犹太性与美国化：怀斯与美国犹太教
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摘要
19世纪兴起的犹太教改革思想起源于德国,跟随犹太移民传播到美国,并取得卓著成就。犹太教改革思想受到18世纪欧洲启蒙运动的思想影响,发生在犹太启蒙运动(哈斯卡拉运动)之后,犹太教改革风潮与犹太人解放运动是同时进行的。
19世纪中期,来自欧洲波希米亚地区(属于德意志联邦)的犹太教拉比艾萨克·迈耶尔·怀斯(Isaac Mayer Wise)移民美国。在那时,与欧洲社区相比,美国犹太社区发生了巨大变化。怀斯结合了欧洲的犹太教改革思想,美国民主、自由的政治环境,美国犹太教社区的状况进行会堂改革。怀斯主张的美国化犹太教以及他倡导成立的美国改革派组织体系构建了美国犹太教的格局,对改革派以及美国犹太教产生了深远的影响。本文意在分析怀斯的主要思想、核心主张、以及怀斯对美国犹太教改革派、美国犹太社区的长远影响,正文共分为五部分。
第一章的内容包括怀斯生平简介,美国犹太社区的背景、社区面临的难题以及怀斯关心的社区问题。怀斯是19世纪中期来到美国的德国犹太移民之一,他曾在欧洲小型犹太社区中担任拉比,来到美国之后转变为改革派。怀斯是当时美国犹太教改革派的代表人物,德国犹太移民的精神领袖,更是19世纪最知名的美国犹太领袖。
美国犹太社区的情况与欧洲犹太社区存在很大差异。社区中犹太移民的来源多样化,同时也带来了形式各异的宗教礼仪。美国的政教分离原则、宗教自由主义精神影响了犹太社区意识。美国的商业革命、西部开发活动使犹太人分布到全国各地,形成了众多分散的小型社区。在犹太社区中,拉比不再是会堂中唯一权威,世俗领袖对会堂成员具有相当影响力。在同一社区中,会有几座犹太会堂并存,形成竞争关系。会堂失去了社区中的宗教权威地位,犹太人可以选择世俗化的生活方式,甚至抛弃犹太教信仰。
美国犹太社区与欧洲犹太社区的生活方式相比,发生了翻天覆地的变化。在物质主义和世俗化风潮的冲击下,犹太社区面临着宗教信仰淡漠、会堂管理不善,社区之间缺乏合作的局面。就此,怀斯提出犹太人应当美国化,主张美国犹太社区的联合。
第二章介绍了美国犹太社区中,持有不同信仰观点的犹太人对犹太性的不同认识。怀斯所主张的温和改革,是以坚持信仰为前提。与同时代的犹太教派别相比,怀斯代表的温和改革派主张渐进的改革。他们虽然认同改革思想,但在信仰原则上是传统的。在当时的犹太教社区中,温和改革派认为,使犹太教具备现代性,就可以让远离信仰的犹太人留在犹太教之中。正统派应对现代环境的方式是,对传统律法做出新解释,难以解决美国犹太社区面临的各种实际问题。激进改革者认为传统律法在现代社会中已经失去效力,主张抛弃犹太民族性,因为未来犹太教是一种普世宗教。怀斯在传统主义者与激进改革者的观念之间进行平衡,他主张改革的同时,认为传统犹太律法与犹太教信仰不可分割,在现代环境中要对律法进行分类处理。
关于民族身份认同,美国改革派认为犹太教信仰是犹太人的标志,犹太教不是一个民族,而是一个宗教团体。自19世纪80年代开始,有大批东欧犹太移民受到政治迫害来到美国,其中有众多犹太复国主义者。东欧犹太移民之中既有极端正统派也有世俗犹太人,他们一直作为国家中的少数民族生活着,即使存在信仰差异,他们仍然认同犹太人是一个民族。东欧犹太移民主持的复国主义思想建立在犹太民族主义观念之上,认为只有在巴勒斯坦地区建立犹太国,才能终结犹太人受迫害的命运。东欧犹太移民尽量保持原有的生活方式,拒绝迅速美国化。作为改革派的主体,德国犹太移民在经济上与文化上美国化程度较高,他们认同美国自由主义思想,认为犹太教的未来与美国民主不可分割。改革派认为美国就是犹太人的锡安,不主张回到巴勒斯坦,与复国主义者的主张截然相反。在19世纪末,复国主义是美国犹太社区中最具争议性的问题。
改革派同复国主义者的根本分歧在于对犹太民族的定义,二者的理论与主张截然相反。如同当时绝大多数改革派犹太人,怀斯坚决反对复国主义,他对待复国主义运动的立场影响美国改革派组织约50年。美国改革派组织最终于20世纪40年代调整了对待复国主义运动的态度,转而支持犹太复国主义运动。
本文第三章论述怀斯的犹太教改革主张与美国精神的融合。怀斯思想中最能体现其改革意识与美国精神融合的内容可概括为三点：
一、对犹太教进行辩证的解释,信仰的核心不可改变,信仰的外在形式可以加以改革。
二、主张彻底贯彻政教分离原则,保障宗教信仰自由。
三、重视世俗教育,培养美国拉比。
本章介绍了怀斯接受美国自由主义思想,向往美国政治形式、认同美国精神的过程。怀斯主张改革,目的是在现代环境中发展犹太教信仰。怀斯通过鼓励犹太移民美国化,认为这是现代化的标志。怀斯在美国犹太社区中进行温和、渐进的改革,反对在美国的会堂中使用德国式宗教礼仪。怀斯认为犹太人应当结合新环境发展出美国风俗。怀斯相信犹太教的延续性,坚信古老宗教在美国将有长足的发展,形成具有美国特色的犹太教格局。他强调美国犹太人应具有爱国主义精神,将自身首先定位为美国公民,其次才是犹太人,这是与同时代的犹太领袖相比,怀斯最为独特的主张。怀斯呼吁建立犹太高等学院,培养美国本土的拉比,认为他们能更好理解美国犹太人的需求,而不是将欧洲犹太教的形式复制到美国。
本文第四章阐述了怀斯关于美国犹太教社区联合的理论依据以及实现犹太人联合的步骤。美国犹太教社区的联合是怀斯的梦想以及毕生为之奋斗的目标。怀斯认为只有联合才能保障美国犹太教的未来发展,这种思想一方面是出于欧洲国家分裂的教训,另一方面是出于改革派的普世主义理想。改革派坚信犹太人流散于各国是为了实现本民族的使命。怀斯认为美国精神与以色列的使命不可分割,通过美国普世民主思想的传播才能实现犹太教成为普世宗教的目标,而要实现这种任务,首先要进行美国犹太人的联合。
怀斯作为改革派领袖,建立了美国第一个会堂联盟组织以及第一所培养美国拉比的犹太学院。虽然联合全部犹太社区以及所有会堂的联盟无法实现,但是改革派率先成立了全国性会堂联盟以及拉比联合组织。美国希伯来联合公会、希伯来联合学院、美国拉比中央会议这三个机构不仅构成了改革派的基本组织体系,也改变了美国犹太人社区生活的格局。
第五章内容为对怀斯思想的评价,分为三部分。第一部分内容指出,怀斯是19世纪中期德国犹太移民的典型代表,怀斯的思想、经历和作为都是时代的缩影。不是怀斯创造了历史,而是历史选择了怀斯。怀斯的主张顺应时代需求,适应美国的犹太社区环境,构建了美国犹太教的格局,因此他被称作美国犹太教的奠基人。在怀斯之后,美国犹太教改革派面临着诸多严峻问题,正是19世纪的美国改革派奠定的思想与组织基础,使得改革派不断进行调整,仍旧是犹太教信仰格局中的一个重要支派。
怀斯思想中的矛盾反映了犹太教信仰在现代社会中的转型为犹太人带来的精神困扰。在新的政治环境中,美国的个人主义与自由主义思想盛行,单个会堂坚持个体的自决原则。怀斯需要在承认个体自由与实现美国犹太人联合之间进行平衡,他采用了美国州联邦的形式来构建会堂联盟。通过这种方式,会堂既有统一的组织,又完全拥有管理自身事务的权利。怀斯作为改革派,认为未来的犹太教将是理性的、普世的宗教。改革派与复国主义者的主张处处相冲突,虽然怀斯极力反对复国主义思想,但支持复国主义者向巴勒斯坦移民的计划,对巴勒斯坦犹太人的生存状况表示强烈同情。怀斯不赞同东欧犹太人的民族身份认同标准,却又出于同胞之情来帮助他们,体现了怀斯的改革思想原则与民族身份认同标准上的矛盾。怀斯试图在改革思想与犹太教传统思想体系之间维系平衡,这是一项艰巨的任务,因为改革派的官方宣言否定了传统律法在现代社会中的价值,怀斯并不认同这些激进的主张,认为犹太教的核心律法仍将发挥重要作用,这样他就要实现改革派主张与个人传统认同之间的均衡。
怀斯将这些矛盾的思想进行调整与均衡,对美国犹太人具有启发意义,例如在对待传统与现代、信仰内化与外部强化的方式上,怀斯的成就可作为典型的参考例证。在怀斯之后,改革派继续对自身定位与信仰原则、民族认同观念作出调整,回应时代发展的需求。怀斯主张的犹太人联合思想,在美国犹太社区中永不过时,因为犹太人的共同意识对于民族意识的巩固至关重要。因此,怀斯对美国改革派与美国犹太社区的影响是深远的。
The Judaism Reform Movement flourished in United States but rooted in Europe. After the Vienna Conference of 1815, European Jews flooded into America with their ideas of Enlightenment and Haskalah.
Isaac Mayer Wise, a Rabbi of Bohemian, was one of the immigrants. He arrived America in the year of 1846.At that time, the American Jewish communities were more open and more complicated compared to conservative European Communities. The Reform Judaism which Isaac Mayer Wise practiced was a complex of European Haskalah, American liberal idea and Jewish political status in the United States. Wise was the first to claim the Americanization of Judaism. He believed that Judaism should develop to fit in new environment. Wise propagandized his idea of Americanized Judaism in Jewish communities. He set up the major organizations for reform Jews, formed the pattern of American Judaism, and casted great influence upon Reform Judaism and American Judaism as well.
This dissertation will analyse Wise's thoughts, deeds, and his influence upon American Reform Judaism and the American Jewish society. The dissertation is composed of five chapters.
Chapter One will briefly introduce Wise's life story and depicts American Jewish social status in the middle of 19th century. When in Germany, Wise was a rabbi in a traditional Bohemia village synagogue. Soon after his arrival in the United States, Wise became a reform Jew, for he was quite unsatisfied with the condition of American Jews, and blamed it on Orthodox. He soon played a leading role in the American Reform Judaism and became the spiritual leader of German Jewish immigrants. He was actually the most well-known American Jewish leader throughout 19th century.
Compared to unitary Ghetto life in Europe, American Jewish communities got some specialties. The major difference was the variety of Jewish cultures and liturgy due to different countries they were from and the influence of the United States'liberal ideas and religious policy. Unlike gathering in European Cities, A lot of small Jewish societies scattered sparsely in the middle and western parts of America. Thus traditional synagogues lost their authority over their members. The management of synagogues was poor. Massive of Jews did not register in any synagogue. Rabbis were no more absolute authority in synagogues; Lay leaders had great inffluence on members in stead. Besides, there would be several synagogues in one living area for Jews to choose, or they did not join anyone. Jews could even choose to live as secular as other Americans, abandoning their traditional belief. So, in order to attract more members, synagogues in the United States tried their best to satisfy Jews. And the Jews were spending much more energy on elevation of their social states and economy profits under the influence of materialism and secularization. They became indifference with religious lives. On such kind of condition, Wise called for the Jews to consider themselves as Americans, to develop the Judaism in new continent. For he held strong belief that, the future of Modern Judaism relied heavily on free American.
Chapter Two will introduce Wise's moderate reform procedures and reform ideas. The Reform that wise advocated was submitted to the strong belief. Compared to other Jewish people, Wise stood for the moderate reformers who approved mild, gradually change. They still adhered to traditional Judaism belief; hoping to realize modern Judaism first in American, then throughout the whole world. They believed that in such way, Judaism would hold back the Jews who had turned away. However, the Orthodox Jews opposed Judaism reform. What they did is to re-interpret traditional Jewish laws as the respond to the challenge in modern society. But it hardly worked. The radical reformers denied the ever effectiveness of traditional Jewish law in modern society and thought that Jews should abandon their Jewish nationality, for Judaism would become a universal religion in future. Wise went a moderate way between Orthodox and Radical reformers. He thought Jewish laws should never be abandoned, they should first be categorized as core value or less important ones, then reform was needed.
As to the Jewish identity, the Reformers (most of them are German Jewish immigrates) considered that belief in Judaism was the sign for genuine Jews. The Jews outside of Judaism cannot be called " Jews ". Reformers defined themselves as "religious group", not a nationality. Since 1880s, waves of eastern European Jews, most of them from Russia, fled into America. Among them were millions of Zionists. Most Zionists were secular Jews, but they looked on themselves as a nationality. The first generation of eastern European immigrates kept their culture and habits in America, refusing to be Americanized. Yet German Jews already adapted themselves to American culture and consider this country to be their Zion. The reformers thought there was no need for Jews to return to Palestine.
The quarrel between Zionists and Reformers rooted in the conception of Jewish identity. Like most Judaism reformers, Wise opposed the Zionist idea fiercely. His attitude towards Zionism even influences the official claim of Reform organization. But Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) as the authority organizations of reform Jews turn the attitude to Zionist and in 1940s CCAR made a resolution to support Zionism.
Chapter Three discusses Wise's idea Americanizing Jewish immigrates. He ouraged them to combine the Judaism reform idea with American spirit. He himself combined them in the following three steps:
First, he analyzed the Judaism doctrines with rational idea. He thought the core doctrine of belief should stay unchangeable forever, but the outer sphere should be adjusted according to the need of time.
Second, he strongly proposed the complete separation of religion and government, to defend the right to believe freely.
Third, he emphasized that secular education for Jewish people as complimentary for Judaism knowledge. It was an important way to Americanize Jewish immigrates.
This chapter also describes how Wise became full commitment from an European immigrant to American citizen. Wise applauded the reform idea in American Jewish synagogue and opposed fiercely the trend of German style in American synagogue, for he considered it was important to Americanize Jewish people in synagogue liturgy so as to adapt them with American spirit. He believed that in modern society, Judaism would develop in American; and with the realization of universal democracy, Judaism would become a universal religion. Wise encouraged Jewish immigrants to look on themselves as American citizens with patriotic hearts. "First, we are Americans, then Israelites", this was the most famous claim of Wise. As to the situation of having German rabbis in American synagogue, Wise tried to educate native rabbis who would understand the needs of American Jews, and would not copy the Europe pattern into American Judaism.
Chapter Four will discuss Wise's idea of uniting American Jewish societies and his plan for the aim. Wise considered cooperation would benefit the future of Jewish society. The idea was originated from his suffering experience in Europe and also from his reform idea of Israelites destiny in Diaspora, In Wise's view, American spirit was inseparable with Israelites destiny, through the wide spread of American style democracy, the Israelites destiny would realize eventually. To achieve the goal, it was an important step to unite the American Jews first.
As the leader of American Reform Jews, Wise was the most important character in setting up the Reformer's organization. Inspired by Wise, his synagogue set up the first united congregation, which is Union of American Hebrew Congregation. Upon the union, Wise set up the first Jewish college in America, Hebrew Union College. Wise planned to unite all the congregations in American, but that was an unpractical goal. However, the congregations of reform synagogues were united, the first college to educate American Rabbis was set up, and the reform rabbis'conference was held. These three organizations composed the Reform Judaism organization system, and set the pattern of American Jewish lives.
Chapter five will evaluate Wise's thoughts and deeds. It is composed of three parts. First part will cover that Wise was the representative figure of German immigrates in middle 19th century. His idea, experience was typical in his time. We cannot conclude that Wise changed the history of American Jews. It was history that chose Wise. Wise's claim was right according to the need of time, to the need of Jewish American Society. He set the pattern of American Jewish lives. For this, wise was called "The founder of American Judaism". After Wise, the reform Jews faced more serious condition than before. Thanks to the Reform organizations set up by wise, reformers adjusted themselves to new conditions successfully. Till now, Reform Judaism is an important strength within Judaism.
The controversy thoughts in Wise's idea stand for the spiritual suffering when ancient Judaism belief confronted with modern society. At that time, American is the first country to put political freedom policy into practice; the individualism and liberal thoughts were common sense of citizens'. In Jewish community, every synagogue insisted individual right. Wise called for a united community, he needed to keep the balance of religious authority with individual right. Wise copied the form of United States, united the synagogue into an organization. In such way, the synagogues kept their own rights, and at the same time submmitted to an organization. As a reform Jew, Wise imagined that future Judaism was a rational, universal religion. These ideas conflicted with those of Zionists'. Wise openly oppose to the Zionism in any chance. But he supported Zionists'immigration plan in Palestine. Wise shows great sympathy to Jews in Palestine. Wise did not agree on the Jewish identity idea of Russian Jewish immigrates (most of them were Zionists), but he called the American Jews to help the Russian Jews as they could, for it was Jewish brotherhood. On the other hand, Wise did not consider Jews as a nationality. These reflected the controversy idea held by Wise, he had to balance the Reform Judaism principles with the Jewish identity idea, and it was a tough work. For the Reform Jews denied all the tradition Jewish law except the belief in God. Wise's theology system was not so radical, he insisted that most Jewish laws still act as the key part of future Judaism. So, he must balance the reform idea with the traditional idea on Jewish law.
The adjustment of Wise's own controversial ideas was benefitial to resolve the problems of American Jews. As for questions such as how to deal with tradition and modernity, Wise's method could be used as precedent. After the time of Wise, the Reform Judaism adjusted its doctrine and situation in response of the modernity. The union idea of wise will never be out of date, for it is vital for Jewish community to achieve cooperation. In this means, Wise influences the American Reform Jews and community deeply.
19世纪中期,来自欧洲波希米亚地区(属于德意志联邦)的犹太教拉比艾萨克·迈耶尔·怀斯(Isaac Mayer Wise)移民美国。在那时,与欧洲社区相比,美国犹太社区发生了巨大变化。怀斯结合了欧洲的犹太教改革思想,美国民主、自由的政治环境,美国犹太教社区的状况进行会堂改革。怀斯主张的美国化犹太教以及他倡导成立的美国改革派组织体系构建了美国犹太教的格局,对改革派以及美国犹太教产生了深远的影响。本文意在分析怀斯的主要思想、核心主张、以及怀斯对美国犹太教改革派、美国犹太社区的长远影响,正文共分为五部分。
第一章的内容包括怀斯生平简介,美国犹太社区的背景、社区面临的难题以及怀斯关心的社区问题。怀斯是19世纪中期来到美国的德国犹太移民之一,他曾在欧洲小型犹太社区中担任拉比,来到美国之后转变为改革派。怀斯是当时美国犹太教改革派的代表人物,德国犹太移民的精神领袖,更是19世纪最知名的美国犹太领袖。
美国犹太社区的情况与欧洲犹太社区存在很大差异。社区中犹太移民的来源多样化,同时也带来了形式各异的宗教礼仪。美国的政教分离原则、宗教自由主义精神影响了犹太社区意识。美国的商业革命、西部开发活动使犹太人分布到全国各地,形成了众多分散的小型社区。在犹太社区中,拉比不再是会堂中唯一权威,世俗领袖对会堂成员具有相当影响力。在同一社区中,会有几座犹太会堂并存,形成竞争关系。会堂失去了社区中的宗教权威地位,犹太人可以选择世俗化的生活方式,甚至抛弃犹太教信仰。
美国犹太社区与欧洲犹太社区的生活方式相比,发生了翻天覆地的变化。在物质主义和世俗化风潮的冲击下,犹太社区面临着宗教信仰淡漠、会堂管理不善,社区之间缺乏合作的局面。就此,怀斯提出犹太人应当美国化,主张美国犹太社区的联合。
第二章介绍了美国犹太社区中,持有不同信仰观点的犹太人对犹太性的不同认识。怀斯所主张的温和改革,是以坚持信仰为前提。与同时代的犹太教派别相比,怀斯代表的温和改革派主张渐进的改革。他们虽然认同改革思想,但在信仰原则上是传统的。在当时的犹太教社区中,温和改革派认为,使犹太教具备现代性,就可以让远离信仰的犹太人留在犹太教之中。正统派应对现代环境的方式是,对传统律法做出新解释,难以解决美国犹太社区面临的各种实际问题。激进改革者认为传统律法在现代社会中已经失去效力,主张抛弃犹太民族性,因为未来犹太教是一种普世宗教。怀斯在传统主义者与激进改革者的观念之间进行平衡,他主张改革的同时,认为传统犹太律法与犹太教信仰不可分割,在现代环境中要对律法进行分类处理。
关于民族身份认同,美国改革派认为犹太教信仰是犹太人的标志,犹太教不是一个民族,而是一个宗教团体。自19世纪80年代开始,有大批东欧犹太移民受到政治迫害来到美国,其中有众多犹太复国主义者。东欧犹太移民之中既有极端正统派也有世俗犹太人,他们一直作为国家中的少数民族生活着,即使存在信仰差异,他们仍然认同犹太人是一个民族。东欧犹太移民主持的复国主义思想建立在犹太民族主义观念之上,认为只有在巴勒斯坦地区建立犹太国,才能终结犹太人受迫害的命运。东欧犹太移民尽量保持原有的生活方式,拒绝迅速美国化。作为改革派的主体,德国犹太移民在经济上与文化上美国化程度较高,他们认同美国自由主义思想,认为犹太教的未来与美国民主不可分割。改革派认为美国就是犹太人的锡安,不主张回到巴勒斯坦,与复国主义者的主张截然相反。在19世纪末,复国主义是美国犹太社区中最具争议性的问题。
改革派同复国主义者的根本分歧在于对犹太民族的定义,二者的理论与主张截然相反。如同当时绝大多数改革派犹太人,怀斯坚决反对复国主义,他对待复国主义运动的立场影响美国改革派组织约50年。美国改革派组织最终于20世纪40年代调整了对待复国主义运动的态度,转而支持犹太复国主义运动。
本文第三章论述怀斯的犹太教改革主张与美国精神的融合。怀斯思想中最能体现其改革意识与美国精神融合的内容可概括为三点：
一、对犹太教进行辩证的解释,信仰的核心不可改变,信仰的外在形式可以加以改革。
二、主张彻底贯彻政教分离原则,保障宗教信仰自由。
三、重视世俗教育,培养美国拉比。
本章介绍了怀斯接受美国自由主义思想,向往美国政治形式、认同美国精神的过程。怀斯主张改革,目的是在现代环境中发展犹太教信仰。怀斯通过鼓励犹太移民美国化,认为这是现代化的标志。怀斯在美国犹太社区中进行温和、渐进的改革,反对在美国的会堂中使用德国式宗教礼仪。怀斯认为犹太人应当结合新环境发展出美国风俗。怀斯相信犹太教的延续性,坚信古老宗教在美国将有长足的发展,形成具有美国特色的犹太教格局。他强调美国犹太人应具有爱国主义精神,将自身首先定位为美国公民,其次才是犹太人,这是与同时代的犹太领袖相比,怀斯最为独特的主张。怀斯呼吁建立犹太高等学院,培养美国本土的拉比,认为他们能更好理解美国犹太人的需求,而不是将欧洲犹太教的形式复制到美国。
本文第四章阐述了怀斯关于美国犹太教社区联合的理论依据以及实现犹太人联合的步骤。美国犹太教社区的联合是怀斯的梦想以及毕生为之奋斗的目标。怀斯认为只有联合才能保障美国犹太教的未来发展,这种思想一方面是出于欧洲国家分裂的教训,另一方面是出于改革派的普世主义理想。改革派坚信犹太人流散于各国是为了实现本民族的使命。怀斯认为美国精神与以色列的使命不可分割,通过美国普世民主思想的传播才能实现犹太教成为普世宗教的目标,而要实现这种任务,首先要进行美国犹太人的联合。
怀斯作为改革派领袖,建立了美国第一个会堂联盟组织以及第一所培养美国拉比的犹太学院。虽然联合全部犹太社区以及所有会堂的联盟无法实现,但是改革派率先成立了全国性会堂联盟以及拉比联合组织。美国希伯来联合公会、希伯来联合学院、美国拉比中央会议这三个机构不仅构成了改革派的基本组织体系,也改变了美国犹太人社区生活的格局。
第五章内容为对怀斯思想的评价,分为三部分。第一部分内容指出,怀斯是19世纪中期德国犹太移民的典型代表,怀斯的思想、经历和作为都是时代的缩影。不是怀斯创造了历史,而是历史选择了怀斯。怀斯的主张顺应时代需求,适应美国的犹太社区环境,构建了美国犹太教的格局,因此他被称作美国犹太教的奠基人。在怀斯之后,美国犹太教改革派面临着诸多严峻问题,正是19世纪的美国改革派奠定的思想与组织基础,使得改革派不断进行调整,仍旧是犹太教信仰格局中的一个重要支派。
怀斯思想中的矛盾反映了犹太教信仰在现代社会中的转型为犹太人带来的精神困扰。在新的政治环境中,美国的个人主义与自由主义思想盛行,单个会堂坚持个体的自决原则。怀斯需要在承认个体自由与实现美国犹太人联合之间进行平衡,他采用了美国州联邦的形式来构建会堂联盟。通过这种方式,会堂既有统一的组织,又完全拥有管理自身事务的权利。怀斯作为改革派,认为未来的犹太教将是理性的、普世的宗教。改革派与复国主义者的主张处处相冲突,虽然怀斯极力反对复国主义思想,但支持复国主义者向巴勒斯坦移民的计划,对巴勒斯坦犹太人的生存状况表示强烈同情。怀斯不赞同东欧犹太人的民族身份认同标准,却又出于同胞之情来帮助他们,体现了怀斯的改革思想原则与民族身份认同标准上的矛盾。怀斯试图在改革思想与犹太教传统思想体系之间维系平衡,这是一项艰巨的任务,因为改革派的官方宣言否定了传统律法在现代社会中的价值,怀斯并不认同这些激进的主张,认为犹太教的核心律法仍将发挥重要作用,这样他就要实现改革派主张与个人传统认同之间的均衡。
怀斯将这些矛盾的思想进行调整与均衡,对美国犹太人具有启发意义,例如在对待传统与现代、信仰内化与外部强化的方式上,怀斯的成就可作为典型的参考例证。在怀斯之后,改革派继续对自身定位与信仰原则、民族认同观念作出调整,回应时代发展的需求。怀斯主张的犹太人联合思想,在美国犹太社区中永不过时,因为犹太人的共同意识对于民族意识的巩固至关重要。因此,怀斯对美国改革派与美国犹太社区的影响是深远的。
The Judaism Reform Movement flourished in United States but rooted in Europe. After the Vienna Conference of 1815, European Jews flooded into America with their ideas of Enlightenment and Haskalah.
Isaac Mayer Wise, a Rabbi of Bohemian, was one of the immigrants. He arrived America in the year of 1846.At that time, the American Jewish communities were more open and more complicated compared to conservative European Communities. The Reform Judaism which Isaac Mayer Wise practiced was a complex of European Haskalah, American liberal idea and Jewish political status in the United States. Wise was the first to claim the Americanization of Judaism. He believed that Judaism should develop to fit in new environment. Wise propagandized his idea of Americanized Judaism in Jewish communities. He set up the major organizations for reform Jews, formed the pattern of American Judaism, and casted great influence upon Reform Judaism and American Judaism as well.
This dissertation will analyse Wise's thoughts, deeds, and his influence upon American Reform Judaism and the American Jewish society. The dissertation is composed of five chapters.
Chapter One will briefly introduce Wise's life story and depicts American Jewish social status in the middle of 19th century. When in Germany, Wise was a rabbi in a traditional Bohemia village synagogue. Soon after his arrival in the United States, Wise became a reform Jew, for he was quite unsatisfied with the condition of American Jews, and blamed it on Orthodox. He soon played a leading role in the American Reform Judaism and became the spiritual leader of German Jewish immigrants. He was actually the most well-known American Jewish leader throughout 19th century.
Compared to unitary Ghetto life in Europe, American Jewish communities got some specialties. The major difference was the variety of Jewish cultures and liturgy due to different countries they were from and the influence of the United States'liberal ideas and religious policy. Unlike gathering in European Cities, A lot of small Jewish societies scattered sparsely in the middle and western parts of America. Thus traditional synagogues lost their authority over their members. The management of synagogues was poor. Massive of Jews did not register in any synagogue. Rabbis were no more absolute authority in synagogues; Lay leaders had great inffluence on members in stead. Besides, there would be several synagogues in one living area for Jews to choose, or they did not join anyone. Jews could even choose to live as secular as other Americans, abandoning their traditional belief. So, in order to attract more members, synagogues in the United States tried their best to satisfy Jews. And the Jews were spending much more energy on elevation of their social states and economy profits under the influence of materialism and secularization. They became indifference with religious lives. On such kind of condition, Wise called for the Jews to consider themselves as Americans, to develop the Judaism in new continent. For he held strong belief that, the future of Modern Judaism relied heavily on free American.
Chapter Two will introduce Wise's moderate reform procedures and reform ideas. The Reform that wise advocated was submitted to the strong belief. Compared to other Jewish people, Wise stood for the moderate reformers who approved mild, gradually change. They still adhered to traditional Judaism belief; hoping to realize modern Judaism first in American, then throughout the whole world. They believed that in such way, Judaism would hold back the Jews who had turned away. However, the Orthodox Jews opposed Judaism reform. What they did is to re-interpret traditional Jewish laws as the respond to the challenge in modern society. But it hardly worked. The radical reformers denied the ever effectiveness of traditional Jewish law in modern society and thought that Jews should abandon their Jewish nationality, for Judaism would become a universal religion in future. Wise went a moderate way between Orthodox and Radical reformers. He thought Jewish laws should never be abandoned, they should first be categorized as core value or less important ones, then reform was needed.
As to the Jewish identity, the Reformers (most of them are German Jewish immigrates) considered that belief in Judaism was the sign for genuine Jews. The Jews outside of Judaism cannot be called " Jews ". Reformers defined themselves as "religious group", not a nationality. Since 1880s, waves of eastern European Jews, most of them from Russia, fled into America. Among them were millions of Zionists. Most Zionists were secular Jews, but they looked on themselves as a nationality. The first generation of eastern European immigrates kept their culture and habits in America, refusing to be Americanized. Yet German Jews already adapted themselves to American culture and consider this country to be their Zion. The reformers thought there was no need for Jews to return to Palestine.
The quarrel between Zionists and Reformers rooted in the conception of Jewish identity. Like most Judaism reformers, Wise opposed the Zionist idea fiercely. His attitude towards Zionism even influences the official claim of Reform organization. But Central Conference of American Rabbis (CCAR) as the authority organizations of reform Jews turn the attitude to Zionist and in 1940s CCAR made a resolution to support Zionism.
Chapter Three discusses Wise's idea Americanizing Jewish immigrates. He ouraged them to combine the Judaism reform idea with American spirit. He himself combined them in the following three steps:
First, he analyzed the Judaism doctrines with rational idea. He thought the core doctrine of belief should stay unchangeable forever, but the outer sphere should be adjusted according to the need of time.
Second, he strongly proposed the complete separation of religion and government, to defend the right to believe freely.
Third, he emphasized that secular education for Jewish people as complimentary for Judaism knowledge. It was an important way to Americanize Jewish immigrates.
This chapter also describes how Wise became full commitment from an European immigrant to American citizen. Wise applauded the reform idea in American Jewish synagogue and opposed fiercely the trend of German style in American synagogue, for he considered it was important to Americanize Jewish people in synagogue liturgy so as to adapt them with American spirit. He believed that in modern society, Judaism would develop in American; and with the realization of universal democracy, Judaism would become a universal religion. Wise encouraged Jewish immigrants to look on themselves as American citizens with patriotic hearts. "First, we are Americans, then Israelites", this was the most famous claim of Wise. As to the situation of having German rabbis in American synagogue, Wise tried to educate native rabbis who would understand the needs of American Jews, and would not copy the Europe pattern into American Judaism.
Chapter Four will discuss Wise's idea of uniting American Jewish societies and his plan for the aim. Wise considered cooperation would benefit the future of Jewish society. The idea was originated from his suffering experience in Europe and also from his reform idea of Israelites destiny in Diaspora, In Wise's view, American spirit was inseparable with Israelites destiny, through the wide spread of American style democracy, the Israelites destiny would realize eventually. To achieve the goal, it was an important step to unite the American Jews first.
As the leader of American Reform Jews, Wise was the most important character in setting up the Reformer's organization. Inspired by Wise, his synagogue set up the first united congregation, which is Union of American Hebrew Congregation. Upon the union, Wise set up the first Jewish college in America, Hebrew Union College. Wise planned to unite all the congregations in American, but that was an unpractical goal. However, the congregations of reform synagogues were united, the first college to educate American Rabbis was set up, and the reform rabbis'conference was held. These three organizations composed the Reform Judaism organization system, and set the pattern of American Jewish lives.
Chapter five will evaluate Wise's thoughts and deeds. It is composed of three parts. First part will cover that Wise was the representative figure of German immigrates in middle 19th century. His idea, experience was typical in his time. We cannot conclude that Wise changed the history of American Jews. It was history that chose Wise. Wise's claim was right according to the need of time, to the need of Jewish American Society. He set the pattern of American Jewish lives. For this, wise was called "The founder of American Judaism". After Wise, the reform Jews faced more serious condition than before. Thanks to the Reform organizations set up by wise, reformers adjusted themselves to new conditions successfully. Till now, Reform Judaism is an important strength within Judaism.
The controversy thoughts in Wise's idea stand for the spiritual suffering when ancient Judaism belief confronted with modern society. At that time, American is the first country to put political freedom policy into practice; the individualism and liberal thoughts were common sense of citizens'. In Jewish community, every synagogue insisted individual right. Wise called for a united community, he needed to keep the balance of religious authority with individual right. Wise copied the form of United States, united the synagogue into an organization. In such way, the synagogues kept their own rights, and at the same time submmitted to an organization. As a reform Jew, Wise imagined that future Judaism was a rational, universal religion. These ideas conflicted with those of Zionists'. Wise openly oppose to the Zionism in any chance. But he supported Zionists'immigration plan in Palestine. Wise shows great sympathy to Jews in Palestine. Wise did not agree on the Jewish identity idea of Russian Jewish immigrates (most of them were Zionists), but he called the American Jews to help the Russian Jews as they could, for it was Jewish brotherhood. On the other hand, Wise did not consider Jews as a nationality. These reflected the controversy idea held by Wise, he had to balance the Reform Judaism principles with the Jewish identity idea, and it was a tough work. For the Reform Jews denied all the tradition Jewish law except the belief in God. Wise's theology system was not so radical, he insisted that most Jewish laws still act as the key part of future Judaism. So, he must balance the reform idea with the traditional idea on Jewish law.
The adjustment of Wise's own controversial ideas was benefitial to resolve the problems of American Jews. As for questions such as how to deal with tradition and modernity, Wise's method could be used as precedent. After the time of Wise, the Reform Judaism adjusted its doctrine and situation in response of the modernity. The union idea of wise will never be out of date, for it is vital for Jewish community to achieve cooperation. In this means, Wise influences the American Reform Jews and community deeply.
引文
① Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America, New York:Columbia University Press, New York,1997, P.148
②阿什肯纳兹犹太人,原指莱茵河流域的犹太人。他们长期生活在固定的区域,受外界影响较小。20世纪之前这些犹太人使用意第绪语,使用《巴比伦塔木德》
① Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity, Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1995, P.292.
①商业革命指19世纪上半期,主要是杰克逊时期(1815-1846),美国经历了广泛深刻的社会变革。以经济变革为先驱,对当时美国社会、政治、思想等产生了重大影响。
② Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, P.54.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.111.
①[英]诺曼·所罗门著,赵小燕译,《犹太教》,辽宁教育出版社,1998,第116页。
② Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, P.104.
③ Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America, New York:Columbia University Press,1997, p.38.
④ David Phillipson&Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975,P.379.
⑤ David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.379.
①Karla Goldman, The Path to Reform Judaism:An Examination of Religious Leadership in Cincinnati,1841-1855, Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, P.83.
①Isaac Mayer Wise, History of the Hebrew's Second Commonwealth, Chicago:Leo Wise&Co., Publishers,1880, P.140.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, p.16.
② Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, p.65.
① Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, p.74.
② Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press, 1992, p.98.
③ David Phillipson&Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975, p.304.
①Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, p.126.
②Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press, 1992.P.264.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, p.19.
① Jonathan D.Sarna, "American Judaism", New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, p.132
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62. P.17.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62, p.24.
①Sefton D.Temkin,Creating American Judasim,Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998.P.31.
① Sefton D. Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998. P.37.
①[美]大卫·鲁达夫斯基,傅有德、李伟、刘平译：《近现代犹太宗教运动》,山东大学出版社,2003年,第334-336页。
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.33.
① David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.278.
① David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975,P.276.
① David Phillipson& Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinatti:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.252.
② Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity:A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism,Detriot:Wayne State University Press,1995, P.248.
① Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity:A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism, Detriot:Wayne State University Press,1995,P.249.
② Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, P.57.
① David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.72.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62. p.16.
② Isaac Mayer Wise, The World of my books, Cincinnati:American Jewish Archives,1954, p.90.
③ Isaac Mayer Wise, Pronas To Holy Writ, Cincnnati:R. Clark,1891, p.183.
① Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, Yale University Press,2004, P.117.
① Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America, New York:Columbia University Press,1997, P.171.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, Published by [Privately printed],1931, P.11.
① Sefton D. Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Tronto:Littman Library of Jewish Civilization,1998. P.23.
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, Monographs of the American Jewish Archives No.V,1962, P.43.
① Howard R. Greenste, Turning Point:Zionism and Reform Judaism, Scholars Press,1981, P.86.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62. P.35.
② Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wiser Wise:Shaping American Judaism, Oxford University Press,1992, P.80.
① Dena Wilansky, "Sinai to Cincinnati",New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937.P.127
② Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.23.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.4.
② Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.5.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.7.
① Jacob Reader Marcus,The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.7.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.13.
② Isaac Mayer Wise, David Philipson, Reminiscences, Published by L. Wise and company,1901. P.51.
①Jonathan D.Sarna, David G. Darlin, Religion and the State in the American Jewish Experience, University of Notre Dame Press,1997, P.230.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992,P.94.
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62, P.11.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62. P.12.
①按照传统犹太教的观念,13岁以上犹太男子在每日晨祷时佩戴两只经匣。代表对上帝的敬畏与恪守戒律,防止魔鬼侵害。
②成年礼,犹太男孩和女孩年满13周岁时要在犹太会堂中举行成年礼。意味着作为犹太社区的一名成员,将履行犹太人的责任。
③Isaac Mayer Wise, David Philipson, Reminiscences, Cincinnati:L. Wise and company,1901, P.206.
① David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, "Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise", Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975,P.230.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992. P.316.
① Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance book company,1937.P.67.
① Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, P.71.
① Isaac Mayer Wise, David Philipson, Reminiscences, Cincinnati:L. Wise and company,1901, P.242.
② Jonathan D.Sama "American Judaism", New Haven:Yale University Press,2004,p.70.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992. P.115.
① James Gutheim Heller, Isaac M. Wise:His life, Work, and Thought, Cincinnati:Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1965, P.28.
① Jonathan D.Sarna, David G. Darlin, Religion and the State in the American Jewish Experience, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press,1997,P.125.
① David Phillipson&Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975, P.107.
② Jonathan D.Sarna, David G. Darlin, Religion and the State in the American Jewish Experience, University of Notre Dame Press,1997, P.173.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.116.
② David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.70.
① Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance book company,1937, P.28.
① Jacob R. Marcus, The Jews in the American World:A Source Book, Detroit:Wayne State University Press, 1995,P.229.
① James Gutheim Heller, Isaac M. Wise:His life, Work, and Thought, Cincinnati:Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1965, p.29.
② David Phillipson&Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.72.
①怀斯拟定的克利夫兰会议的讨论日程包括：一、达成美国以色列人联盟的文书条款以及实施程序。二、一项联合普通公会的计划。由各社区、公会推选的代表组成,它的权利、特权、职责进行规定,并反馈到他们所属的会堂或社区。三、讨论关于美国祈祷书的计划,在第一时间向相应会堂反馈。四、对普通学生以及学者的教育。五、各会堂及社区所提出的问题。
② Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, p.33.
③ David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.143.
① Sefton D. Temkin, Creating American Reform Judaism, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998, P.138.
①卡拉派,公元8世纪出现恪守经文主义的犹太教派别。
② Sefton D. Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998, P.29.
① James Gutheim Heller, Isaac M. Wise:His life, Work, and Thought, Cincinnati:Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1965, P.189.
①Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity, Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1995, P.312.
① Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, P.165.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.7.
①Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.89.
① Emil W. Leipziger, The Central Conference of American Rabbis, Cincinnati:the Union of American Hebrew Congregations Press, Ohio,1946, P.2.
①David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.70.
① Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity, Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1995, p.227.
① Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America, New York:Columbia University Press,1997, P.107.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998, P.25.
① Isaac Mayer Wise, David Philipson, Reminiscences, Cincinnati:Published by L. Wise and company, 1901，P.259.
② Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New Yok:Oxford University Press,1992, P.17.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998, P.31.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998,P.34.
② Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, P.132.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62. P.10.
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62. P.7.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62. P.12.
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62, P.13.
③ Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62, P.14.
④ Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62, P.13.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.57.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The World of My Books", Cincinnati:American Jewish Archives,1954.
Sefton Temkin, "Isaac Mayer Wise; A Biographical Sketch," A Guide to the Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Compiled by Doris Sturzenberger. Cincinnati:American Jewish Archives,1981. pp 5-69.
Sefton Temkin, "Isaac Mayer Wise and the Civil War", American Jewish Archives. XV, no.2 (November 1963):120-142.
Melvin Weinman, "The Attitude of Isaac Mayer Wise on Zionism and Palestine", American Jewish Archives. Ⅲ, no.2 (January 1951):3-21.
Michael A Meyer, "In the Days of Isaac Mayer Wise," Hebrew Union College-Jewish Insitute of Religion At One Hundred Years. Edited by Samuel E. Karff. Cincinnati:Hebrew Union College Press,1976.7-47.
Andrew F. Key,"The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise,", Monographs of the American Jewish Archives No.V,1962.
Jacob Reader Marcus, "Isaac Mayer Wise and the College He Built", American Jewish Archives,1959.
Benny Kraut "Judaism Triumphant:Isaac Mayer Wise on Unitarianism and Liberal Christianity ", AJS review/Association for Jewish Studies, 1983.
Jonathan D. Sarna, "The American Jewish Response to Nineteenth-Century Christian Missions ", The Journal of American History, Vol.68, No.1 (Jun.,1981), pp. 35-51.
Emanuel Gamoran, Irving M. Levey, Emil W. Leipziger, "What He Created:Three Essays on the Occasion of the Hundredth Anniversary of the Coming of Isaac M. Wise to the United States of America ", Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1946.
Aryeh Rubinstein, Isaac Mayer Wise:A New Appraisal, Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 39, No.1/2, American Bicentennial:Ⅱ (Winter-Spring,1977), pp.53-74.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Combat of the People or Hillel and Herod", Cincinnati: Bloch & Co.,1859.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Essence of Judaism:For Teachers & Pupils, and for Self-instruction", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1861.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Pronas To Holy Writ," Cincinnati:R. Clark,1891.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Judaism and Christianity:Their Agreements and Disagreements", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1888.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Three Theological Dogmas of Judaism", Sunday Lectures Before the Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel.1895～1896.9th Series. Joseph Krauskopf. Philadelphia:Oscar Klonower,1896.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Origin of Christianity and a Commentary to the Acts of the Apostles", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1868.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Judaism:Its Doctrines and Duties", Cincinnati:Office of the Israelite,1872.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Reminiscences," David Philipson, Cincinnati:L. Wise and company,1901.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Minhag America:The Daily Prayer for American Israelites", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co,1872.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Hebrew's Second Commonwealth", Chicago:Leo Wise&Co., Publishers,1880.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The End of Popes, Nobles and Kings, or The Progress of Civilization", Published by J. Muhlhaeuser,1852.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Martyrdom of Jesus of Nazareth", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1874.
Isaac Mayer Wise "The Cosmic God", Cincinnati:Office American Israelite and Deborah,1876.
Isaac Mayer Wise, " History of the Israelites Nation:From Abraham to the Present Time," Published by J. Munsell,1854.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Propositions Respectfully Submitted to the Gentlemen of the Commission Appointed by the Council of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations at Milwaukee, July 11,1878", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1878.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "An Essay on the Temperance Question. ", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co,1880.
Max Benjamin May, "Isaac Mayer Wise:The Founder of American Judaism ", Cincinnati:G. P. Putnam,1916.
Jacob Reader Marcus, "The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise," [Privately printed],1931.
David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, "Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise", Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975.
Israel Knox, "Rabbi in America:The Story of Isaac M. Wise," Toronto:Little Brown Company,1957.
Sefton D.Temkin "Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism", New York:Oxford University Press,1992.
Dena Wilansky, "Sinai to Cincinnati:Lay Views on the Writings of Isaac M. Wise, Founder of Reform Judaism in America, " New York:Renaissance book company, 1937.
James Gutheim Heller, "Isaac M. Wise:His life, Work, and Thought", Cincinnati: Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1965.
Sefton Temkin, " Creating American Reform Judaism:The Life And Times Of Isaac Mayer Wise," Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998.
Jonathan D.Sarna, "American Judaism", New Haven:Yale University Press,2004.
Jacob R. Marcus, "The Jew in the American World:A Source Book", Detroit: Wayne State University Press,1995.
Jonathan D.Sarna, "The American Jewish Experience", New York: Holmes&Meier Publishers Inc.,1986.
Michael A. Meyer, "Response to Modernity:A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism", Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1995.
Jonathan D.Sarna, David G. Darlin "Religion and the State in the American Jewish Experience", David G. Darlin, Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,1997.
Stephen Birmingham "The Rest of us:The Rise of American's Eastern European Jews", Toronto:Little Brown Company,1978.
Arthur Hertzberg, "The Jews in America ", New York:Columbia University Press, 1997.
Walter Jacob, "The Changing World of Reform Judaism:The Pittsburgh Platform in Retrospect:Papers Presented on the Occasion of the 100th Anniversary of the Pittsburgh Platform", February 1985 and The Proceedings of 1885, Pittsburge:Rodef Shalom Congregation,1985.
Michael A. Meyer, "Judaism Within Modernity", Detroit:Wayne State University Press,2001.
Henry Berkowitz, "Intimate Glimpses Of The Rabbi's Career ", Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing,1921.
David Harry Ellenson, "After Emancipation:Jewish Religious Responses to Modernity ", Cincinnati:Hebrew Union College Press,2004.
Joseph Leon Blau,"Reform Judaism:a Historical Perspective:Essays from the Yearbook of the Central Conference of American Rabbis", Central Conference of American Rabbis, Jersey City:Ktav Pub. House,1973.
David Philipson, "The Reform Movement in Judaism ", New York:The Macmillan Company,1931.
John A. Hardon, "American Judaism", Chicago:Loyola University Press,1971.
Solomon Bennett Freehof "Reform Jewish Practice and Its Rabbinic Background: And Its Rabbinic Background", Cinninati:Hebrew Union College Press,1944.
Arthur Hertzberg, "The Zionist Idea:A Historcal Analysis and Reader", Philadelphia, The Jewish Publication Society,1997.
Jeffrey S. Gurock "American Jewish History:A Bibliographical Guide", New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith,1983.
Dana Evan Kaplan "American Reform Judaism:An Introduction ", New Jersey: Ruters University Press,2003.
Edwin S. Gaustad, "Memoirs of the Spirit:American Religious Autobiography from Jonathan Edwards to Maya Angelou Gaustad," Michigan:Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing,2001.
Norman Drachler, "A Bibliography of Jewish Education in the United States", Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1994.
Sol Scharfstein, "Chronicle of Jewish History:From the Patriarchs to the 21st Century," Dorcas Gelabert, Publishing House, Inc.,1997.
Jacob Neusner, Alan Jeffery Avery-Peck, "The Blackwell Companion to Judaism ", Oxford:Blackwell Publishing,2000.
Norman H. Finkelstein "American Jewish History:A JPS Guide", Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society,2007.
Chaim Isaac Waxman, "America's Jews in Transition ", Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1983.
Naomi Cohen, " What the Rabbis Said:The Public Discourse of Nineteenth-Century American Rabbis", New York:NYU Press,2008.
Jeffrey S. Gurock Taylor & Francis "Anti-semitism in America ", London:Taylor & Francis Group,1998.
Peter W. Williams, "America's Religions:From Their Origins to the Twenty-first Century," University of Illinois Press,2002.
Alfred J. Kolatch, "Inside Judaism:The Concepts, Customs, and Celebrations of the Jewish People," Jonathan David Company, Inc.,2006.
Louis Jacobs, "The Book of Jewish Belief", New York:Behrman House, Inc,1984.
John S. Fine, Frederic J. Krome, "Jews of Cincinnati ", Mount Pleasant:Arcadia Publishing,2007.
Thomas Adam, "Germany and the Americas:Culture, Politics, and History:a Multidisciplinary Encyclopaedia", Santa Barbara:ABC-CLIO,2005.
Helene Schwartz Kenvin, "This Land of Liberty:A History of America's Jews", New York:Behrman House, Inc,1986.
James Yaffe, "The American Jews:Portrait of a Split Personality", New York: Random House,1968.
John D. Rayner, "Jewish Religious Law:A Progressive Perspective", New York:Berghahn Books,1998.
Jacob Neusner, "Sectors of American Judaism:Reform, Orthodoxy, Conservatism, and Reconstructionism ", Jersey City:Ktav Pub. House,1975.
Dana Evan Kaplan "Contemporary Debates in American Reform Judaism: Conflicting Visions," London:Published by Routledge,2001.
Howard R. Greenstein, "Turning Point, Zionism and Reform Judaism ", Atlanta: Scholars Press,1981.
Mark L. Winer, Sanford Seltzer, Steven J. Schwager "Leaders of Reform Judaism: A Study of Jewish Identity, Religious Practices and Beliefs and Marriage Patterns ", Research Task Force on the Future of Reform Judaism, Cincinnati:Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1987
《困顿与再生：犹太文化的现代化》张倩红著,江苏人民出版社,2003年。
《近现代犹太宗教运动》[美]大卫鲁达夫斯基著,傅有德李伟刘平译,山东大学出版社,2003年。
《简明犹太民族史》[英]塞西尔·罗斯著,黄福武王丽丽等译,山东大学出版社,1997年。
《美国犹太教史》[美]乔纳森·萨纳著,胡浩译,徐新校,大象出版社,2009年。
《犹太教》黄陵渝著,中国社会科学出版社,2008年。
《现代世界史》[美]R.R.帕尔默著,何兆武孙福生陈敦全等译,世界图书出版公司,2009年。
《美国犹太人1585—1990：一部历史》[美]雅各·瑞德·马库斯著,杨波宋立宏徐娅囡译,徐新校,上海人民出版社2004年。
《德意志民族历史上的民族与宗教》刘新利著,商务印书馆,2009年。
《西方政治制度史》张定河白雪峰著,山东人民出版社,2003年。
《美国通史》刘绪贻杨生茂主编,人民出版社,2002年。
《犹太哲学史》傅有德等著中国人民大学出版社,2008年。
《犹太教》[英]诺曼·所罗门著赵小燕译,辽宁教育出版社,1998年。
②阿什肯纳兹犹太人,原指莱茵河流域的犹太人。他们长期生活在固定的区域,受外界影响较小。20世纪之前这些犹太人使用意第绪语,使用《巴比伦塔木德》
① Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity, Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1995, P.292.
①商业革命指19世纪上半期,主要是杰克逊时期(1815-1846),美国经历了广泛深刻的社会变革。以经济变革为先驱,对当时美国社会、政治、思想等产生了重大影响。
② Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, P.54.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.111.
①[英]诺曼·所罗门著,赵小燕译,《犹太教》,辽宁教育出版社,1998,第116页。
② Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, P.104.
③ Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America, New York:Columbia University Press,1997, p.38.
④ David Phillipson&Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975,P.379.
⑤ David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.379.
①Karla Goldman, The Path to Reform Judaism:An Examination of Religious Leadership in Cincinnati,1841-1855, Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, P.83.
①Isaac Mayer Wise, History of the Hebrew's Second Commonwealth, Chicago:Leo Wise&Co., Publishers,1880, P.140.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, p.16.
② Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, p.65.
① Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, p.74.
② Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press, 1992, p.98.
③ David Phillipson&Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975, p.304.
①Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, p.126.
②Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press, 1992.P.264.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, p.19.
① Jonathan D.Sarna, "American Judaism", New Haven:Yale University Press,2004, p.132
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62. P.17.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62, p.24.
①Sefton D.Temkin,Creating American Judasim,Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998.P.31.
① Sefton D. Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998. P.37.
①[美]大卫·鲁达夫斯基,傅有德、李伟、刘平译：《近现代犹太宗教运动》,山东大学出版社,2003年,第334-336页。
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.33.
① David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.278.
① David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975,P.276.
① David Phillipson& Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinatti:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.252.
② Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity:A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism,Detriot:Wayne State University Press,1995, P.248.
① Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity:A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism, Detriot:Wayne State University Press,1995,P.249.
② Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, P.57.
① David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.72.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62. p.16.
② Isaac Mayer Wise, The World of my books, Cincinnati:American Jewish Archives,1954, p.90.
③ Isaac Mayer Wise, Pronas To Holy Writ, Cincnnati:R. Clark,1891, p.183.
① Jonathan D.Sarna, American Judaism, Yale University Press,2004, P.117.
① Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America, New York:Columbia University Press,1997, P.171.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, Published by [Privately printed],1931, P.11.
① Sefton D. Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Tronto:Littman Library of Jewish Civilization,1998. P.23.
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, Monographs of the American Jewish Archives No.V,1962, P.43.
① Howard R. Greenste, Turning Point:Zionism and Reform Judaism, Scholars Press,1981, P.86.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62. P.35.
② Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wiser Wise:Shaping American Judaism, Oxford University Press,1992, P.80.
① Dena Wilansky, "Sinai to Cincinnati",New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937.P.127
② Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.23.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.4.
② Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.5.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.7.
① Jacob Reader Marcus,The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.7.
① Jacob Reader Marcus, The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise, [Privately printed],1931, P.13.
② Isaac Mayer Wise, David Philipson, Reminiscences, Published by L. Wise and company,1901. P.51.
①Jonathan D.Sarna, David G. Darlin, Religion and the State in the American Jewish Experience, University of Notre Dame Press,1997, P.230.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992,P.94.
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62, P.11.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62. P.12.
①按照传统犹太教的观念,13岁以上犹太男子在每日晨祷时佩戴两只经匣。代表对上帝的敬畏与恪守戒律,防止魔鬼侵害。
②成年礼,犹太男孩和女孩年满13周岁时要在犹太会堂中举行成年礼。意味着作为犹太社区的一名成员,将履行犹太人的责任。
③Isaac Mayer Wise, David Philipson, Reminiscences, Cincinnati:L. Wise and company,1901, P.206.
① David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, "Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise", Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975,P.230.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992. P.316.
① Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance book company,1937.P.67.
① Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, P.71.
① Isaac Mayer Wise, David Philipson, Reminiscences, Cincinnati:L. Wise and company,1901, P.242.
② Jonathan D.Sama "American Judaism", New Haven:Yale University Press,2004,p.70.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992. P.115.
① James Gutheim Heller, Isaac M. Wise:His life, Work, and Thought, Cincinnati:Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1965, P.28.
① Jonathan D.Sarna, David G. Darlin, Religion and the State in the American Jewish Experience, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press,1997,P.125.
① David Phillipson&Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing, 1975, P.107.
② Jonathan D.Sarna, David G. Darlin, Religion and the State in the American Jewish Experience, University of Notre Dame Press,1997, P.173.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.116.
② David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.70.
① Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance book company,1937, P.28.
① Jacob R. Marcus, The Jews in the American World:A Source Book, Detroit:Wayne State University Press, 1995,P.229.
① James Gutheim Heller, Isaac M. Wise:His life, Work, and Thought, Cincinnati:Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1965, p.29.
② David Phillipson&Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.72.
①怀斯拟定的克利夫兰会议的讨论日程包括：一、达成美国以色列人联盟的文书条款以及实施程序。二、一项联合普通公会的计划。由各社区、公会推选的代表组成,它的权利、特权、职责进行规定,并反馈到他们所属的会堂或社区。三、讨论关于美国祈祷书的计划,在第一时间向相应会堂反馈。四、对普通学生以及学者的教育。五、各会堂及社区所提出的问题。
② Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, p.33.
③ David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.143.
① Sefton D. Temkin, Creating American Reform Judaism, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998, P.138.
①卡拉派,公元8世纪出现恪守经文主义的犹太教派别。
② Sefton D. Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998, P.29.
① James Gutheim Heller, Isaac M. Wise:His life, Work, and Thought, Cincinnati:Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1965, P.189.
①Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity, Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1995, P.312.
① Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, P.165.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.7.
①Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.89.
① Emil W. Leipziger, The Central Conference of American Rabbis, Cincinnati:the Union of American Hebrew Congregations Press, Ohio,1946, P.2.
①David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975, P.70.
① Michael A. Meyer, Response to Modernity, Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1995, p.227.
① Arthur Hertzberg, The Jews in America, New York:Columbia University Press,1997, P.107.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998, P.25.
① Isaac Mayer Wise, David Philipson, Reminiscences, Cincinnati:Published by L. Wise and company, 1901，P.259.
② Sefton D.Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism, New Yok:Oxford University Press,1992, P.17.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998, P.31.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Creating American Judasim, Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998,P.34.
② Dena Wilansky, Sinai to Cincinnati, New York:Renaissance Book Company,1937, P.132.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62. P.10.
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No.V,1960-62. P.7.
① Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62. P.12.
② Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62, P.13.
③ Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62, P.14.
④ Andrew F.Key, The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise, American Jewish Archives No. V,1960-62, P.13.
① Sefton D.Temkin, Shaping American Judaism, New York:Oxford University Press,1992, P.57.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The World of My Books", Cincinnati:American Jewish Archives,1954.
Sefton Temkin, "Isaac Mayer Wise; A Biographical Sketch," A Guide to the Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise, Compiled by Doris Sturzenberger. Cincinnati:American Jewish Archives,1981. pp 5-69.
Sefton Temkin, "Isaac Mayer Wise and the Civil War", American Jewish Archives. XV, no.2 (November 1963):120-142.
Melvin Weinman, "The Attitude of Isaac Mayer Wise on Zionism and Palestine", American Jewish Archives. Ⅲ, no.2 (January 1951):3-21.
Michael A Meyer, "In the Days of Isaac Mayer Wise," Hebrew Union College-Jewish Insitute of Religion At One Hundred Years. Edited by Samuel E. Karff. Cincinnati:Hebrew Union College Press,1976.7-47.
Andrew F. Key,"The Theology of Isaac Mayer Wise,", Monographs of the American Jewish Archives No.V,1962.
Jacob Reader Marcus, "Isaac Mayer Wise and the College He Built", American Jewish Archives,1959.
Benny Kraut "Judaism Triumphant:Isaac Mayer Wise on Unitarianism and Liberal Christianity ", AJS review/Association for Jewish Studies, 1983.
Jonathan D. Sarna, "The American Jewish Response to Nineteenth-Century Christian Missions ", The Journal of American History, Vol.68, No.1 (Jun.,1981), pp. 35-51.
Emanuel Gamoran, Irving M. Levey, Emil W. Leipziger, "What He Created:Three Essays on the Occasion of the Hundredth Anniversary of the Coming of Isaac M. Wise to the United States of America ", Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1946.
Aryeh Rubinstein, Isaac Mayer Wise:A New Appraisal, Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 39, No.1/2, American Bicentennial:Ⅱ (Winter-Spring,1977), pp.53-74.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Combat of the People or Hillel and Herod", Cincinnati: Bloch & Co.,1859.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Essence of Judaism:For Teachers & Pupils, and for Self-instruction", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1861.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Pronas To Holy Writ," Cincinnati:R. Clark,1891.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Judaism and Christianity:Their Agreements and Disagreements", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1888.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Three Theological Dogmas of Judaism", Sunday Lectures Before the Reform Congregation Keneseth Israel.1895～1896.9th Series. Joseph Krauskopf. Philadelphia:Oscar Klonower,1896.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Origin of Christianity and a Commentary to the Acts of the Apostles", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1868.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Judaism:Its Doctrines and Duties", Cincinnati:Office of the Israelite,1872.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Reminiscences," David Philipson, Cincinnati:L. Wise and company,1901.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Minhag America:The Daily Prayer for American Israelites", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co,1872.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Hebrew's Second Commonwealth", Chicago:Leo Wise&Co., Publishers,1880.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The End of Popes, Nobles and Kings, or The Progress of Civilization", Published by J. Muhlhaeuser,1852.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "The Martyrdom of Jesus of Nazareth", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1874.
Isaac Mayer Wise "The Cosmic God", Cincinnati:Office American Israelite and Deborah,1876.
Isaac Mayer Wise, " History of the Israelites Nation:From Abraham to the Present Time," Published by J. Munsell,1854.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "Propositions Respectfully Submitted to the Gentlemen of the Commission Appointed by the Council of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations at Milwaukee, July 11,1878", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co.,1878.
Isaac Mayer Wise, "An Essay on the Temperance Question. ", Cincinnati:Bloch & Co,1880.
Max Benjamin May, "Isaac Mayer Wise:The Founder of American Judaism ", Cincinnati:G. P. Putnam,1916.
Jacob Reader Marcus, "The Americanization of Isaac Mayer Wise," [Privately printed],1931.
David Phillipson, Louis Grossman, "Selected Writings of Isaac Mayer Wise", Cincinnati:Ayer Publishing,1975.
Israel Knox, "Rabbi in America:The Story of Isaac M. Wise," Toronto:Little Brown Company,1957.
Sefton D.Temkin "Isaac Mayer Wise:Shaping American Judaism", New York:Oxford University Press,1992.
Dena Wilansky, "Sinai to Cincinnati:Lay Views on the Writings of Isaac M. Wise, Founder of Reform Judaism in America, " New York:Renaissance book company, 1937.
James Gutheim Heller, "Isaac M. Wise:His life, Work, and Thought", Cincinnati: Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1965.
Sefton Temkin, " Creating American Reform Judaism:The Life And Times Of Isaac Mayer Wise," Toronto:Littman Library Of Jewish Civilization,1998.
Jonathan D.Sarna, "American Judaism", New Haven:Yale University Press,2004.
Jacob R. Marcus, "The Jew in the American World:A Source Book", Detroit: Wayne State University Press,1995.
Jonathan D.Sarna, "The American Jewish Experience", New York: Holmes&Meier Publishers Inc.,1986.
Michael A. Meyer, "Response to Modernity:A History of the Reform Movement in Judaism", Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1995.
Jonathan D.Sarna, David G. Darlin "Religion and the State in the American Jewish Experience", David G. Darlin, Notre Dame:University of Notre Dame Press,1997.
Stephen Birmingham "The Rest of us:The Rise of American's Eastern European Jews", Toronto:Little Brown Company,1978.
Arthur Hertzberg, "The Jews in America ", New York:Columbia University Press, 1997.
Walter Jacob, "The Changing World of Reform Judaism:The Pittsburgh Platform in Retrospect:Papers Presented on the Occasion of the 100th Anniversary of the Pittsburgh Platform", February 1985 and The Proceedings of 1885, Pittsburge:Rodef Shalom Congregation,1985.
Michael A. Meyer, "Judaism Within Modernity", Detroit:Wayne State University Press,2001.
Henry Berkowitz, "Intimate Glimpses Of The Rabbi's Career ", Whitefish: Kessinger Publishing,1921.
David Harry Ellenson, "After Emancipation:Jewish Religious Responses to Modernity ", Cincinnati:Hebrew Union College Press,2004.
Joseph Leon Blau,"Reform Judaism:a Historical Perspective:Essays from the Yearbook of the Central Conference of American Rabbis", Central Conference of American Rabbis, Jersey City:Ktav Pub. House,1973.
David Philipson, "The Reform Movement in Judaism ", New York:The Macmillan Company,1931.
John A. Hardon, "American Judaism", Chicago:Loyola University Press,1971.
Solomon Bennett Freehof "Reform Jewish Practice and Its Rabbinic Background: And Its Rabbinic Background", Cinninati:Hebrew Union College Press,1944.
Arthur Hertzberg, "The Zionist Idea:A Historcal Analysis and Reader", Philadelphia, The Jewish Publication Society,1997.
Jeffrey S. Gurock "American Jewish History:A Bibliographical Guide", New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith,1983.
Dana Evan Kaplan "American Reform Judaism:An Introduction ", New Jersey: Ruters University Press,2003.
Edwin S. Gaustad, "Memoirs of the Spirit:American Religious Autobiography from Jonathan Edwards to Maya Angelou Gaustad," Michigan:Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing,2001.
Norman Drachler, "A Bibliography of Jewish Education in the United States", Detroit:Wayne State University Press,1994.
Sol Scharfstein, "Chronicle of Jewish History:From the Patriarchs to the 21st Century," Dorcas Gelabert, Publishing House, Inc.,1997.
Jacob Neusner, Alan Jeffery Avery-Peck, "The Blackwell Companion to Judaism ", Oxford:Blackwell Publishing,2000.
Norman H. Finkelstein "American Jewish History:A JPS Guide", Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society,2007.
Chaim Isaac Waxman, "America's Jews in Transition ", Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1983.
Naomi Cohen, " What the Rabbis Said:The Public Discourse of Nineteenth-Century American Rabbis", New York:NYU Press,2008.
Jeffrey S. Gurock Taylor & Francis "Anti-semitism in America ", London:Taylor & Francis Group,1998.
Peter W. Williams, "America's Religions:From Their Origins to the Twenty-first Century," University of Illinois Press,2002.
Alfred J. Kolatch, "Inside Judaism:The Concepts, Customs, and Celebrations of the Jewish People," Jonathan David Company, Inc.,2006.
Louis Jacobs, "The Book of Jewish Belief", New York:Behrman House, Inc,1984.
John S. Fine, Frederic J. Krome, "Jews of Cincinnati ", Mount Pleasant:Arcadia Publishing,2007.
Thomas Adam, "Germany and the Americas:Culture, Politics, and History:a Multidisciplinary Encyclopaedia", Santa Barbara:ABC-CLIO,2005.
Helene Schwartz Kenvin, "This Land of Liberty:A History of America's Jews", New York:Behrman House, Inc,1986.
James Yaffe, "The American Jews:Portrait of a Split Personality", New York: Random House,1968.
John D. Rayner, "Jewish Religious Law:A Progressive Perspective", New York:Berghahn Books,1998.
Jacob Neusner, "Sectors of American Judaism:Reform, Orthodoxy, Conservatism, and Reconstructionism ", Jersey City:Ktav Pub. House,1975.
Dana Evan Kaplan "Contemporary Debates in American Reform Judaism: Conflicting Visions," London:Published by Routledge,2001.
Howard R. Greenstein, "Turning Point, Zionism and Reform Judaism ", Atlanta: Scholars Press,1981.
Mark L. Winer, Sanford Seltzer, Steven J. Schwager "Leaders of Reform Judaism: A Study of Jewish Identity, Religious Practices and Beliefs and Marriage Patterns ", Research Task Force on the Future of Reform Judaism, Cincinnati:Union of American Hebrew Congregations,1987
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