007.
360 BERNARD LEWIS. The Islam Expert. [N]. ECHO, November 2003.
361 Ibid, 2003.
362 JAMES MANN. Rise of the Vulcan: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet. [M]. London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2004.
363Xinjiang, which is occupied by the Uighurs
364 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regnary Publishing, 2003.
365 ROBERT FISK. Bush’s & Rumsfeld’s War Dossier: Blindness, Hypocrisy and Lies. [N]. The Independent, September 16, 2002.
366 GILLS DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
367 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
368 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. USA: Regenry Publishing, 2006.
369 SETH JONES. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
371 BERNARD LEWIS. From Barbel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East. [M]. UK: Oxford University Press, 2004.
374 PERVEZ MUSHARRAF. A Plea for Enlightened Moderation: [N]. Washington Post, June 1, 2004.
375 ANTONIA GIUSTUZZI. Koran, Kalashikov and Laptop: The neo-Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan. [M]. London, UK: Hurst, 2007.
376 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
377 ROBERT L. IVIE. Images of Savagery in American Justifications of War. [J]. USA: Taylor & Francis, Communication Monograph, Vol. 47, No. 4, 1980: 289.
378 Protocol 11 of 8th June 1977. Part iv, Article 13, section 2. Available at URL:http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/).
379 JOHN H. STEVEN. The Duty of Union in a Just War, a Discourse, Delivered in Stoneham, (mass)…April 8, 1813, being the day of the State Fast. [M]. India: Biblio Life, LLC, 2009.
380 Ibid, 2009.
381 PAUL MURPHY. Intelligence and Security Committee Reports into the London terrorist attacks on 7 July 2005.Available at http://image.guardian.co.uk/sys.files/documents/2006/05/11/isc_7july_report.pdf.
382 LOU DOUBBS. In CNN NEWS. Terror in Jordan: Republicans Lose Big in off year election. Aired November 9, 2005 at 18: 00 ET.
383 BBC News. Dozens Killed in Algeria Blasts. Aired Tuesday 11 December, 2007 at 18: 29 GMT.
384 JOE GANDELMAN. Mumbai Terror Strike: It is not India”s 9/11. [N]. The Moderate Voice, November 27, 2008.
385 PETER FORD. Europe cringes at Bush‘crusade’against terrorists. [N]. USA: Christian Science Monitor, September 19, 2001: 12.
386 TAMOTSU SHIBUTANI. On the Personification of Adversaries. Pp. 223-233 in Tamotsu Shibutani (ED). Human Nature and Collective Behavior. [M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970: 227.
387 Ronald Reagan’s Speech to the house of Commons, London, UK on June 8, 1982.
388 ANDREW SULLIVAN. The way we live now, 12-9-01: High Impact. [N]. The New York Times, December 9, 2001: Section 6, 25.
389 CHRISTOPHER BELLANY. He may look medieval, but bin Laden is a modern tactician of rare genius. [N]. The Independent, September 24, 2001: 4.
390 JOHN F. BURNS. A nation challenged: The wanted man: bin Laden taunts US and praises hijackers. [N]. The New York Times, October 8, 2001: A1.
391 Ibid, October 8, 2001: A1.
392 CHRISTOPHER BELLANY. He May Look Medieval, but Bin Laden is a Modern tactician of rare Genius. [N]. The Independent, September 24, 2001: 4.
393 Quran in English. Surat 2, vs 190-92.
394 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. USA: Regenry Publishing, 2006.
395 RAM SWARUP. Understanding Islam Through Hadis. [M]. USA: Voice of Dharma, 1982.
398 ANDREW MCGREGOR. Jihad and the Rifle Alone: Abdullah Azzam and Islamist Revolution. [J]. USA: Journal of Conflict Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2. Fall 2002: 92-113.
399 BENJAMIN BARBER. Jihad vs McWorld: Terrorism’s Challenge to Democracy [M]. New York, USA: Ballantine, 2003: xi-xviii.
400 JOHN K. COOLEY. Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism. [M]. Second Edition. London, UK: Pluto Press, 2000.
401 Ibid, 2000.
402 BIN LADEN. In one of his recorded messages through Al Jazeera Radio Station, December 27, 2001.
403 PETER L. BERGEN. The Osama Bin Laden I Know. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2006.
404 TOM J. FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
405 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counter-Terrorism Committee, and the Fight Against Terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2. 2003: 333.
406 Ibid, 2003: 333.
407KENNETH WALTZ. Theory of International Politics. [M]. New York, USA: Random House, 1979.
408 STEPHEN D. KRASNER. Sovereignty: An International Perspective. [J]. USA: Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, 1988: 90.
409 ROBERT KEOHANE & JOSEPH S. NYE. Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition. [C]. Second Edition. Boston, USA: Little & Brown, 1977.
410 JOHN RUGGIE. International Regimes: Beyond Intractability. [M]. New York, USA: Colombia University Press, 1986: 143.
411HEDLEY BULL. The Anarchical Society. [M]. New York, USA: Colombia University Press, 1977, 9.
412 KENNETH WATZ. Theory of International Politics. [M]. New York USA: Random House, 1979: 69.
413 UNITED NATIONS: UN Monthly Chronicle. Office of Public Information, Vol. 38-39, 2001.
414 BENJAMIN R. BARBER. An Aristocracy to Everyone. [M]. New York, USA: Ballantine/Del Ray/Fawcett/Ivy, 1992
417 ROBERT FISK. Bush’s & Rumsfeld’s war Dossier: Blindness, Hypocrisy and Lies. [N]. The Independent, September 16, 2002.
418 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
419 Ibid, September 16, 2002.
420 Ibid, September 16, 2002.
421 JOEL KILPATRICK. The Faith of George W. Bush: Companion Study Guide. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
422 Most of these Amendments were done in the USA Patriot Act.
423 ROBERT KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
424 Ibid, 2007.
425 The American Civil Liberties are Availaible at http://www.aclu.org/natsec/index.html.
426 JOHN KANE. American Values of Human Rights? USA Foreign Policy and the Fractured Myth of Virtuous Power. [J]. Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 33, Issue 4, December 2003: 729-772.
427 Ibid, December 2003: 729-772.
428 This activity was also allowed through the USA Patriot Act.
429 TOM FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
430 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2006.
431 Ibid, 2008.
433 Ibid, 2008.
434 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York, Knopf, 2006.
435 ED STOCKLY. Curse of Wartime Presidents. [N]. Los Angeles Times, July 4, 2003.
436 Ibid, July 4, 2003.
437 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
438 Ibid, 2004.
439 ETHAN A.NADELMANN. Global Prohibition Regime: The Evolution of Norms in International Society. [J]. USA: International Organizations, Vol. 44, No. 4, Autumn 1990: 479-526.
440 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
443 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI. The Globalization of Terror: The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [C]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
444 MICHAEL WALZER. Just War and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations. [M] Third Edition. New York: Basic Books, 2003.
445 DAVID BENJAMIN, STEVEN SIMON. The Age of Sacred Terror. [M]. USA: Random House, 2002.
446 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counterterrorism Committee, and the Fight Against Terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2003: 333.
447 PAM MORRIS. Realism: New Critical Idiom. [M]. New York: Routledge, 2003.
448 JOHN BELLANY FORSTER. Terrorism and the War Crisis. [J]. Monthly Review, Vol. 53, Issue 6, September 22, 2001.
449 Ibid, September 22, 2001.
450 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
451 Ibid, 2006.
452 ROBERT SNYDER. The Intersection of US Foreign Policy, Islamist Militancy, and Terrorism. [J]. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 743-754.
453 White House 2006. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, 2006. Available at http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/wh/71803.htm#challenges.
454 Ibid.
455 JEFFERY D. SIMON. The Terrorist Trap: America’s Experience with Terrorism. [M]. Second Edition. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.
456United States. United Nations Security Council., January 31, 1996. Available at http://unbisnet.un.org/.
457 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. USA: Barnes & Nobles, 2006.
458 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. USA: Barnes & Nobles, 2006.
459 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
460 Ibid, 2008.
461 Ibid, 2008.
462 NILS PETER.GLEDITSCH. Peace and Democracy. [M]. In Lester Kurtz ed. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2008.
463 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
464 Ibid, 2006.
465 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
466 GILLES DORRONSO. Revolution Unending, Afghanistan: 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
467 Ibid, 2006.
468 PETER L. BERGEN. The Osama Bin Laden I Know. [M]. New York: Free Press, 2006.
469 SETH G. JONES. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
470 Ibid, May 25, 2008.: 3-77.
471 Bringing regime changes to the two nations.
472 Ibid, 2006.
473 IVAN ARREGUIN-TOFT. How the Weak Win Wars: A Theory of Asymmetric Conflict. [M]. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
474 Ibid, 2005.
475 MICHAEL RADU. Terrorism After the Cold War: Trends and Challenges. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 46, Issue 2, Spring 2002: 275-287.
476 THOMAS DONNELLY. Countering Aggressive Rising Powers: A Clash of Strategic Cultures. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 50, Issue 3, Summer 2006: 413-428.
477 MAX HILAIRE. United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
478 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [C]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2006.
479 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
480 BENJAMIN E. SCHWATZ. America’s Struggle Against the Wahahabi/neo-Salafi Movement. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 51, Issue 1, Winter 2007: 107-128.
481 MICHAEL MOUSSEAU. Market Civilization and its Clash with Terror. [J]. International Security, Vol. 27, No. 3, Winter, 2002/2003: 19-20.
482 STANLEY HOFFMAN. World Disorder: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era. [M]. USA & UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc., 1998.
483 ROBERT SPENCER. Onward Muslim Soldiers. [M]. USA: Regenery Publishing, 2003.
484 BARRY POSEN. The Struggle Against Terrorism: Grand Strategy, and Tactics. [J]. International Security, Vol. 26, No. 3, Winter 2001/02: 39-55.
485 IVAN ARREGUIN-TOFT. How the Weak Win Wars: A Theory of Asymmetric Conflict. [M]. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
486 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. UAS: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
487 CHALES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World. [M]. Washington DC: ARI Press, 2004.
488 The 2002 USA National Security Strategy, 151.
490 PAUL PILLAR. Terrorism and US Foreign Policy. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2001.
491 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
492 JOSEPH NYE. The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
493 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knopf, 2006.
494 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. [M]. New York: Knofp, 2006.
495 Ibid, 2006.
496 RICHARD A. CLARK. Against all Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror. [M]. USA: Free Press, 2004.
497 CSCAP Memorandum No. 7 (2002). The relationship between Terrorism and Transnational Crime. Available at http://www.cscap.org).
498 Available at http://www.aseansec.org or http://www.apecsec.org.sg/apec_groups_/som_special_task_groups/counter_terrorism.html
499 See Joint Communique of the Second and Third ASEAN Ministerial Meetings on Transnational Crime. Available at www.aseansec.org.
500 JOSEPH NYE: The Powers to Lead. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
502 MUSHAHID ALI. Towards An Asian Security Community. [J]. Singapore: Institute of Defense and Strategic Studies, November 20, 2003. Online journal. Available at http://www.ntu.edu.sq/idss/Perspective/research_050340.htm.
503 Ibid, November 20, 2003.
504 The United Kingdom National Intelligence Model is one of the key strategies of the Association of Chief of Police Officers of England, Wales and Northern Ireland for seeking common standards and discipline for the intelligence process.
505 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
506 CHARLES KRAUTHAMMER. Democratic Realism: An American Foreign Policy for a Unipolar World. [M]. Washington DC, USA: AEI Press, 2004.
507 Ibid, 2004.
508 CHRISTOPHER HILL. Rationalizing or Regrouping? EU Foreign Policy Since 11 September 2001. [J]. Journal of Market Studies, Vol. 42, Issue 1, February 2004: 143-163.
509 ANTHONY M. MESSINA. Pathways from September 11: Politics, Policy, and State Sovereignty in an Age of Terror. [J]. Political Science and Politics, Vol. 41, Issue 2, April 2008: 419.
511 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
512 Available at the White House website: http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html.
513 OLIVER BURKEMAN, NICK PATON WALSH. Bush Vows to Snuff out Potential Enemies. [N]. Guardian, September 21, 2002.
514 RAHUL MAHAJAN. Full Spectrum Dominance: US Power in Iraq and Beyond. [M]. New York, USA: Seven Stories Press, 2003.
515 Ibid, September 21, 2002.
516 Ibid, 2003.
517 GILLES DORRONSORO. Revolution Unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to Present. [M]. UK: Hurst & Co. Ltd, 2005.
518 DAN FROOMKIN. What is the Bush Doctrine, Anyway? [N]. The Washington Post, September 12, 2008.
519 ROBERT KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
520 WALTER La FEBER. The Bush Doctrine: Diplomatic History [J]. USA: VOL, 26, No. 4. Fall 2002: 550.
521 JULIAN BORGER. Hate of the Union. [N]. USA: Guardian, 30th January, 2002.
522 Bush speech is available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/released/2002/06/2002061-3.html.
523 THOMAS E. RICKS. Empire or Not? A Quiet Debate Over US Role. [N]. USA: Washington Post, 21 August 2001.
524 Ibid, 2001.
525 JAMES KURTH. Global Threats and American Strategies: From Communism in 1955 to Islamism in 2005. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 631-648.
526 Ibid, Autumn 2005: 631-648.
527 MICHAEL IGNATIEFF. The Burden. [N]. New York, USA: New York Times, 15 January, 2001.
528 ROBERT SNYDER. The Intersection of US Foreign Policy, Islamist Militancy, and Terrorism. [J]. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 1995: 275-287.
529 PETER FORD. Europe cringes at Bush‘crusade’against terrorists. [N]. USA: Christian Science Monitor, September 19, 2001: 12.
530 NILS PETER GLEDITSCH. Peace and Democracy. [M]. In Lester Kurtz ed. Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2008.
531 Ibid, 2008.
532 NOAM CHOMSKY. Hegemony or Survival: America’s Quest for Global Dominance. [M]. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2003
533.Ibid, 2003.
534 PETER GOWAN. US Hegemony Today. [J]. Monthly Review, Vol. 55, No. 3, July-August, 2003: pp. 47-48.
535 TOM BARRY.“The US Power Complex: What’s New.”[J]. Foreign Policy in Focus, Vol. 10, No. 11, November, 2002: 256.
536 DAVID ARMSTRONG. Dick Cheney’s Song of America. [J]. Harper’s Magazine, Vol. 395, No. 1829, October 2002: 76-83.
537United Nations Charter, 1945. Preamble.
538 BARRY BUZAN and OLE WAEVER. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. [C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004..
539 JOHN RAWLS. The Law of Peoples With”The Idea of Public Reason Revisited.”[M]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999
540 CLARK EVERLING. Dialectics of Class Struggle in the Global Economy. [M]. USA: Routledge, 2009.
541 DAVID MALONE. The UN Security Council: From the Cold War to the 21st Century. [M]. USA & UK: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004.
542 MAX HILAIRE: United Nations Law and the Security Council. [M]. UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2005.
543 BARRY BUZAN, OLE WAEVER. Regions And Powers: The Structure of International Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
544 NITED NATIONS. International Instruments Related to the Prevention and Suppression of International Terrorism. [J]. Canada: United Nations Publications, Vol. 2, No. E. 08, 2007.
545 Ibid, 2004.
546 George W. Bush. The National Security Strategy of the United States of America, 2002.
547 DIANA FRANCIS. Re-thinking War and Peace. [M]. Ann Arbor, UK: Pluto Press, 2004.
548 Ibid, 2004.
549 THOMAS DONNELLY. Countering Aggressive Rising Powers: A Clash of Strategic Cultures. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 50, Issue 3, Summer 2006: 413-428.
550 CLARK EVERLING. Dialectics of Class Struggle in the Global Economy. [M]. USA: Routledge, 2009.
551 Ibid, 2009.
552 Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nssall.html.
553 JAMES KURTH. Global Threats and American Strategies: From Communism in 1955 to Islamism in 2005. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 631-648.
556 ROBERT SNYDER. The Myth of Preemption: More than a War Against Iraq. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 47, Issue 4, Autumn 2003: 653-660.
559 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
560 JAMES KURTH. Global Threats and American Strategies: From Communism in 1955 to Islamism in 2005. [J]. ORBIS, Vol. 49, Issue 4, Autumn 2005: 631-648.
561 Ibid, 2004.
562 DAVID B. EDWARDS. Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad. [M]. California: University of California Press, 2002.
563 ROSEMARIE SKAINE. The Women of Afghanistan Under the Taliban. [M]. UK: McFarland & Company Inc. Publishers, 2002.
564 TOM FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
565 Ibid, 2008.
566 JAMES MANN. Rise of the Vulcan: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet. [M]. London: Penguin Books, 2004.
567 BRUCE RIEDEL. The Search for Al Qaeda: Its Leadership, Ideology, and Future. [M]. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2008.
568 Ibid, 20008.
571 Ibid, 2008.
572 JOEL KILPATRICK. The Faith of George W. Bush Companion Study Guide. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
573 SAMUEL P. HUNTINGTON. Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of World Order. [M]. USA: Free Press, 1996.
574 FFRANCIS FUKUYAMA. The End of History and the Last Man. [M]. New York, USA: Avon Books, 1992.
575 JOEL KILPATRICK. The Faith of George W. Bush Companion Study Guide. [M]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2004.
576 Ibid, 2004.
577 Ibid, 2004.
578 HANS MORGENTHAU. Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. [M]. Sixth Edition. New York: Knopf, 1985.
579 Presidential message on Drug Control Program. Congressional Quarterly Almanac, Vol. 24, 1969:95A.
580 PETER ANDREAS, EVA BERTRAM, MORRIS BACHMAN and KENNETH SHARPE. Drug War Politics: The Price of Denial. [C].Berkeley, USA: University of California Press, 1996.
581 ALFRED W. MCCOY. Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade. [M]. New York, USA: Harper & Row Publishers Inc., 1972.
582.Ibid: 437.11.
583 Ibid, 1996
584 Ibid, 1996.
586 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime: Afghanistan Opium Survey 2007. August 2007: 9.
587 Ibid. 16-17.8.
588 CONDOLEEZZA RICE. Remarks at the Afghanistan Compact Meeting. London, January 31, 2006. Available at http://www.state.gov/secretary/rm/2006/60098.htm.).
589 ROBERT SPENCER. The Truth About Mohammad. [M]. USA: Regenry Publishing, 2006.
590 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
591 Ibid.
592 SETH G. JONES. Counterinsurgency in Afghanistan. [J]. Rand Counterinsurgency Studies, Vol. 4, No. (na), May 25, 2008: 3-77.
593 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Afghanistan Opium Puppy Survey 2007. Available at www.unodc.org/pdc/research/AFGO7_ExSum_web.pdf.
594 Ibid, May 25, 2998: 3-77.
595 United States Department of State. Counter-narcotics Strategy for Afghanistan, 2007, 2.13.
596 USAID/Afghanistan website.‘About Us’. Available at http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/en/Page.About.aspx.
597 Ibid.
598 USAID/Afghanistan. Strategic Plan, 2005-2010. (May 2005).
599 USAID/Afghanistan website. Available at http://afghanistan.usaid.gov//en/Program.31.aspx.
600 BRIAN MICHAEL JENKINS. Countering Al Qaeda: An Appreciation of the Situation and Suggestions for Strategy. Rand Corporation, 2002: 31.8.
601 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [C]. USA: Barnes & Noble, 2006.
602 JOHN KEIN. American Values of Human Rights? USA Foreign Policy and the Fractured Myth of Virtuous Power. [J]. Presidential Quarterly, Vol. 33, Issue 4, December 2003: 729-772.
603 Ibid, December 2003: 729-772.
604 ROBERT G. KAUFMAN. In Defense of the Bush Doctrine.. [M]. USA: University Press of Kentucky, 2007.
606 CHRISTOPHER M. BLANCHARD. Afghanistan: Narcotics and US Policy. Congressional Research Service, December 6, 2007: 41.
608 RAYMOND W. BAKER. Capitalism’s Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free Market System. [M]. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Willey & Sons Inc. 2005.
609 Ibid, 2007: 41.
610 ERIC ROSAND. Security Council Resolution 1373: The Counterterrorism Committee and the Fight Against Terrorism. [J]. International Journal of Constitutional Law, Vo. 97, No. 2, 2003: 333.
611 DAN FROOMKIN. What is the Bush Doctrine Anyway? [N]. The Washington Post, September 12, 2008.
612 SUSAN PAGE. Bush Approval Rating hits new Low. [N]. USA Today, August 5, 2006.
613 SIMON TISDALL. Congress Approval Rating Just 10% as Bush goes from‘Lame to Dead Duck.’[N]. The Guardian, October 1, 2008.
614 BARRY BUZAN, OLE WAEVER. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. [C]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
615 Ibid, 2004.
616 ANTHONY M. MESSINA. Pathways from September 11: Politics, Policy, and State Sovereignty in an Age of Terrorism. [J]. Political Science and Politics, Vol. 41, Issue 2, April 2008: 419.
617 Ibid, April 2008: 419.
618 SERGE TRIFKOVIC. Defeating Jihad. [M]. USA: Regina Orthodox Press, 2006.
619 GEORGE TENET. The Worldwide Threat in 2003: Evolving dangers in a complex world. February 11, 2003. Available at http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/library/reports/2003/dci_speech_02112003.html
620 TOBY HARNDEN. Bush keeps photo hit-list. [N]. USA: Telegraph, February 4, 2002.
621 OSAMA BIN LADEN, BRUCE LAWRENCE. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. [M]. UK: Verso, 2005.
622 TOM FARER. Confronting Global Terrorism and American neo-Conservatism: The Framework of a Liberal Grand Strategy. [M]. USA: Oxford University Press, 2008.
623 LAWRENCE WRIGHT. The Rebellion Within. [J]. The New Yorker, Vol. 84, No. 16, June 2, 2008: 36-53.
624 BRUCE HOFFMAN. Rethinking Terrorism and Counter-terrorism since 9/11. [J]. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Vol. 25, No. 5. 2002: 303-316.
625 UN“Report of the Monitoring Group Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 1455 in 2003.
626 Poll results of Pew Charitable Trust: The Pew Global Attitudes Project, View of changing world. June 2003, p.20. Available at http://www.pewtrusts.com/pdf/vf_pew_research_global_attitudes_0603.pdf
627 SIOBAHN GORMAN. Worlds Apart. [J]. National Journal, Vol. 65, No. 4, August 2, 2003. 2487-2488.
628 IMMANUEL WALLERSTEIN. Liberalism and the Legitimation of Nation States: An Historical Interpretation. [J]. Social Justice, Vol. 19, No. 1, Spring 1992: 12-22.
630 MILTON BEARDEN. Afghanistan, Graveyard of Empires. [J]. Foreign Affaires, Vol. 80, No. 6, November/December 2001: 17-30.
631 THOMAS H. KEIN, LEE HAMILTON. 9/11 Commission Report. [C]. USA: Barnes& Noble, 2006.
632 YORAM SCHWEITZER, SHAUL SHAI, The Globalization of Terror; The Challenge of Al Qaeda and the Response of the International Community. [M]. USA: Transaction Publishers, 2003.
633 JOHN L. ESPOSITO. Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. [M]. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2002.
634 ANTHONY F. LANG. Just Intervention. [M]. USA: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
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