晚期熟练汉英双语学习者语法特征加工的神经特异性研究
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摘要
双语学习者在多大程度上依赖母语语言神经基础完成第二语言任务的加工,是双语者认知神经语言学研究领域的基本问题。研究发现,早期习得第二语言的双语者,利用母语语言神经基础完成第二语言的加工；而晚期双语学习者由于受到神经可塑性变化的影响,加工两种语言的神经活动表现出巨大的差异。虽然也有研究表明,随着学习者语言能力的提高,加工两种语言语义任务的神经激活差异会逐渐缩小,晚期双语学习者两种语言的语义加工神经基础甚至可能表现出相似的激活现象；然而鲜有报道涉及密集的语言练习是否可以缩小两种语言语法特异性信息加工的神经激活差异。而且时至今日,坚持语言能力对双语者语言神经通路的发展产生直接影响的研究,并没有对晚期双语学习者两种语言语义加工神经基础的一致性特点做出解释,仅仅描述了双语者语义神经基础的重叠现象：另一方面,研究者也没有就语言能力提升很少能够影响语法信息加工激活差异的原因作出合理解释。更多针对语言特点开展的双语者语言脑机制研究却发现,早期双语者的语言神经基础也可能存在差异；晚期三语者语言间神经基础差异程度与这三种语言两两之间的语言学差异程度有直接关系。
基于以上研究发现,本研究提出了双语者语法特征加工的神经特异性假设,认为语言的结构差异能够调节神经通路的发展,语言习得时间仅仅影响了神经通路发展的效率；晚期双语学习者也可以形成类似母语学习者的神经通路来加工第二语言语法特征；该通路显著有别于其第一语言信息加工的神经通路。本研究利用三个研究对双机制假设(第二语言和第一语言语法特征的加工依赖不同脑机制)的适用性开展了实证研究。
研究一利用汉英两种语言在曲折词缀方面的巨大差异,有效控制了晚期汉英双语学习者英语过去式加工对其母语语言神经基础的依赖,试图证明语言特色的加工必须依赖专属神经通路才能完成,晚期双语学习者也可以形成类似英语母语者的语言神经基础。研究发现,规则动词过去式的加工过程显著有别于不规则动词过去式的加工过程,需要依赖不同的脑区完成。研究结果与以往针对英语母语者开展的英语过去式的研究结果一致,汉英双语学习者加工英语语法和语音信息的脑区也不同于其加工中文语法和语音的脑区,排除了双语学习者对母语语言脑网络的依赖。研究一的结果表明,语言特色的加工需要专属脑网络的参与；关键期后习得语言的双语者能够突破神经可塑性下降的障碍,形成类似母语学习者的脑网络。但是研究一并没有通过激活结果直接对比的方式,证明规则动词过去式激活差异的产生可能来源于过去式和动词原形间的语音一致性较高的推测。
研究二通过神经信息学数据分析方法的优化对研究一的主要结论进行再验证,希望在脑网络有效连接的层面明确规则动词过去式的加工机制,同时也检验联结主义将规则动词过去式和不规则动词过去式的激活差异归结于语音相关性的假设。利用多元格兰杰因果分析方法(Granger Causality Analysis, GCA),研究发现了加工规则动词过去式,不规则动词过去式,动词原形,和可分解单词的有效连接脑网络。研究结果表明,额下回-基底神经节联合区(Brodmann44/45,壳核,和尾状核)和负责语音信息加工的Brodmann39区是加工规则动词过去式的神经中枢；不规则动词和动词原形的加工更多依赖语义神经基础和尾状核(中心节点分别是Brodmann45, Brodmann37和caudate);动词原形的中心节点是颞中回(Brodmann21)；可分解动词的网络中心节点是颞上回前部,额下回眶部,额下回岛盖部和尾状核(Brodmann38, Brodmann47, Brodmann44和caudate)。研究结果有力支持了研究一的结论,明确了规则动词过去式的识别涉及分解过程,语法识别过程,语音识别过程,和语义识别过程四个部分。研究二同时也发现脑网络密集程度与被试的反应时呈现显著负相关关系,关键节点的出度入度值也与被试的反应时具有显著负相关关系。该结果反映了有效连接脑网络的可靠程度,也证明脑网络功能连接分析方法对解决研究争议焦点的推动作用。
为了验证两种语言脑机制的独立性,研究三利用英语第三人称单数简单句和第一人称单数简单句与对应的汉语简单句在表达结构上的相似度不同,探讨了第二语言脑网络对母语语言脑网络的依赖程度。研究发现,在肯定句和否定句两种情况下,尽管英语第一人称单数简单句和汉语第一人称单数简单句在句法结构上完全相同,英语第三人称单数简单句的加工和英语第一人称单数简单句的加工保持了一致性,都在与汉语简单句的对比中呈现了相似的激活差异,而汉语简单句和英语两种简单句的对比结果也显示了一致的激活对比结果。这表明,熟练汉英双语学习者的语言特色加工方式彼此相对独立,语言加工神经基础的发展遵循了整体性的原则。汉语依靠单词顺序实现语义表达的特点导致了额下回岛盖区域的激活强度增加,而英语曲折词缀的变化需要语音加工(Brodmann39)和复杂词汇识别过程涉及的分解过程脑区(Brodmann38/47)的参与。研究三还确定了肯定句和否定句加工机制的相对差异：肯定句的加工以额下回岛盖区域作为信息加工中心,而否定句的加工依赖颞顶结合部颞上回/沟后部的区域(the parietal-temporal conjunction area in the Sylvian fissure, area Spt)。研究三的研究结果为关于否定句加工的“真值-翻转”假设和“接受度降低”假设的争论提供了初步解答。
三个研究的结果联合证明了晚期双语者语法特征加工的神经特异性假设,同时结合以往相关研究的成果,我们在研究的总讨论部分提出了第二语言加工神经基础发展的动态模型。该模型强调语言特色导致了双语者语言加工的神经基础存在部分重叠,却又相对独立。在承认语言能力保障神经通路发生同化、顺应等重组或者自适应变化的同时,坚持大脑发育成熟伴随的神经可塑性下降会同时影响双语者的语法和语义神经基础的发展。语言习得时间和语言能力对语法和语义神经基础会产生差别性影响,是由于同化和顺应的发展方式导致的神经通路发生聚合或者分离现象的差异。在该动态模型的框架下,我们还对双语者认知神经语言学领域的主要研究结果进行了讨论。最后,我们对研究内容进行了总结,并且指出为了进一步验证双语者语言加工的双机制特点,今后的研究可以对早期汉英双语者语言加工的特点和不同语言能力的双语者语言脑机制的发展过程开展系列研究。
In the cognitive neurolinguistic field, it's a basic question whether the first language (L1) and the second language (L2) engage only a single brain mechanism or two distinct neural networks in language processing. Research findings indicate that early bilingual learners process semantics by neural networks underlying the native language; late bilingual learners are negatively affected by declined neural plasticity and display non-overlapped brain activation in processing grammatical information. Even though it is found that increased language proficiency leads to narrowed activation disparity of semantic tasks so that neural substrates of two semantics in the late bilingual brain can overlap, few researches have reported that neural activation disparity of grammatical features can be modulated by intensive practices. Until today, advocates of decisiveness of language proficiency fail to explain the overlapping of cortical regions underlying two semantics, but rest on the description of the overlapped findings. On the other hand, it was still unknown why increased proficiency seldom bridged the gap between brain activation of the two languages'grammatical features. Recent bilingual researches focus on language features. They find that cortical regions underlying grammatical information in the early bilingual brain may be independent and extents of activation differences are modulated by language differences between languages.
On condition of above findings, we proposed a dual mechanism of brain networks underlying idiosyncratic grammatical information, suggesting that the development of neural pathways is modulated by language features, and neural development efficiency is affected by language acquisition time and language proficiency. Late bilingual learners can develop a native-like neural substrates in processing grammatical features, which is independent from their first language brain networks. We then conducted three experiments to demonstrate the feasibility of such a dual mechanism model.
Due to linguistic features of the analytic language, Chinese-English bilinguals are least influenced by their native language in learning English inflections. Such a contrast makes it possible to test if late Chinese English bilinguals would have to develop specialized neural networks for distinctive language features, which are similar to those of English native speakers. Through an event-related fMRI study by the repetition priming paradigm, we found that proficient late bilingual learners processed English inflected verbs the same way as English monolingual learners both behaviorally and neurophysiologically. As cortical regions underlying Chinese grammatical information overlap with that of semantic information and the phonological information is processed by the medial frontal gyrus and the inferior parietal lobe, it denies the possibility that processing English inflections rely on cortical areas of the native language. It has successfully demonstrated the decisive role of language features in building neural basis for new linguistic functions and the more vital importance of language proficiency than the language acquisition time in forming a native-like brain network. However, serial experiments I did not locate activation disparities by direct contrast of the decomposable words and the regularly inflected verbs. The results cannot reject the connectionist hypothesis proposing that activation differences between regular and irregular past tense are caused by phonological consistency of a regular past tense form and its stem.
Serial experiments Ⅱ made use of updated data analysis in functional brain imaging field, and retested conclusions of serial experiment I. It aimed to investigate working mechanisms in processing regular and irregular past tense through effective connectivity analysis, hoping to reject the connectionist hypothesis that attributes activation disparity of regular and irregular verbs to different degrees of phonological relevance. We found different effectively connected networks in processing the regular past tense, irregular past tense, nonce verb, and decomposable word. In detail, the inferior frontal gyrus and basal ganglia areas (Brodmann44/45, putamen, and caudate) were hubs of the regular past tense network, with Brodmann39in the post area of the superior temporal gyrus as another; irregular past tense had three hubs subserving semantic access (Brodmann45, Brodmann37, and caudate); nonce verbs showed a only hub in Brodmann21; hubs of decomposable words were the temporal pole, the pars orbitalis, the pars opercularis and caudate (Brodmann38,,Brodmann47, Brodmann44, and caudate) taking charge of decomposition. Results of serial experiments II lent support to serial experiments I. It clarifies the processing of regular past tense, which contains verb decomposition, grammatical information recognition, phonological parsing, and semantic access. We also found that the response time had significantly negative correlations with clustering density and the in-out degrees of important nodes. It indicates that the effectively connected networks we found are trustful, and proposed the advanced role of functionally connected brain networks in settling hot debates in the brain imaging area of languages.
To specify the independence of working mechanisms underlying language features, serial experiment III modulated degrees of English and Chinese simple present SAVO sentences. We found that in both affirmative and negative levels, even though English first person singular simple present sentences had the same structures with Chinese first person singular simple present sentences, English first person singular simple present sentences (1sg) and English third person singular simple present sentences (3sg) consistently displayed similar activation contrasts with that of Chinese. It demonstrates that working mechanisms of grammatical features of English and Chinese are independent; language information is processed consistently by the same neural substrates and don't show mixed processing model even though parts of the information may be structurally the same across languages. Chinese simple present sentences are characterized by expressing ideas through word orders and activated the pars opercularis in the IFG. English simple present sentences need subject-verb agreement check, which involved the activation of phonological parsing area (Brodmann39) and the decomposition area (Brodmann38/47). Through mutual contrasts of affirmative and negative sentences, serial experiment Ⅲ also demonstrates different mechanisms in dealing with the two basic sentences:affirmative sentences rely on the information integration center of the pars opercularis, and negative sentences rely on the information integration center of area Spt in the parietal-temporal conjunction area. This finding can answer the debate between "truth reversion hypothesis" and the "reduced acceptability of false proposal hypothesis".
Proceeding from the empirical evidence that processing grammatical features of the second language relies on native-like specialized brain networks, the current research proposed a dynamic model illustrating how the language neural network changes during second language acquisition. It insists a dominant role of linguistic features as the source of non-overlapping activations between L1and L2. Language proficiency plays a crucial role in practicing cerebral integration and segregation processes, during which the brain assimilates common information and accommodate foreign inputs. Given that reduced neural plasticity affects both the acquisition of syntax and semantics, it is the integrative expansion of the assimilation process and the segregated specificity of the accommodation process that cause the maturity asynchrony between syntax and semantics. Under the theoretical framework, we discussed main findings in the bilingual cognitive neurolinguistic research field. At last, we summarized main findings and conclusions of the current research, and suggested that research subjects can be extended to early Chinese English bilingual learners and lowly proficient bilingual learners to better prove the feasibility of the dual mechanism view on grammatical information.
基于以上研究发现,本研究提出了双语者语法特征加工的神经特异性假设,认为语言的结构差异能够调节神经通路的发展,语言习得时间仅仅影响了神经通路发展的效率；晚期双语学习者也可以形成类似母语学习者的神经通路来加工第二语言语法特征；该通路显著有别于其第一语言信息加工的神经通路。本研究利用三个研究对双机制假设(第二语言和第一语言语法特征的加工依赖不同脑机制)的适用性开展了实证研究。
研究一利用汉英两种语言在曲折词缀方面的巨大差异,有效控制了晚期汉英双语学习者英语过去式加工对其母语语言神经基础的依赖,试图证明语言特色的加工必须依赖专属神经通路才能完成,晚期双语学习者也可以形成类似英语母语者的语言神经基础。研究发现,规则动词过去式的加工过程显著有别于不规则动词过去式的加工过程,需要依赖不同的脑区完成。研究结果与以往针对英语母语者开展的英语过去式的研究结果一致,汉英双语学习者加工英语语法和语音信息的脑区也不同于其加工中文语法和语音的脑区,排除了双语学习者对母语语言脑网络的依赖。研究一的结果表明,语言特色的加工需要专属脑网络的参与；关键期后习得语言的双语者能够突破神经可塑性下降的障碍,形成类似母语学习者的脑网络。但是研究一并没有通过激活结果直接对比的方式,证明规则动词过去式激活差异的产生可能来源于过去式和动词原形间的语音一致性较高的推测。
研究二通过神经信息学数据分析方法的优化对研究一的主要结论进行再验证,希望在脑网络有效连接的层面明确规则动词过去式的加工机制,同时也检验联结主义将规则动词过去式和不规则动词过去式的激活差异归结于语音相关性的假设。利用多元格兰杰因果分析方法(Granger Causality Analysis, GCA),研究发现了加工规则动词过去式,不规则动词过去式,动词原形,和可分解单词的有效连接脑网络。研究结果表明,额下回-基底神经节联合区(Brodmann44/45,壳核,和尾状核)和负责语音信息加工的Brodmann39区是加工规则动词过去式的神经中枢；不规则动词和动词原形的加工更多依赖语义神经基础和尾状核(中心节点分别是Brodmann45, Brodmann37和caudate);动词原形的中心节点是颞中回(Brodmann21)；可分解动词的网络中心节点是颞上回前部,额下回眶部,额下回岛盖部和尾状核(Brodmann38, Brodmann47, Brodmann44和caudate)。研究结果有力支持了研究一的结论,明确了规则动词过去式的识别涉及分解过程,语法识别过程,语音识别过程,和语义识别过程四个部分。研究二同时也发现脑网络密集程度与被试的反应时呈现显著负相关关系,关键节点的出度入度值也与被试的反应时具有显著负相关关系。该结果反映了有效连接脑网络的可靠程度,也证明脑网络功能连接分析方法对解决研究争议焦点的推动作用。
为了验证两种语言脑机制的独立性,研究三利用英语第三人称单数简单句和第一人称单数简单句与对应的汉语简单句在表达结构上的相似度不同,探讨了第二语言脑网络对母语语言脑网络的依赖程度。研究发现,在肯定句和否定句两种情况下,尽管英语第一人称单数简单句和汉语第一人称单数简单句在句法结构上完全相同,英语第三人称单数简单句的加工和英语第一人称单数简单句的加工保持了一致性,都在与汉语简单句的对比中呈现了相似的激活差异,而汉语简单句和英语两种简单句的对比结果也显示了一致的激活对比结果。这表明,熟练汉英双语学习者的语言特色加工方式彼此相对独立,语言加工神经基础的发展遵循了整体性的原则。汉语依靠单词顺序实现语义表达的特点导致了额下回岛盖区域的激活强度增加,而英语曲折词缀的变化需要语音加工(Brodmann39)和复杂词汇识别过程涉及的分解过程脑区(Brodmann38/47)的参与。研究三还确定了肯定句和否定句加工机制的相对差异：肯定句的加工以额下回岛盖区域作为信息加工中心,而否定句的加工依赖颞顶结合部颞上回/沟后部的区域(the parietal-temporal conjunction area in the Sylvian fissure, area Spt)。研究三的研究结果为关于否定句加工的“真值-翻转”假设和“接受度降低”假设的争论提供了初步解答。
三个研究的结果联合证明了晚期双语者语法特征加工的神经特异性假设,同时结合以往相关研究的成果,我们在研究的总讨论部分提出了第二语言加工神经基础发展的动态模型。该模型强调语言特色导致了双语者语言加工的神经基础存在部分重叠,却又相对独立。在承认语言能力保障神经通路发生同化、顺应等重组或者自适应变化的同时,坚持大脑发育成熟伴随的神经可塑性下降会同时影响双语者的语法和语义神经基础的发展。语言习得时间和语言能力对语法和语义神经基础会产生差别性影响,是由于同化和顺应的发展方式导致的神经通路发生聚合或者分离现象的差异。在该动态模型的框架下,我们还对双语者认知神经语言学领域的主要研究结果进行了讨论。最后,我们对研究内容进行了总结,并且指出为了进一步验证双语者语言加工的双机制特点,今后的研究可以对早期汉英双语者语言加工的特点和不同语言能力的双语者语言脑机制的发展过程开展系列研究。
In the cognitive neurolinguistic field, it's a basic question whether the first language (L1) and the second language (L2) engage only a single brain mechanism or two distinct neural networks in language processing. Research findings indicate that early bilingual learners process semantics by neural networks underlying the native language; late bilingual learners are negatively affected by declined neural plasticity and display non-overlapped brain activation in processing grammatical information. Even though it is found that increased language proficiency leads to narrowed activation disparity of semantic tasks so that neural substrates of two semantics in the late bilingual brain can overlap, few researches have reported that neural activation disparity of grammatical features can be modulated by intensive practices. Until today, advocates of decisiveness of language proficiency fail to explain the overlapping of cortical regions underlying two semantics, but rest on the description of the overlapped findings. On the other hand, it was still unknown why increased proficiency seldom bridged the gap between brain activation of the two languages'grammatical features. Recent bilingual researches focus on language features. They find that cortical regions underlying grammatical information in the early bilingual brain may be independent and extents of activation differences are modulated by language differences between languages.
On condition of above findings, we proposed a dual mechanism of brain networks underlying idiosyncratic grammatical information, suggesting that the development of neural pathways is modulated by language features, and neural development efficiency is affected by language acquisition time and language proficiency. Late bilingual learners can develop a native-like neural substrates in processing grammatical features, which is independent from their first language brain networks. We then conducted three experiments to demonstrate the feasibility of such a dual mechanism model.
Due to linguistic features of the analytic language, Chinese-English bilinguals are least influenced by their native language in learning English inflections. Such a contrast makes it possible to test if late Chinese English bilinguals would have to develop specialized neural networks for distinctive language features, which are similar to those of English native speakers. Through an event-related fMRI study by the repetition priming paradigm, we found that proficient late bilingual learners processed English inflected verbs the same way as English monolingual learners both behaviorally and neurophysiologically. As cortical regions underlying Chinese grammatical information overlap with that of semantic information and the phonological information is processed by the medial frontal gyrus and the inferior parietal lobe, it denies the possibility that processing English inflections rely on cortical areas of the native language. It has successfully demonstrated the decisive role of language features in building neural basis for new linguistic functions and the more vital importance of language proficiency than the language acquisition time in forming a native-like brain network. However, serial experiments I did not locate activation disparities by direct contrast of the decomposable words and the regularly inflected verbs. The results cannot reject the connectionist hypothesis proposing that activation differences between regular and irregular past tense are caused by phonological consistency of a regular past tense form and its stem.
Serial experiments Ⅱ made use of updated data analysis in functional brain imaging field, and retested conclusions of serial experiment I. It aimed to investigate working mechanisms in processing regular and irregular past tense through effective connectivity analysis, hoping to reject the connectionist hypothesis that attributes activation disparity of regular and irregular verbs to different degrees of phonological relevance. We found different effectively connected networks in processing the regular past tense, irregular past tense, nonce verb, and decomposable word. In detail, the inferior frontal gyrus and basal ganglia areas (Brodmann44/45, putamen, and caudate) were hubs of the regular past tense network, with Brodmann39in the post area of the superior temporal gyrus as another; irregular past tense had three hubs subserving semantic access (Brodmann45, Brodmann37, and caudate); nonce verbs showed a only hub in Brodmann21; hubs of decomposable words were the temporal pole, the pars orbitalis, the pars opercularis and caudate (Brodmann38,,Brodmann47, Brodmann44, and caudate) taking charge of decomposition. Results of serial experiments II lent support to serial experiments I. It clarifies the processing of regular past tense, which contains verb decomposition, grammatical information recognition, phonological parsing, and semantic access. We also found that the response time had significantly negative correlations with clustering density and the in-out degrees of important nodes. It indicates that the effectively connected networks we found are trustful, and proposed the advanced role of functionally connected brain networks in settling hot debates in the brain imaging area of languages.
To specify the independence of working mechanisms underlying language features, serial experiment III modulated degrees of English and Chinese simple present SAVO sentences. We found that in both affirmative and negative levels, even though English first person singular simple present sentences had the same structures with Chinese first person singular simple present sentences, English first person singular simple present sentences (1sg) and English third person singular simple present sentences (3sg) consistently displayed similar activation contrasts with that of Chinese. It demonstrates that working mechanisms of grammatical features of English and Chinese are independent; language information is processed consistently by the same neural substrates and don't show mixed processing model even though parts of the information may be structurally the same across languages. Chinese simple present sentences are characterized by expressing ideas through word orders and activated the pars opercularis in the IFG. English simple present sentences need subject-verb agreement check, which involved the activation of phonological parsing area (Brodmann39) and the decomposition area (Brodmann38/47). Through mutual contrasts of affirmative and negative sentences, serial experiment Ⅲ also demonstrates different mechanisms in dealing with the two basic sentences:affirmative sentences rely on the information integration center of the pars opercularis, and negative sentences rely on the information integration center of area Spt in the parietal-temporal conjunction area. This finding can answer the debate between "truth reversion hypothesis" and the "reduced acceptability of false proposal hypothesis".
Proceeding from the empirical evidence that processing grammatical features of the second language relies on native-like specialized brain networks, the current research proposed a dynamic model illustrating how the language neural network changes during second language acquisition. It insists a dominant role of linguistic features as the source of non-overlapping activations between L1and L2. Language proficiency plays a crucial role in practicing cerebral integration and segregation processes, during which the brain assimilates common information and accommodate foreign inputs. Given that reduced neural plasticity affects both the acquisition of syntax and semantics, it is the integrative expansion of the assimilation process and the segregated specificity of the accommodation process that cause the maturity asynchrony between syntax and semantics. Under the theoretical framework, we discussed main findings in the bilingual cognitive neurolinguistic research field. At last, we summarized main findings and conclusions of the current research, and suggested that research subjects can be extended to early Chinese English bilingual learners and lowly proficient bilingual learners to better prove the feasibility of the dual mechanism view on grammatical information.
引文
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