基于零售商垄断势力的纵向关系与竞争政策研究
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摘要
20世纪70年代以来,全球零售业发生了巨大变革,大型零售店的普遍兴起以及零售业市场集中度的显著提高,都表明零售商的垄断势力正在日趋增强。当零售商拥有垄断势力后,他们凭借其在产业链中的优势地位,向生产商实施各种纵向控制手段,如收取通道货、要求生产商签订独家交易契约、开发自有品牌产品进入生产领域等。这些策略行为的实施导致供销之间矛盾四起,同时也引起了政府的广泛关注,但至今尚未有行之有效的相关政策出台。
     面对供销矛盾的现实,产业组织理论所关注的是零售商垄断势力下的纵向关系问题。这些问题具体包括:零售商凭借其垄断势力对生产商实施的纵向控制策略有哪些?这些纵向控制策略是出于怎样的私人激励?从社会激励的角度,零售商垄断势力的增强以及所实施的各种纵向控制策略,对于生产商、零售商和消费者的福利会产生什么影响?在此基础上,以社会福利最大化为己任的政府部门,又该对零售业和相应的纵向控制行为制定怎样的竞争政策?
     虽然纵向关系作为现代产业组织理论中的一个前沿领域,已积累了较为丰硕的成果,针对零售商实施的纵向控制也是西方国家反垄断司法实践所关注的焦点之一,但是现有的理论研究仍与社会现实存在较大的差距。大多数关于纵向问题的研究仍沿用经典的微观经济学中的假设,即假发生产商具有垄断势力而零售商是完全竞争的。少有的关于零售商垄断势力的研究也较为单一和片面,尚没有对此问题的全面而系统的研究。
     为此,本文针对零售商垄断势力增强的现实,在一个系统的分析框架下,从产业链的角度剖析零售商与生产商之间的纵向关系,并提出相应的竞争政策,具有较强的理论和现实意义。
     本文首先通过实证分析论证了零售商具有垄断势力的现实。由于零售业具有显著的区域性,且零售业各种业态之间具有分工互补性,因此对于零售业市场集中度的衡量,要将区域市场和零售业态这两个因素考虑进来。本文利用1998-2004年上海市主要超市公司的基本数据,对上海市的超市企业市场集中度进行了实证考察,结果发现我国零售业呈现出区域寡头垄断的态势。在此前提下,本文建立了一个较为完整的基于产业链的“SCP-R(纵向市场结构—纵向控制策略行为—产业链市场绩效—规制政策)”经济分析框架,并从零售商具有垄断势力的角度对分析框架的各个要素进行阐述,从而为全文的研究奠定基础。
     接着,本文按照常见的零售商向生产商实施的纵向控制策略展开分析,研究了通道费、独家交易和自有品牌等策略。对于这些策略行为的分析,我们构建了与现有研究不同的博弈模型,通过比较不同纵向市场结构下博弈的均衡结果,找到了影响市场绩效的关键因素,并对私人绩效和社会福利进行分析和评价,最后提出相应的竞争政策。具体来讲,通道费一章分析了三种纵向市场结构,结论表明在双边垄断情况下,通道费的收取将导致社会福利增加;当上游竞争下游垄断时,通道费对社会福利无影响;而当零售商有买方而无卖方垄断势力时,社会福利的大小还要取决于需求函数的性质。独家交易的分析则通过与共同代理对比,证明了当生产商的产品存在筹异时,零售商实施独家交易能够导致纵向市场圈定,且随着两种产品替代性的增加,独家交易将导致社会福利损失的减少。自有品牌的分析则基于目前我国零售商自有品牌质量较低的现实,将产品质量作为一个变量,考察了一对一和二对一两种纵向市场结构,从而得出自有品牌的社会福利不仅受到纵向市场结构的影响,也与自有品牌和厂商品牌的产品质量水平密切相关。
     由于零售商实施纵向控制策略的研究建立在生产商垄断势力较弱的基础上,那么当生产商也具有较强的垄断势力时,零售商垄断势力的提高相对于生产商来说就是抗衡力量。自从加尔布雷斯提出了抗衡力量的概念后,关于零售商抗衡力量的讨论一直没有停息,但始终没有一个较清晰的结论,本文通过对双边垄断、零售商具有边缘竞争者和对称竞争者三种情况的分析,得出零售商抗衡力量的社会福利取决于纵向市场结构(包括零售商替代性大小)的结论。
     在理论分析的基础上,本文最后从产业的层面讨论了我国零售业的竞争政策。由于国外现有的理论研究相对较少,以及研究结果的不确定性,再加上我国零售业具有一些特殊问题,这些因素导致西方理论界对于我国零售业竞争政策的制定缺乏指导。目前我国反垄断法尚未正式出台,国内在这一领域的理论研究更为少见,因此本文结合国内一些特殊情况,对这一问题进行了较为系统的研究,能够在一定程度上弥补理论与现实的差距,为我国零售业竞争政策的制定提供合理化的建议和指导。
Since the 1970s, the world has undergone tremendous changes in retailindustries. The general upsurge of large retailers and the significant increase of theretail market concentration show that the monopoly power of retailers beingreinforced. When retailers own monopoly power, they will use their dominant statusin the industrial chain implementing various vertical control means against producers,such as charging slotting fees, requiring exclusive dealing contracts, tapping privatebrand goods and so on. The implementation of these strategies has resulted incontinuous contradictions between supplier and retailers. At the same time, that hasattracted wide attention from the government. But so far no effective policies havebeen worked out yet.
     Facing these contradictions, the theory of industrial organization is concernedabout the topic of the vertical relationship with monopolistic retail. Specifically, whatvertical control strategies are used by retailers depending on their monopoly poweragainst producers? How do private incentives stimulate these vertical controlstrategies? From the perspective of social incentive, how do the enhancement of retailmonopoly power and various vertical control strategies make effects on the welfarefor the manufacturer, retailers and consumers? On this ground, what the competitionpolicies should be established by the governments, who take the maximum socialwelfare as their responsibilities, against the retail industry and the correspondingvertical restrains?
     Although, as a frontier area in the modern theory of industrial organization, thevertical relationship has yielded a rich harvest, and the anti-trust judicial practice inthe West has aimed at the vertical control implemented by the retailers as the focus,there still exists a big gap between the reality and the theoretical research. Mostresearches on the vertical issues are still followed the classic assumptions in themicro-economics, which assumed that manufacturers monopoly and retailerscompetitive. Few researches about monopoly retailers are usually simple and biased.So far there is no comprehensive and systematic study on this topic.
     To this end, this paper has strong theoretical and practical significance, whichaimed at the increasing monopoly power of retailers, and in a systematic framework,from the perspective of the industrial chain dissected the vertical relationship betweenmanufacturers and retailers, and finally brought forward the corresponding competition policies.
     We first empirically demonstrated the realities that the retailer indeed hasmonopoly power. Due to the significant regionality and the complementarity betweenvarious retailing formats, we must take the regional market and retailing format thesetwo factors into account for measuring the degree of concentration of the retail market.Using the 1998-2004 data of major supermarkets in Shanghai, we empirically testedthe market concentration of the supermarket in Shanghai. The results showed that theretail industry in China was presenting a kind of regional oligopoly trend. Under thispremise, we on the base of industrial chain established a relatively completeframework of the "SCP-R (vertical market structure, vertical control conduct, marketperformance of the industrial chain, and regulation policy). Then from the perspectiveof monopoly retailers, we elaborated the various elements of the analytical framework,thus laying the foundation for this Full thesis.
     In accordance with the common vertical restraint strategies, this paper analyzedthe slotting fee, the exclusive dealing and the private brand in turn. We constructeddifferent games from existing models. Through comparing all equilibrium resultsunder different vertical market structures and environments, we found out the keyfactor affecting the market performance; then analyzed and evaluated their privateperformances and social welfare. Finally, the corresponding competition policies wereproposed. In detail, the chapter about slotting fee analyzed three kinds of verticalmarket structures and showed that under the bilateral monopoly context the charge ofslotting fee would enhance the social welfare; with competitive upstream andmonopoly downstream, the slotting fee were neutral for social welfare; withmonopsony power in the buyer side and without monopoly power in the seller side,the magnitude of social welfare would also depend on the attribute of the demandfunction. About exclusive dealing, we compared it with the common agency provingthat with differential products the exclusive dealing would result in vertical marketforeclosure. And with the increase of the level of substitution between two products,the loss of social welfare from ED would be reduced. The analysis of private brandwas based on the reality of lower qualities of retailers' private brands in present China.We took the product quality as a viable reviewing two kinds of market structures of"one-to-one" and "two-to-one", then got following conclusions that the social welfarefrom private brand was not only affected by the vertical market structures, but alsowas closely related to the quality of products of private brand and manufacture brand.
     As the research about the retailers' vertical control strategies was based onweaker producers, when the manufacturers had strong monopoly power, theenhancement of retailers' monopoly power would become the countervailing poweragainst producers. Since the concept of "countervailing power" was invented byGalbraith, the discussion about it has not been stopped with a clear coherence.Through analyzing three situations including bilateral monopoly, retailers with fringecompetitors and symmetric competitors, this thesis drew an important conclusion thatthe social welfare from retailers' countervailing power would depend on the verticalmarket structures (including the level of substitution between alternative retailers).
     On the basis of theoretical analysis, at last this paper from the level of the retailindustry discussed the competition policies in China. Because of relatively fewinternational theoretical researches as well as the uncertainty of research findings,adding some special issues in China's retail industry, all these factors led to theWestern theories less useful for competition policies in China's retail industry. Atpresent, China's anti-trust law has not yet made a formal appearance, so the domestictheoretical researches in this area are rarer. Therefore this paper combining somespecial circumstances at home systematically studied this topic. To a certain extent, itmade up for the gap between the theory and the reality and provided reasonablerecommendations and guidance for the formulation of competition policies in retailindustry in China.
引文
1 这里的集中度是CR_(10),即前10家零售商销售某类产品占该类产品总销售量的百分比。
    2 来源:我国连锁经营协会网站www.ccfa.org.cn
    3 这里需要区别“垄断势力(Monopoly Power)”和“谈判能力(Bargaining Power)”两个概念。“垄断势力”是企业能够主导市场的显著的市场势力,垄断势力使得主导企业可以操纵价格或产量获取显著的超额利润,或者可以发起合谋或采取排他性行为(Posner,2001)。而“谈判能力”则体现了缔约双方相对的长期机会成本的差异。例如,如果零售商A不再买生产商B的产品,则会导致A的利润减少0.1%,而B的利润减少10%,此时零售商A相对于生产商B具有更强的谈判势力(OECD秘书处)。在一般情况下,企业的“垄断势力”越强,则“谈判能力”也越强,但两个概念所强调的侧重点不同,有时候两者并不一致。
    4 见汪浩:《零售商市场力量与通道费》,.
    5 来源:我国经济信息网www.cei.gov.cn.
    6 Martin(2002)中译本“译者序”第26页。
    7 “业态”一词源自日本,于20世纪90年代中期传入中国,其本意是指商为事零售企业的经营方式。
    8 这里主要参考:流通创新理论与对策研究课题组.业态变迁学说及其促进找国流通创新的政策建议.财贸经济,2003,1.
    1 这里主要参考[美]刘易斯·卡布罗:《产业组纵导论》,人民邮电出版社,2002年2月。
    2 之后,加尔布雷斯发表的论文(Galbraith,1954),对其书中“抗衡力量”的概念进行了进一步的解释。
    3 对于“Countervailing Power”,国内尚没有统一的译法。“Countervailing”的词典释义为“对抗、抵消”,我们这里将“Countervailing Power”暂译为“抗衡力量”。
    4 联邦贸易委员会(The Federal Trade Commission)发现,杂货连锁店和药品零售店的销售低价最多分别有1/15和1/10的原因是来自更低的进价。
    5 双边寡头垄断模型是指上下游都是双寡头垄断市场,即市场中分别有两家寡头垄断企业。
    6 Rey和Verge(2002)指出,如果上下游有一方是垄断的(一个生产商通过差异化的零售商销售产品或者是差异化的生产商通过一个共同的零售商销售产品),则两部收费能够使零售价格等于垄断价格水平。
    1 参考市场报,2003年5月12日。
    2 参考2005年全球市场展望,www.3edu.net
    3 参见:姚琼.也谈我国零售业的发展趋势.商业时代2005,18。
    4 这里,主要是零售商参与自有品牌的研发。
    5 这里主要参考:中国人民大学产业发展与流通改革研究中心.论产业链核心移动中形成的零售业买方优势.商贸经济2003,11.
    6 王飞锋、李晓锦.零售商在供应链中地位的演化.商业经济文荟.2004,6.
    7 金永生(2002)曾利用我国最大百货店的销售额和社会商品零售总额计算我国流通产业集 中度,结论是我国流通产业集中度极为分散。
    8 王俊豪(2000)根据市场竞争度和进入壁垒与市场集中的“函数”关系,表明我国流通产业的市场竞争度较高,已处于过度竞争状态。
    9 这里主要参考陈阿兴,陈捷,我国零售产业集中度的的实证研究.产业经济研究,2004(6).
    10 由于我们利用的是主要超市的数据而非全部,因此计算结果也会出现一些偏差。
    11 根据李颖灏,彭星闾(2006)的计算,2005年我国零售业的市场集中度CR_4仅为3.41%。
    12 根据陈阿兴,陈捷(2004)的计算,2003年我国连锁超市业的市场集中度CR_4为39.40%。
    13 在简略表述中,将“R”与“SCP”用“-”分开,是因为“R”是一个新纳入的分析要素,且规制政策一般是规范分析。
    14 见Scherer, F. M., 2004. Vertical Relations in Antitrust: Some Intellectual History. Antitrust Bulletin, Vol. 49 Issue 4, 第841页。
    15 如Rey and Verge(2003)就分别考虑了企业进行Cournot竞争和Bertrand竞争时的不同均衡结果和福利效应。
    16 OECD秘书处对买方垄断势力的定义更确切,因为它强调缔约双方潜在的谈判势力的差异,即对缔约双方来说相对的长期机会成本不同。例如,零售商A相对于生产商B具有买方垄断势力,则如果零售商A不再买生产商B的产品,则会导致A的利润较少0.1%,而B的利润减少10%。
    17 零售商联合起来也可以说是零售商之间的共谋。
    18 关于零售商抗衡力量的讨论详见本文第7章。
    19 双重加价问题是由Spengler(1950)提出的。
    20 这里的分析主要参考Dobson et al(2000)。
    21 见常欣.放松管制与规制重建——我国基础部门引入竞争后的政府行为分析.经济理论与经济管理.2001,11.
    1 参见:新闻周刊,2003年9月29日,总150期。
    2 参见:21世纪经济报道,2006年11月2日。
    3 参见:新快报,2004年3月25日。
    4 参见:新华网,2003年1月9日。
    5 汪浩(2006)指出,通道费既有一次性支付的部分,也有与销售量相关的部分。但是国外大多数文献都假设通道费是一次性支付的。为简化起见,我们只考虑一次性支付的通道费。
    6 参见:华商网.品牌炒货“封杀”家乐福内幕,2003年6月20日。
    7 参见:曹独山.法国家乐福体系搅晕中国国内供货商.商贸经济,2003,11.
    8 参见:经济周刊,2006年11月20日。
    1 虽然超市往往销售多种产品,但就单一产品来说其生产商也多于一家,如奶制品生产商有光明、蒙牛、伊利等等。
    2 类似地,两个政府机构对同一个企业的规制、一个跨国公司的母国与东道国为对其税收进行的竞争等情况也都可以运用共同代理框架不分析。
    3 参见:每日经济新闻,2006年2月22日。
    4 这一节的回顾主要参考了于立宏,管锡展(2005)第54-63页:郁义鸿,管锡展(2006)第195-229页。
    5 授权型共同代理,指几个委托人自愿的(也许是独立的)将某种决策权授予一个代理人。这种情况常见于批发零售业、旅行社、金融保险业、房地产业中。内生型共同代理,是指一个代理人自然地被授予某种足以影响委托人收益的决策权,如政府计划者、矩阵形组织领导者等。
    6 这一节的理论回顾主要参考了徐杨,管锡展(2006)第28-33页;洪夙,郁义鸿(2005)第50-56页。
    7 所谓市场圈定是指这样一种反竞争情形,“(1)一个企业主导了一个市场(即瓶颈产品市 场),(2)该企业试图应用在瓶颈产品市场中的垄断势力在另一个关联市场中限制产出水平来(但不必然)阻止对手的进入或鼓励退出”(Rey和Tirole,2005,p.8)。
    8 这里一个极端和另一个极端分别指早期对独家交易的完全禁止和后来芝加哥学派对独家交易的完全肯定。
    9 这篇文章1992年即成稿。
    10 Bernheim和Whinston(1998)认为,独家交易可以作为一种机制,使得在位生产商能够从另一个零售市场上攫取额外的租金,他们把这种结果称为序贯市场效应(Noncoincident Market Effect)。
    11 这里,差异性主要体现在产品的不同品牌上。
    12 这里,仅考虑零售商向生产商实施的独家交易策略,相当于Chang(1992)中提出的向上(Upward)的独家交易。
    13 每家生产商销售给下游两家零售商产品的批发价格一定要相等,否则面对的批发价格较高的零售商将不再购买生产商的产品。
    14 下游两家零售商销售同一种产品的零售价格一定要相等,否则消费者不会到制定高价格的零售商处购买产品。
    15 这里没有考虑θ=0或1的极端情况。
    16 由于在No ED—No ED和ED—ED两种情形下,U_1与U_2的利润相同,因此他们的变化也相同。
    17 参见:何斌.家电业:大佬反击战.中国企业家.www.cnfol.com,2006年12月30日。
    18 参见:国美永乐强化渠道霸权,生产商唯有并购反抗,和讯网,2006年8月14日。
    19 参见竺效(2002)第37-39页。
    20 参见:国美苏宁空调“特价+服务”,重庆青年报,2007年3月23日。
    21 参见同20。
    1 彼得J.麦戈德瑞克,裴亮等译.零售营销.第二版.北京:机械工业出版社.2004
    2 高质量的商品会有高价格,因为如果低持商品更贵,就不会有人购买。
    3 因为NB需要做广告,消费者要为NB的每单位质量支付一个额外的广告费用。而且,如果SB的单位质量价格更高,则消费者总是愿意购买NB,因为(θs_n-P_n)≥(θs_s、-P_s),对SB的需求降为0。
    4 边际净利润是将边际毛利润减去零售商的边际销售成本。
    5 自有品牌的零售价格为S_s/2(1-α),这一价格与厂商品牌的质量水平无关,是零售商制定的完全垄断的价格。
    6 由于此时弱势厂商品牌的质量水平较高,自有品牌把质量较高的品牌产品驱逐出市场,引起一种无效的排他,因此是反竞争的。
    7 王勇.自有品牌的历史:侵扰制造商的梦魇.商界导刊,2003年11月,8页.
    8 参见张建香,张树军(2006)。
    9 参见:自有品牌价低质量不能低,中国质量报,2006年8月17日。
    10 事实上,无论从国外还是国内来看,现有研究自有品牌的文献大多集中于论述零售企业应该如何开发自有品牌,开发什么类别的自有品牌等方面,很少有文章从社会福利的角度出发,去论述政府在零售商自有品牌开发中应该扮演什么角色。
    1 对于“Countervailing Power”,国内尚没有统一的译法。“Countervailing”的词典释义为“对抗、抵消”,我们这里将“Countervailing Power”暂译为“抗衡力量”。
    2 事实上,英国的垄断与兼并委员会(MMC,1981)和公平贸易办公室(OFT,1985)都认为:大型零售商从生产商处获得更低的进价,从而传递给消费者,对他们有利。
    3 之后,加尔布雷斯发表的论文(Galbraith,1954),对其书中“抗衡力量”的概念进行了进一步的解释。
    4 这里,边缘零售商可以假设为n家,由于边缘零售商不能串谋,因此将他们看做一个整体并不影响模型的结果。
    5 见Chen Zhiqi. 2003. Dominant Retailers and the Countervailing Power Hypothesis. Rand Journal of Economic 34: 612-625.
    6 该模型基于Dobson Paul W., Michael Waterson. Countervailing Power and Consurner Prices. The Economic Journal. 1997. Vol 107(44): 418-430中的寡头垄断模型。
    7 注意到S是垄断生产商这一重要假设,意味着零售商R_i拒绝交易的收益为0。
    8 参见Paul W.Dobson and Michael Waterson(1997),“Countervailing Power and Consumer Prices.”The Economic Journal,Vol.107,No.441,P423原文注释:在Davidson(1988)的说明一样,这一函数表示,当一系列特定的子博弈结果取得时,(N+1)个参与者的非合作博弈的结果。在此,每个子博弈中S和Rj的策略是确定的,因为这里假定他们已经决定了转移价格W_j~*。
    9 这个结果与Bresnahan and Reiss(1991)经验研究的结论一致。
    10 参见:汪旭晖.外资零售企业进入中国市场的现状分忻.商业经济文荟,2005,6.
    11 参见:连锁百强榜单出炉,国美排名第一,成都商报,2007年3月27日。
    12 参见:宝洁VS沃尔玛,环球企业家。
    1 这里主要参考了傅军,张颖.反垄断与竞争政策:经济理论、国际经验及对中国的启示.北京大学出版社,北京:2004、
    2 Arrow Kenneth J. Uncertainty and Welfare Economics of Medical Care. American Economic Review. 1963(52). pp. 941-973: Gerard Debreu. The Theory of Value. New York: Viler. 1959.
    3 Hoekman and Holems,1999;英联邦秘书处:《世界贸易体系商务指南》(第二版),上海财经大学出版社2001年版,第415页。
    4 参见Lynne Pepall, Daniel J. Richard and George Norman, Industrial Organization: Contemporary Theory and Practice, South-Western, 2002, p32.
    5 该法经过1976年和1996年两次修订,最终被1998年的《竞争法》(Competition Act)所取代,并且1998年的《竞争法》中关于卡特尔和其它限制性协议已经被纳入欧盟的法律框架中。见曼弗里德,诺伊曼(2003)。
    6 D. Edwards Corwin, Control of Cartel and Monopolies: An International Comparison, Oceana Publications, 1967.
    7 这里主要参考:周伟.产业政策和竞争政策的联系与冲突.企业家天地,2006,9。
    8 参见:周婉宜.论竞争政策与产业政策的冲突和协调.产业与科技论坛,2006,6。
    9 见马歇尔·C·霍华德.美国反托拉斯法与贸易法规.北京:中国社会科学出版社,1991,第18、19页。
    10 参见同9。
    11 参见同1。
    12 这是第一个提交美国最高法院的固定价格案例。
    13 这里主要参考:陈阿兴.我国零售产业组织结构优化与政策.北京:中国商务出版社,2004,208—209页;朱桦.从《大店法》到《立地法》——日本零售大店政策的沿革.上海商业,2000,11。
    14 日本政府于1947年颁布反垄断法后一度废除了《百货店法》,但迫于中小零售商的压力1956年重新启用《百货店法》。
    15 《商店营业时间法》规定,除火车站、机场、加油站等场所的商店外,其余商场只能在法定时间营业。
    16 《折扣法》规定只有某些情况下零售业者可给予顾客折扣:现金付款时最多可获得3%的折扣,一次性采购金额高时可给予一定的数量折扣以及公司员工折扣。
    17 《赠奖规则》是对商家用奖品促销的行为进行规制,明确禁止了以排挤竞争对手为目标的以奖促销活动。
    18 这里主要参考了胡祖光,伍争荣,孔庆江.中国零售业竞争与发展的制度设计——加入WTO后的新视角.北京:经济管理出版社,2006年6月。
    19 参考吴宏伟.我国反垄断法与产业政策、竞争政策目标.法学杂杂,2005,2。
    20 参考尚珂,赵兵.我国零售领域法律体系研究.中国流通经济,2005,8。
    21 参考王德章,张斌.中国零售市场竞争现状与发展趋势.当代财经,2005,10。
    22 参考梁毅刚,王辉.国外政府规制对我国零售业管理的启示.中国流通经济,2006,1。
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