柔性的价值及其对企业决策的影响
|
摘要
本文通过文献回顾抽出了柔性的本质属性，即范围属性和速度属性。基于柔性的这两个属性，本文给出了柔性的数学定义，建立了柔性决策模型，分析了范围柔性、反应柔性的价值，研究了决策选择对观察到的信息的比较静态特征。进一步，将这些一般决策理论意义上的柔性、信息、价值与决策行为之间的关系应用企业这一组织形式，研究了在不确定条件下，各种柔性对企业决策的影响。具体来讲，本文获得如下主要的创新性结论。
(1)在第二章中，本文从理论上证明了“决策选项的价值随着决策柔性水平的提高而增加”这一基本结论。进一步，从理论上分析了决策柔性水平选择与观察到的外生环境信息之间的关系，即决策选择对观察到的信息的比较静态特征。该比较静态结果表明，在一定的技术假定下，决策者利益(例如，通常的收益)函数的上模性(决策变量与外生状态之间的互补特性)对应于二者之间的同向变化，而决策者利益函数的子模性(决策选择与外生状态之间的替代特性)对应于二者之间的反向变化。
(2)本文将一般柔性决策模型和相应的结论应用到典型的企业决策上，获得了如下结果。
1)以企业技术和生产组织为背景，第三章证明了，柔性水平较高的技术具有较高的价值，柔性水平较高的生产组织系统具有较高的价值。这意味着，其他条件不变，企业价值不仅依赖于“硬”技术(拥有何种资产)，而且依赖于“软”的生产组织系统(如何使用技术(资产))。进一步，根据生产决策的值函数，证明了最优企业技术柔性水平选择的唯一性。
2)在企业价格决策的背景下，第四章考察了垄断企业价格调整柔性对价格调整行为的影响和消费者消费柔性对两部定价菜单的制定的影响。结果表明，在一定的假设条件下，这两种决策柔性都会使得经典的价格决策规则发生扭曲。从企业价值的角度看，其他条件不变，调价柔性使得企业价值增加，而消费者的消费柔性对企业价值的影响方向仍不清楚。
3)在企业市场进入决策的背景下，第五章考察了两个典型的市场情况下的市场进入决策柔性对企业市场进入决策的影响。在事后古诺(数量)竞争的市场条件下，本文证明，其他条件不变，市场的网络外部性具有促进市场进入的功
Through the review of literature on flexibility, this paper abstracts the essential properties of flexibility, i.e. range and speed. Base on this, this paper generally provides the mathematical definition of flexibility, builds a model of flexible decision-making, analyzes the values of range and response flexibilities, and develops the comparative statics of optimal decisions with respect to information observed. Furthermore, we apply the general results on the relationships among flexibilities, information, values and the decision-making behavior to the context of the firm, and examine the impact of various flexibilities on firm's decision making. More concretely, we get the following main innovative conclusions.
(1) In Chpter 2, this paper theoretically proves a basic proposion that the value of a decision alternative increases as its flexibility increases. Furthermore, we analyze the relationship between optimal decisions and the observed information, i.e. the comparative statics of optimal decisions with respect to information observed. The results show that under certain technical assumptions, the supermodularity of decision-maker's benefit (e.g. revenue) function, which represents the complemantarity between decision alternatives and exogenous states, implies that the changes of optimal decisions and the observed exogenous states are in the same direction. In contrast, the sumodularity of decision-maker's benefit function, which represents the substitution property between decision alternatives and exogenous states, implies that the changes of optimal decisions and the observed exogenous states are in the opposite directions.
(2) We apply the general flexible decision-making model and the results derived from it to firm's typical decision-making contexts and draw the following conclusions.
1) In the context of firm's technology and production organizing, Chapter 3 proves that a technology with higher level of flexibility values more than one with lower level of flexibility and a more flexibible production-organizing system has a higher value than a less flexible one. This means that, other things constant, firm's value depends not only on its "hard" technology (about the question of what assets a firm has), but also on its "soft" production-organizing system (about the question of how to utlize its assets).
(1)在第二章中，本文从理论上证明了“决策选项的价值随着决策柔性水平的提高而增加”这一基本结论。进一步，从理论上分析了决策柔性水平选择与观察到的外生环境信息之间的关系，即决策选择对观察到的信息的比较静态特征。该比较静态结果表明，在一定的技术假定下，决策者利益(例如，通常的收益)函数的上模性(决策变量与外生状态之间的互补特性)对应于二者之间的同向变化，而决策者利益函数的子模性(决策选择与外生状态之间的替代特性)对应于二者之间的反向变化。
(2)本文将一般柔性决策模型和相应的结论应用到典型的企业决策上，获得了如下结果。
1)以企业技术和生产组织为背景，第三章证明了，柔性水平较高的技术具有较高的价值，柔性水平较高的生产组织系统具有较高的价值。这意味着，其他条件不变，企业价值不仅依赖于“硬”技术(拥有何种资产)，而且依赖于“软”的生产组织系统(如何使用技术(资产))。进一步，根据生产决策的值函数，证明了最优企业技术柔性水平选择的唯一性。
2)在企业价格决策的背景下，第四章考察了垄断企业价格调整柔性对价格调整行为的影响和消费者消费柔性对两部定价菜单的制定的影响。结果表明，在一定的假设条件下，这两种决策柔性都会使得经典的价格决策规则发生扭曲。从企业价值的角度看，其他条件不变，调价柔性使得企业价值增加，而消费者的消费柔性对企业价值的影响方向仍不清楚。
3)在企业市场进入决策的背景下，第五章考察了两个典型的市场情况下的市场进入决策柔性对企业市场进入决策的影响。在事后古诺(数量)竞争的市场条件下，本文证明，其他条件不变，市场的网络外部性具有促进市场进入的功
Through the review of literature on flexibility, this paper abstracts the essential properties of flexibility, i.e. range and speed. Base on this, this paper generally provides the mathematical definition of flexibility, builds a model of flexible decision-making, analyzes the values of range and response flexibilities, and develops the comparative statics of optimal decisions with respect to information observed. Furthermore, we apply the general results on the relationships among flexibilities, information, values and the decision-making behavior to the context of the firm, and examine the impact of various flexibilities on firm's decision making. More concretely, we get the following main innovative conclusions.
(1) In Chpter 2, this paper theoretically proves a basic proposion that the value of a decision alternative increases as its flexibility increases. Furthermore, we analyze the relationship between optimal decisions and the observed information, i.e. the comparative statics of optimal decisions with respect to information observed. The results show that under certain technical assumptions, the supermodularity of decision-maker's benefit (e.g. revenue) function, which represents the complemantarity between decision alternatives and exogenous states, implies that the changes of optimal decisions and the observed exogenous states are in the same direction. In contrast, the sumodularity of decision-maker's benefit function, which represents the substitution property between decision alternatives and exogenous states, implies that the changes of optimal decisions and the observed exogenous states are in the opposite directions.
(2) We apply the general flexible decision-making model and the results derived from it to firm's typical decision-making contexts and draw the following conclusions.
1) In the context of firm's technology and production organizing, Chapter 3 proves that a technology with higher level of flexibility values more than one with lower level of flexibility and a more flexibible production-organizing system has a higher value than a less flexible one. This means that, other things constant, firm's value depends not only on its "hard" technology (about the question of what assets a firm has), but also on its "soft" production-organizing system (about the question of how to utlize its assets).
引文
[1] Knight, F. H. Risk, Uncertainty and Profit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1921
[2] Mathis, S. A. and Koscianski, J. Microeconomics: An Integrated Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002
[3] Laffont J-J. and Martimort, D. The Theory of Incentives: The Principal-Agent Model. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001
[4] Tirole, J. The Theory of Industrial Organization. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1988
[5] Myerson, M. B. Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1988
[6] Williamson, O. E. Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antitrust Implications. New York: The Free Press, 1975
[7] Williamson, O. E. The Econpmic Institutions of Capitalism. New York: The Free Press, 1981
[8] Williamson, O. E. Strategizing, economizing, and economic organization, Strategic Management Journal, 1991, 12(1): 75-94
[9] Sethi, A. K. and Sethi, S.P. Flexibility in manufacturing: A survey. International Journal of Flexible Manufacturing System, 1990, 2(4): 289-328
[10] Upton, D. M. The management of manufacturing flexibility. California management Review, 1994, 36(2): 72-89
[11] Gupta, D, and Buzacott J. A. A 'goodness test' for operational measures of manufacturing flexibility. International Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 1996, 8(3): 233-245
[12] Black, F. and Scholes, M. The pricing of option and corporate liabilities. Journal of Political Economy, 1973, 81(3): 637-654
[13] Merton R. C. Theory of rational option pricing. Bell Journal of Economic and Management Science, 1973,4(1): 141-183
[14] Hull, J. C. Options, Futures and Other Derivatives (4th edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall,2000
[15] Brennan, M. and Swartz, E. Evaluating natural resource investments. Journal of Business, 1985, 58(2):135-157
[16] McDonald, R. and Siegel, D. Investment and caluation of firms when there is an option to shut down. International Economic Review, 1985, 26(2): 331-349
[17] McDonald, R. and Siegel, D. The value of waiting to invest. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1986, 101(4): 707-728
[18] Timan, S. Urban land prices under uncertainty. American Economic Review, 1985, 75(3): 505-514
[19] Trigeargis, L. Real Option. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996
[20] Dixit, A. K. and Pindyck, R.S. Investment under Uncertainty. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994
[21] Rhys, H., Song, J. and Jindrchoska, I. The timing of real option exercise: Some recent developments. Engineering Economist, 2002, 47(4): 436-450
[22] De Toni, A. and Tonchia, S. Manufacturing flexibility: A literature review. International Journal of Production Research, 1998,36(6): 1587-1617
[23] Bengtsson, J. Manufacturing flexibility and real options: A review. International Journal of Production Economics, 2001, 74(1/3): 213-224
[24] Correa, H. L. Linking Flexibility, Uncertainty and Variability in Manufacturing System. London: Avbury, 1994
[25] Mandelbaum, M. Flexibility in Decision Making: An Exposition and Unification. PhD thesis, Departament of Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada, 1978
[26] Slack, N. Flexibility as a manufacturing objective. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1983, 3(3): 4-13
[27] Slack, N. The flexibility of manufacturing system. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1987, 7(4): 35-45
[28] 潘景铭。需求不确定条件下的供应链生产柔性决策研究［博士论文］,电子科技大学, 2005
[29] Voudouris, V. T. Mathematical programming techniques to debottleneck the supply chain of fine chemical industries. Computers and Chemical Engineering, 1996, 20(supplement issue):1269-1274
[30] Sabri, E. H. and Beamon, B. M. A multi-objective approach to simultaneous strategic and operational planning in supply chain design. Omega, 2000, 28(5): 581-598
[31] Beamon, B. M. Measuring supply chain performance. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1999,19(3): 275-292
[32] Prater, E., Biehl, M. and Smith, M. A. International supply chain agility: Tradeoffs between flexibility and uncertainty. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 2001,21 (5/6): 823-839
[33] 柏顺,宋国防,陈顺正,运用VMI 有效提升供应链柔性.工业工程, 2004, 7(4): 26-28, 32
[34] Aaker, D. A. and Mascarenhas, B. The need for strategic flexibility. Journal of Business Strategy, 1984, 5(2): 74-82
[35] Newman, W. R., Hanna, M. and Maffei, M. J. Dealing with the uncertainties of manufacturing: Flexibility, buffers and intergration. International Journal of Operations and Production Management 1993, 13(1): 19-34
[36] De Meyer, A., Nahane, J., Miller, J. and Ferdows, K. Flexibility: The next competive battale. Stategic Management Journal, 1989, 10(2): 135-144
[37] Nakane, J. and Hall, R. W. Holonic manufacturing: Flexibility-the competitive battle in the 1990s. Production Planing and Control, 1991, 2(1): 2-13
[38] Gonhaug, K. and Dreyer, B. Uncertainty, flexibility, and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Business Research, 2004, 57(5): 484-494
[39] Evans, J. S. Strategic flexibility for high technology manoeuvres: A conceptual framework. Journal of Management study, 1991, 28(1): 69-89
[40] Hayes, R. H. and Pisano, G. P. Beyond world-class: The new manufacturing strategy. Harvard Business Review, 1994, 72(1/2): 77-86
[41] Clark, K. B. Competing through manufacturing and the new manufacturing paradigm: Is manufacturing strategy passe. Production and Operations management, 1996, 5(1): 42-58
[42] Stalk, G. Evans, P. and Shulman, L. E. Competing on capacity: The new rules of corporate strategy. Harvard Business Review, 1992, 70(2):57-69
[43] Shimizu, K. and Hitt, M. A. Strategic flexibility: Organizational preparedness to reverse ineffective strategic decisions. Academy of Management Ececutive, 2004,18(4): 44-59
[44] Leeuw, A. D. and Volberba, P. T. On the concept of flexibility: A dual control perspective. Omega, 1996,24(2): 121-139
[45] Sanchez, R. Strategic flexibility in production competition. Strategy Management Journal. 1995, 16(special issue): 135-159
[46] De Toni A. and Tonchia S. Definitions and linkages between operational and strategic flexibility. Omega, 2005, 33(5):525-540
[47] Stigler, G. J. Production and distribution in the short run. Journal of Political Economy, 1939, 47(3): 305-327
[48] Marschak, T. and Melson, R. R. Flexibility, Uncertainty, and the econimc theory. Metroeconomica, 1962, 14(1): 42-58
[49] Klein, B. H. Wages and Business Circles: A Dynamic Theory. New York: Pergamon, 1984
[50] Carlsson, B. Flexibility and the theory of the firm. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 1989, 7(2): 179-203
[51] Benjaafar, S., Morin, T. L. and Talavage, J. J. The strategic value of flexibility in sequectial decision making, European Journl of Operational Research, 1995, 82(3): 438-457
[52] Jones, R. A. and Ostroy, J. M. Flexibility and uncertainty. Review of Economic Studies, 1984, 51(164): 13-32
[53] Schmutzler, A. Flexibility and Adjustment to Information in Sequential Decision Problems: A Systematic Approach. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991
[54] Rosenhead, J., Elton, M. and Gupta, S. K. Robustness and optimality as criteria for strategic decision. Operational Research Quarterly, 1972, 23(4): 413-431
[55] Pye, R. A formal, decision-theoretic approach to flexibility and robustness. Journal of Operational Research Society, 1978, 29(3): 215-227
[56] Pindyck, R. S. Irreversibility, Uncertainty, and Investment. Journal of Economic Literature, 1991, 29(3): 1110-1148
[57] Lambrecht, B. and Perraudin, W. Real options and Pre-emption under incomplete information, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 2003, 27(4): 619-643
[58] 夏晖，曾勇，唐小我．竞争环境下技术创新投资战略的实物期权方法综述．管理科学学报，7(1)：
[59] 夏晖．基于实物期权的技术创新扩散、竞争和交互模型研究[博士论文]，电子科技大学，2005
[60] Weeds, H. Strategic delay in a real options model of R&D competition. Review of Economic Studies, 2002, 69(3): 729-747
[61] Spencer, B. J. and Brander, J. A. Pre-commitment and flexibility: Applications to oligopoly theory. European Economic Review, 1992, 36(8): 1601-1626
[62] Grenadier, S. R. The strategic exercise of options: Development cascades and overbuilding in real estate markets. Journal of Finance, 1996, 51 (5): 1653-1679
[63] Grenadier, S. R. Information revelation through option exercise. Review of Financial Studies, 1999, 12(1): 95-129
[64] Mauer, D. and Triantis, A. J. Interactions of corporate financing and investment decisions: A dynamic framework. Journal of Finance, 1994, 49(4): 1253-1277
[65] Abel, A. B. and Eberly, J. A unified model of investment under uncertainty. American Economic Review, 1994,85(5): 1369-1384
[66] Abel, A. B. Optimal investment under uncertainty. American Economic Review, 1983, 73(1):228-233
[67] Abel, A. B. Comsumption and investment. In Handbook of Monetary Economics (Eds. Friedman, B. and Hahn, F.), New York: North-Holland, 1990
[68] Tobin, J. A general approach to monetary theory. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 1969, 1(1): 15-29
[69] Abel, A. B. and Eberly, J. The effects of irreversibility and uncertainty on capital accumulation. Journal of Monetary Economics, 1999, 44(3): 339-378
[70] Kogan, L. An equilibrium model of irreversible investment. Journal of Finacial Economics, 2001, 62(2): 201-245
[71] Cochrane, J. and Saa-Requejo, J. Beyond arbitrage: Good-ideal asset price bounds in incomplete market, Journal Political Economy, 2000, 108(1): 79-119
[72] Bernado, A. E. and Ledoit, O. Gain, loss and asset Pricing. Journal Political Economy, 2000, 108(1): 144-172
[73] Carr, P., Geman, H. and Madan, D. Pricing and hedging in incomplete markets. Journal of Financial Economics, 2001, 62(1): 131-167
[74] Bernado, A. E. and Chowdhry, B. Resources, real options and corporate strategy. Journal of Financial Economics, 2002, 63(2): 211-234
[75] Quigg, L. Empirical testing of real-option pricing models. Journal of Finance, 1993,48(2): 621-640
[76] Bertola, G. and Caballero, R. J. Irreversibility and aggregate investment. Review of Economic Studies, 1994, 61(2): 223-246
[77] Leahy, J. and Whited, T. The effects of uncertainty on investment: Some stylized facts. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 1996, 28(1): 64-83
[78] Caballero, R. and Pindyck, R. S. Uncertainty, investment and industry evolution. International Economic Review, 1996, 37(3): 641-662
[79] Harchaoui, T. M. and Lasserre, P. Testing the option value theory of irreversible investment. International Economic Review, 2001, 42(1): 141-166
[80] Moel, A. and Tufano, P. When real options exercised? An empirical study of mine closings, Review of Financial Stadies, 2002, 15(1): 35-64
[81] Yavas, A. and Simians, C. F. Real options: Experimental evidence. Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 2005, 31(1): 27-52
[82] Baldwin, C. Y. How capital budgeting deters innovation and what to do about it. Research Technology Management, 1991, 34(6):39-45
[83] Bowman, E. H. and Hurry, D. Strategy through the option lens: an integrated view of resource investment and incremental choice process. Academy of Management Review, 1993, 18(4):760-782
[84] Carr, N. G. Unreal options. Harvard Business Review, 2002, 82(12): 22
[85] Koght, B. and Kulatilaka, N. Capacities as real options. Organization Science, 2001, 12(6):744-759
[86] Koght, B. and Kulatilaka, N. Real options pricing and organizations: The contingent risks of extended theoretical domains. Academy of Management Review, 2004, 29(1): 102-110
[87] Burger-Helmchen, T. How do real options come into existence? A step toward an option-based theory of the firm. Working Paper (No. 0409054), University Louis Pasteur (France), 2004
[88] Kaighobadi, M. and Venkatesh, K. Flexible manufacturing system: an overview. Iternational Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1994, 14(4): 26-49
[89] Mascarenhas, B. Planning for flexibility. Long Range Planning, 1981, 14(5): 78-82
[90] Buzacott, J. A. The fundamental principles of flexibility in manufacturing systems. Proceedings of the 1st International Coference on Flexible Manufacturing Systems, Brighton, England, 1982:13-22
[91] Easton, G. and Rothschild, R. The influence of product and production flexibility on market strategy. In The Management of Strategic Change (Eds. A. M. Pettigrew), Oxford: Blackwell,1987
[92] Palaniswami, S. Measuring and managing flexibility: A strategic weapon for manufacturing firms. Proceedings of the 8th International Wording Seminar on Production Economics, Innsbruck, 1994,3:479-489
[93] Carlsson, B. Management of manufacturing flexibility: An international comparison. Omega, 1992, 20(l):11-22
[94] Upton, D. M. What really makes factories flexible? Harvard Business Review, 1995, 73(4): 74-84
[95] Jennings, D. F. and Seaman, S. L. High and low levels of organizational adaptation: An empirical analysis of strategy, structure and performance. Strategic Management Journal, 1994, 15(6): 459-475
[96] Gerwin, D. and Tarondeau, J.-C. International comparison of manufacturing flexibility. In Managing International manufacturing (Eds. K. Ferdows), Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1989
[97] Swamidass, P. M. and Newell, W. T. Manufacturing strategy, environmental uncertainty and performance: A path analytic model. Management Science, 1987, 33(4): 509-524
[98] Slack, N. and Correa, H. The flexibility of push and pull. Ineternational Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1992, 12(4): 82-92
[99] Gerwin, D. Manufacturing flexibility: A strategic perspective. Management Science, 1993, 39(4): 395-410
[100] Correa, H. and Gianesi, I. G. N. Service operations flexibility. Proceedings of the 1st EOMA Conderence, Oxford: Cambridge University Press, 1994: 385-390
[101] Brill, P. H. and Mandelbaum, M. On the measures of flexibility in manufacturing system. International Journal of Production Research, 1989, 27(5): 747-756
[102] Lau, R. S. M. Strategic flexibility: A new reality for world-class manufacturing. Advanced Management Journal, 1996,61(2): 11-15
[103] Fisher, M. L, Hammond, J. H, Obermeyer, W. R, and Raman, A. Making supply meet demand in an uncertain world. Harvard Business Review, 1994, 72(3): 83-93
[104] Cachon, G. P. and Larivieri, M. A. Capacity Choice and Allocation: Strategic Behavior and Supply Chain Performance. Management Science, 1999,45(8): 1091-1108
[105] Tsay, A. A. The quantity flexibility contract and supplier-customer incentives. Management Science, 1999,45(10): 1339-1358
[106] Tsay, A. A. and Lovejoy, W. S. Quantity flexibility contract and supply chain performance. Manufacturing and Service Operations Management, 1999, 1(2): 89-111
[107] Li, C. L. and Kouvelis, P. Flexible and risk-sharing supply contracts under price uncertainty. Management Science, 1999, 45(10): 1378-1398
[108] Bowersox, D. J., Stank, T. P. and Daugherty, P. J. Lean launch: Managing product introduction risk through response-based logistics. The Journal of Product Innovation Management, 1999, 16(6): 557-568
[109] Lee, H. L. The triple-A supply chain. Harvard Business Review, 2004, 82(10): 102-112
[110] Garavelli, A. C. Flexibility configurations for the supply chain management. International Journal of Production Economics, 2003, 85 (2): 141-153
[111] Aprile, D., Garavelli, A. C. and Giannoccaro, I. Operations planning and flexibility in a supply chain. Production Planning & Control, 2005, 16(1): 21-31
[112] Graves S C, Tomlin B T. Process Flexibility in Supply Chains. Management Science, 2003, 49(7): 907～919
[113] 张翠华，黄小原．具有柔性的供应链模型优化问题及其应用．东北大学学报(自然版)，2002a，23(4)：341-344
[114] 张翠华，黄小原．柔性供应链作业层模型及其优化．系统工程，2002b，20(2)：51-56
[115] 李院生，叶飞帆，方志梅，等．柔性供应链的优化及供应商响应时间分析[J]．工业工程管理，2005，(1)：89～93
[116][116] Ernst R, Kamrad B. Evaluation of supply chain structures through modularization and postponement [J]. European Journal of Operational Research, 2000, 124(3): 495～510
[117] 邓宁，江涛，张守凤．供应链柔性决策机制的建立．商业研究，2005，(315)：1-3，140
[118] Jordan, W. C. and Graves, S. C. Principles on the benefits of manufacturing process flexibility. Management Science, 1995, 41(4): 577-594
[119] Griffiths, J. and Margetts, D. Variation in production schedules: implications for both the company and its suppliers. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2000, 103(1): 155-159
[120] Aldin, N. and Stahre, F. Electronic commerce, marketing channels and logistics platforms: a wholesaler perspective. European Journal of Operational Research, 2003, 144(2): 270～279
[121] Milner, J. M. and Kouvelis, P. Order Quantity and Timing Flexibility in Supply Chains: The Role of Demand Characteristics. Management Science, 2005, 51 (6): 970～985
[122] Biller, S., Bish, E. K. and Muriel, A. Impact of manufacturing process flexibility on supply chain performance in the automotive industry. In Supply Chain Structures: Coordination, Information and Operation (Eds.Song, J.-S., Yao, D. D.), Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001:79-125
[123] Shin, H., Collier, D. A. and Wilson, D. D. Supply management orientation and supplier/buyer performance. Journal of Operations Management, 2000, 18(3): 317-333
[124] Bish, E. k., Muriel, A. and Biller, S. Managing flexible capacity in a make-to-order environment. Management Science, 2005, 51(2): 167-180
[125] Barca, M. Economic Foundations of Strategic Management. Burlington: Ashgate, 2003
[126] Porter, M. E. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Ananlysing Industries and Competitors. New York: The Free Press, 1980
[127] Porter, M. E. Competitive Advantage. New York: The Free Press, 1985
[128] Spulber, D. F. Economic analysis and management strategy: A survey. Journal of Economics and Management Strategy, 1993, 1(3): 535-574
[129] Bain, J. S. Industrial Organization (2nd Edition). New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968
[130] Stigler, G. J. Capital and Rates of Return in Manufacturing Industries. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1963
[131] Demsetz, H. Industry structure, market rivalry, and public policy, Journal of Law and Economics, 1973, 16(1): 1-9
[132] Coase, R. H. The nature of the firm, Economica, 1937, 4(16): 386-405
[133] Coase, R.H. The problem of social cost, Journal of Law and Economics, 1960,3(1): 1-44
[134] Williamson, O. E. Transaction-cost economics: The governance of contractual relations, Journal of Law and Economics, 1979, 22(2):233-261
[135] Jensen, M. C. and Meckling, W. H. Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure, Journal of Financial Economics, 1976, 3(4): 305-360
[136] Harrigan, K. R. Strategic Flexibility: A Management Guide for Changing Times. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1985
[137] Harrigan, K. R. Strategic flexibility in the old and new economies. In The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management (Eds. Hirt, M. A., Freeman, R. E. and Harrison, J. S.), Maiden: Blackell. 2001: 97-123
[138] Barney, J. B. and Arikan, A. M. The resource-base view: Origins and implications. In The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management (Eds. Hitt, M. A., Freeman, R. E. and Harrison, J. S.), Maiden: Blackell. 2001: 124-188
[139] Wernerfelt, B. A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 1984, 5(2): 171-180
[140] Rumelt, R. Toward a strategic theory of the firm. In Competitive Strategy Management (Eds. Lamb, R.), New Jewsey: Prentice Hall, 1984
[141] Barney, J. B. Strategic factor markets: expectations, luck and business strategy. Management Science, 1986,32(10): 1231-1241
[142] Barney, J. B. Firm resource and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 1991, 17(1): 99-120
[143] Liebeskind, J. P. Knowledge, strategy, and the theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 1996, 17(Winter Special Issue): 93-107
[144] Conner, K. R. and Prahalad, C. K. A resource-based theory of the firm: Knowledge vs opportunism. Organization Science, 1996, 7(5): 477-501
[145] Grant, R. M. Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 1996, 17(Winter Special Issue): 109-122
[146] Spender, J. G. Making knowledge the basis of a dynamic theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 1996,17(Winter Special Issue): 93-107
[147] Sanchez, R. and Mahoney, J. T. Modularity, flexibility and knowledge management in product and organization design. Strategic Management Journal, 1996, 17(Winter Special Issue): 63-76
[148] Sturgeon, T. J. Modular production networks: A new American model of industrial organization. Industrial and Corporate Change, 2002, 11(3): 451-496
[149] Lawarree, J. and Shin, D. Organizational flexibility and cooperative task allocation among agents. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 2005, 161(4): 621-635
[150] Sunder, S. Contract theory and strategic management: Expectations and actions. Working paper, Yale University, 2004
[151] Mills, D. E. Demand fluctuations and endogenous firm flexibility. Journal of Industrial Economics, 1984, 33(1): 55-71
[152] Mills, D. E. and Schumann, L. Industry structure with fluctuating demand. American Economic Review, 1985, 75(4): 758-767
[153] Das, B. J., Chappell, W. F. and Shughart II, W. F. Demand fluctuations and firm heterogeneity. Journal of Industrial Economics, 1993,41(1): 51-60
[154] Zimmermann, K. F. Flexibility in the face of demand fluctuations: Employment, capacity utilization, and industry structure, International Journal of Industrial Organization, 1995, 13(2): 179-193
[155] Hiebert, L. D. Cost flexibility and price dispersion. Journal of Industrial Economics, 1989, 38(1): 103-109
[156] von Ungern-Sternberg, T. The flexibility to switch between different products. Economica, 57(3): 355-369
[157] Weiss, C. S. On flexibility, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 2001, 46(3): 347-356
[158] Saloner, G. Cournot Duopoly with two production periods. Journal of Economic Theory, 1987, 42(1): 183-183
[159] Pal, D. Cournot Duopoly with two production periods and cost differentials. Journal of Economic Theory, 1991, 55(2): 441-448
[160] Hamilton, J. H. and Slutsky, S. M. Endogenous timing in duopoly games: Stackelberg or Cournot. Games and Economic Behavior, 1990, 2(1): 29-46
[161] Ellingsen, T. On flexibility in oligopoly. Economics Letters, 1995,48(1): 83-89
[162] Marschak, J. and Miyasawa, K. Economic comparability of information systems. International Economic Review, 1968, 9(2): 137-174
[163] Hennessey, D. A. and Babcock, B. A. Information, flexibility and value added. Information Economics and Policy, 1998, 10(4): 431-449
[164] Hausman, D. M. and McPherson, M. S. Economic Analysis and Moral Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996
[165] Sanchez, R. Uncertainty, flexibility, and economic organization: Foundations for an options theory of the firm. Working paper, University of Western Australia, 1998
[166] Stokey, N. L., Lucas, R. E. and Prescott, E. C. Recurssive Method in Economic Dynamics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989
[167] Jensen, M. K. Monotone dynamic programming. Working Paper, Brown University, 2003
[168] Amire, R. Sensitivity of multisector optimal economic dynamics. Journal of Mathematical Economics, 1996, 25(1): 123-141
[169] Topkis, D. M. Minimizing a submodular function on a lattice. Operations Research, 1978,26(3): 35-45
[170] Topkis, D. M. Supermodularity and Complementarity. New Jersey: Princeton University Press,1998
[171] Yeo, K.T. and Qiu, F. The value of management flexibility: A real option approach to investment evaluation. International Journal of Project Management, 2003, 21 (4): 243 - 250
[172] Pires, J. N. and Sa da Costa, J. M. G. Object-oriented and distributed approach for programming robotic manufacturing cells. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2000, 16(1): 29-42
[173] Mohamed, Z. M. A flexible approach to (re) configure Flexible Manufacturing Cells. European Journal of Operational Research, 1996, 95(3): 566-576
[174] Wang, L. Integrated design-to-control approach for holonic manufacturing systems. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2001, 17(1/2): 159-167
[175] Arnalte, S and Scala, R. M. An information system for computer-integrated manufacturing systems. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 1997, 13(3): 217-228
[176] Feurstein, M. and Matte, r M. Fast high precision decision rules for valuing manufacturing flexibility. European Journal of Operational Research, 2000, 120(1): 108-117
[177] de la Fuente, A. Mathematical Methods and Models for Economists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000
[178] 唐小我，傅崇伦．价格歧视的有效性研究．电子科技大学学报，1996，25(2)：200-205
[179] 唐小我．二度价格歧视情形下的垄断企业收益最大化条件．电子科技大学学报，1997，26(2)：194-198
[180] 唐小我．三度价格歧视数量分析．管理工程学报，1999，13(1)：37-41
[181] Maskin, E. and Riley, J. Monopoly pricing with incomplete information. Rand Journal of Economics, 1984(15): 171-196
[182] Laffant, J. J., Maskin, E. and Rochet, J-C. Optimal nonlinear pricing with two-dimensional characteristics. In Information, Incentive, and Economic Mechanism (Eds. R. Radner, L. Hurwitz, T. Groves and S. Reiter), Rochester: University of Minnesota Press, 1987:256-266
[183] Rochet, J-C and Stole, L A. Nonlinear pricing with random participation. Review of Economic Studies, 2002, 69(1): 277-311
[184] Oi, W. Y. A disneyland dilemma: two-part tariffs for a michey mouse monopoly. Quarterly Journal of Economies, 1971, 85(1): 77-90
[185] Armstrong, M. Price discrimination by a many-product firm. Review of economics Studies, 1999, 66(1), 151-168
[186] Cassou, S. P. and Hause J. C. Uniform two-part tariffs and below marginal cost prices: Disneyland revisited. Economic Inquiry, 1999, 37(1), 74-85
[187] Edlin, A. S., Epelbaum, M. and Heller, W. P. Is perfect discrimination really efficient? Welfare and existence in general equilibrium. Econometrica, 1998, 66(4), 897-922
[188] De Borger, B. Optimal two-part tariffs in a model of discrete choice. Journal of pubic Economics, 2000, 76(1): 127-150
[189] Yoskwitz, D. W. Price dispersion and price discrimination: Empirical evidence from a spot market for water. Review of Industrial Organization, 2002, 20(3): 283-289
[190] Levine, M. E. Price discrimination without market power. Yale Journal on Regulation, 2002, 19(1): 1-35
[191] Armstrong, M. Competitive price discrimination. Rand Journal of Economics, 2001, 32(4): 579-605
[192] Gasbrielse, T. S. and Sorgard, L. The pro-competitive effect of two-part tariffs. International Journal of the Economics of Business, 1998, 5(1): 47-55
[193] Varian, H. R. Miroeconomic Analysis. London: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1992
[194] Economides, N. Network externalities, complementarities, and invitations to enter. European Journal of Political Economy, 1996, 12(2): 211-233
[195] Coase, R. H. Durability and monopoly. Journal of Law and Economics, 1972, 15(1): 143-149
[196] Mason, R. Network externalities and the Coase conjecture. European Economic Review, 2000, 44(1): 1981-1992
[197] Bensaid, B. and Lesne, J-P. Dynamic monopoly pricing with network externality. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 1996, 14(6): 837-855
[198] Baake, P. and Boom, A., Vertical product differentiation, network externalities, and compatibility decisions. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 2001, 19(1/2): 267-284
[199] Foros, Φ. and Hansend B., Competition and compatibility among Internet service providers. Information Economics and Policy, 2001, 13(4): 411-425
[200] 潘晓军，陈宏民．基于网络外部性的规模收益与产品差异化．管理科学学报，2003，6(3)：28-34
[201] 潘晓军，陈宏民．具有网络外部性特征产品的配额限制与差异化策略．系统工程理论方法应用，2001，10(2)：107-112
[202] Konishi, H., Le Breton, M. and Weber, S., Pure strategy Nash equilibrium in a group formation game with positive externalities. Games and Economic Behavior, 1997, 21(I/2): 161-182
[203] Lin, P. and, Saggi K., Timing of entry under externality, Journal of Economics, 2002, 75(3): 211-225
[204] Choi, J. P. and Thum, M. Market structure and the timing of technology adoption with network externality. European Economic Review, 1998, 42(2): 225-244
[205] Choi, J. P. Irreversible choice of uncertain technologies with network externalities. RAND Journal of Economics, 1994, 25(3): 382-401
[206] Pennings, E. and Lint, O., Market entry, phased rollout or abandonment: A real option approach. European Journal of Operational Research, 2000, 124(1): 125-138
[207] Sadanand, A. and Sadanand, V., Firm scale and the endogenous timing of entry: a choice between commitment and flexibility. Journal of Economic Theory, 1996, 70(2): 516-530
[208] Kim, J-Y. Production compatibility as a signal of quality in a market with network externality. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 2002, 20(7): 949-964
[209] Lockwood, B. Production externality and two-way distortion in principle-multi-agent problem. Journal of Economic Theory, 2000, 92(1): 142-166
[210] Swarm, P. The functional form of network effects. Information Economics and Policy, 2002, 14(3): 417-429
[211] Baye, M. R. and Ueng, S-F. Commitment and price competition in a dynamic differentiated duopoly. Journal of Economic Theory, 1999, 66(1): 41-52
[212] Hertzendorf, M. N. and Overgaard, P. B. Price competition and advertising signals: Signaling by competing senders. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, 2001, 10(4): 621-662
[213] Milgrom, P. and Robert, J. Limit pricing and entry under incomplete information: An equilibrium analysis. Econometrica, 1982, 50(1): 443-460
[214] Pancheco-De-Almeida, G. and Zemsky, P. The effect of time-to-build on strategic investment under uncertainty. RAND Journal of Economics, 2003, 34(1): 166-182
[215] Huisman K. J., Kort P. M. Strategic technology adoption taking into future technology improvements: A real option approach. Working paper, Tilburg University, 2000
[216] Van Mieghem, J. A. Investment for flexible resource. Management Science, 1998, 44(8): 1071-1078
[217] 张维迎．博弈论与信息经济学．上海：上海三联书店，上海人民出版社，1997
[218] Kamat, R. and Open, S. S. Rational buyer meets rational seller: reserves market equilibria under alternative auction designs. Journal of Regulatory Economics, 2002, 21(3): 247-288
[219] Laffont, J-J. Pollution permits and compliance strategies. Journal of Public Economics, 1996, 62 (1/2): 85-125
[220] Laffont, J-J. Regulatory, moral hazard and insurance of environment risk. Journal of Public Economics, 1995, 58(3): 319-336
[221] Holmstrom, B. Managerial incentive problems: A dynamic perspective. Review of Economic Studies, 1999, 66(226): 169-182
[222] Grossman, S. and Hart, O. An analysis of the principle-agent problem. Econometrica, 1983, 51(1): 7-45
[223] Freshtman, C. and Judd, K. L. Equilibrium incentives in oligopoly. American Economic Review, 1987, 77(5): 927-940
[224] Miller, N. H. and Pazgal, A. I. The equivalence of price and quantity competition with delegation. RAND Journal of Economics, 2001, 32(2): 284-301
[225] Bhardwaj, P. Delegating pricing decisions. Marketing Science, 2001,20(2): 143-169
[226] Joseph, K. On the optimality of delegating pricing authority to the sales force. Journal of Marketing, 2001, 65(1): 62-70
[227] 孟庆国，陈剑．电信网络互联互通利益分配模型及激励机制．管理科学学报，2003，6(6)：40-46
[228] 倪得兵，唐小我，李仕明．经理业绩与经理行为的关系研究．管理科学学报，2003，6(3)：41-45
[229] 李垣，孙恺．企业家激励机制对分配性行为的治理分析．管理科学学报，2000，3(3)：33-38
[230] 林辉，何建敏．激励机制、投资项目与经营者行为，管理工程学报，2004，18(1)：91-93
[231] 张维迎．产权与企业内部的权力斗争．经济研究，2000，46(6)：11-20
[232] 张维迎，马捷．恶性竞争的产权基础．经济研究，1999，45(6)：11-20
[233] 徐新，邱菀华．道德风险与基于委托-代理理论的最优保险契约模型．系统工程理论与实践，2001，21(3)：26-30
[234] 徐新，邱菀华．委托-代理问题中信息对称情况下自然状态对最优契约的影响研究．系统工程理论与实践，2000，20(11)：62-66
[235] 丁元耀，贾让成．考虑自然状态负效用影响的委托代理模型[J]．管理工程学报，2000，14(4)：47-49
[236] 汪贤裕，钟胜，李康．一类多期委托代理关系的模型研究[J]．系统工程理论与实践，2001，21(3)：31-36
[237] Forrester, J. Industrial Dynamics. New York: MIT Press and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1961
[238] Sterman, J. D. Modeling managerial behavior: Misperceptions of feedback in a dynamic decision making experiment. Management Science, 1989, 35 (3): 321-339
[239] Lee, H. P., Padmanabhan, V. and Whang, S. Information distribution in a supply chain: The bullwhip effect. Management Science, 1997, 43(4): 546-558
[240] Chen, F., Drezner, Z., Ryan, J. K. and Simchi-Levi, D. Quantifying the bullwhip effect in a simple supply chain: The impact of forecasting, lead times, and information. Management Science, 2000, 46(3): 436-443
[241] Alwan, L. C., Liu, J. J. and Yao, D. Q. Stochastic characterization of upstream demand processes in a supply chain. IEEE Transaction, 2003, 35(3): 207-219
[242] Cachon, G. P. Managing supply chain demand variability with scheduled ordering policies. Management Science, 1999, 45(6): 843-856
[243] Dejonckheere, J., Disney, S. M., Lambrecht, M. R. and Towill, D. R. Transfer function analysis of forecasting induced bullwhip in supply chain. International Journal of Production Economics, 2002,78(2): 133-144
[244] Dejonckheere, J., Disney, S. M., Lambrecht, M. R. and Towill, D. R. Measuring and avoiding the bullwhip effect: A control theoretic approach. European Journal of Operational Research, 2003, 147(3): 567-590
[2] Mathis, S. A. and Koscianski, J. Microeconomics: An Integrated Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002
[3] Laffont J-J. and Martimort, D. The Theory of Incentives: The Principal-Agent Model. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001
[4] Tirole, J. The Theory of Industrial Organization. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1988
[5] Myerson, M. B. Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,1988
[6] Williamson, O. E. Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antitrust Implications. New York: The Free Press, 1975
[7] Williamson, O. E. The Econpmic Institutions of Capitalism. New York: The Free Press, 1981
[8] Williamson, O. E. Strategizing, economizing, and economic organization, Strategic Management Journal, 1991, 12(1): 75-94
[9] Sethi, A. K. and Sethi, S.P. Flexibility in manufacturing: A survey. International Journal of Flexible Manufacturing System, 1990, 2(4): 289-328
[10] Upton, D. M. The management of manufacturing flexibility. California management Review, 1994, 36(2): 72-89
[11] Gupta, D, and Buzacott J. A. A 'goodness test' for operational measures of manufacturing flexibility. International Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 1996, 8(3): 233-245
[12] Black, F. and Scholes, M. The pricing of option and corporate liabilities. Journal of Political Economy, 1973, 81(3): 637-654
[13] Merton R. C. Theory of rational option pricing. Bell Journal of Economic and Management Science, 1973,4(1): 141-183
[14] Hull, J. C. Options, Futures and Other Derivatives (4th edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall,2000
[15] Brennan, M. and Swartz, E. Evaluating natural resource investments. Journal of Business, 1985, 58(2):135-157
[16] McDonald, R. and Siegel, D. Investment and caluation of firms when there is an option to shut down. International Economic Review, 1985, 26(2): 331-349
[17] McDonald, R. and Siegel, D. The value of waiting to invest. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1986, 101(4): 707-728
[18] Timan, S. Urban land prices under uncertainty. American Economic Review, 1985, 75(3): 505-514
[19] Trigeargis, L. Real Option. Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1996
[20] Dixit, A. K. and Pindyck, R.S. Investment under Uncertainty. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994
[21] Rhys, H., Song, J. and Jindrchoska, I. The timing of real option exercise: Some recent developments. Engineering Economist, 2002, 47(4): 436-450
[22] De Toni, A. and Tonchia, S. Manufacturing flexibility: A literature review. International Journal of Production Research, 1998,36(6): 1587-1617
[23] Bengtsson, J. Manufacturing flexibility and real options: A review. International Journal of Production Economics, 2001, 74(1/3): 213-224
[24] Correa, H. L. Linking Flexibility, Uncertainty and Variability in Manufacturing System. London: Avbury, 1994
[25] Mandelbaum, M. Flexibility in Decision Making: An Exposition and Unification. PhD thesis, Departament of Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada, 1978
[26] Slack, N. Flexibility as a manufacturing objective. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1983, 3(3): 4-13
[27] Slack, N. The flexibility of manufacturing system. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1987, 7(4): 35-45
[28] 潘景铭。需求不确定条件下的供应链生产柔性决策研究［博士论文］,电子科技大学, 2005
[29] Voudouris, V. T. Mathematical programming techniques to debottleneck the supply chain of fine chemical industries. Computers and Chemical Engineering, 1996, 20(supplement issue):1269-1274
[30] Sabri, E. H. and Beamon, B. M. A multi-objective approach to simultaneous strategic and operational planning in supply chain design. Omega, 2000, 28(5): 581-598
[31] Beamon, B. M. Measuring supply chain performance. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1999,19(3): 275-292
[32] Prater, E., Biehl, M. and Smith, M. A. International supply chain agility: Tradeoffs between flexibility and uncertainty. International Journal of Operations and Production Management, 2001,21 (5/6): 823-839
[33] 柏顺,宋国防,陈顺正,运用VMI 有效提升供应链柔性.工业工程, 2004, 7(4): 26-28, 32
[34] Aaker, D. A. and Mascarenhas, B. The need for strategic flexibility. Journal of Business Strategy, 1984, 5(2): 74-82
[35] Newman, W. R., Hanna, M. and Maffei, M. J. Dealing with the uncertainties of manufacturing: Flexibility, buffers and intergration. International Journal of Operations and Production Management 1993, 13(1): 19-34
[36] De Meyer, A., Nahane, J., Miller, J. and Ferdows, K. Flexibility: The next competive battale. Stategic Management Journal, 1989, 10(2): 135-144
[37] Nakane, J. and Hall, R. W. Holonic manufacturing: Flexibility-the competitive battle in the 1990s. Production Planing and Control, 1991, 2(1): 2-13
[38] Gonhaug, K. and Dreyer, B. Uncertainty, flexibility, and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Business Research, 2004, 57(5): 484-494
[39] Evans, J. S. Strategic flexibility for high technology manoeuvres: A conceptual framework. Journal of Management study, 1991, 28(1): 69-89
[40] Hayes, R. H. and Pisano, G. P. Beyond world-class: The new manufacturing strategy. Harvard Business Review, 1994, 72(1/2): 77-86
[41] Clark, K. B. Competing through manufacturing and the new manufacturing paradigm: Is manufacturing strategy passe. Production and Operations management, 1996, 5(1): 42-58
[42] Stalk, G. Evans, P. and Shulman, L. E. Competing on capacity: The new rules of corporate strategy. Harvard Business Review, 1992, 70(2):57-69
[43] Shimizu, K. and Hitt, M. A. Strategic flexibility: Organizational preparedness to reverse ineffective strategic decisions. Academy of Management Ececutive, 2004,18(4): 44-59
[44] Leeuw, A. D. and Volberba, P. T. On the concept of flexibility: A dual control perspective. Omega, 1996,24(2): 121-139
[45] Sanchez, R. Strategic flexibility in production competition. Strategy Management Journal. 1995, 16(special issue): 135-159
[46] De Toni A. and Tonchia S. Definitions and linkages between operational and strategic flexibility. Omega, 2005, 33(5):525-540
[47] Stigler, G. J. Production and distribution in the short run. Journal of Political Economy, 1939, 47(3): 305-327
[48] Marschak, T. and Melson, R. R. Flexibility, Uncertainty, and the econimc theory. Metroeconomica, 1962, 14(1): 42-58
[49] Klein, B. H. Wages and Business Circles: A Dynamic Theory. New York: Pergamon, 1984
[50] Carlsson, B. Flexibility and the theory of the firm. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 1989, 7(2): 179-203
[51] Benjaafar, S., Morin, T. L. and Talavage, J. J. The strategic value of flexibility in sequectial decision making, European Journl of Operational Research, 1995, 82(3): 438-457
[52] Jones, R. A. and Ostroy, J. M. Flexibility and uncertainty. Review of Economic Studies, 1984, 51(164): 13-32
[53] Schmutzler, A. Flexibility and Adjustment to Information in Sequential Decision Problems: A Systematic Approach. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991
[54] Rosenhead, J., Elton, M. and Gupta, S. K. Robustness and optimality as criteria for strategic decision. Operational Research Quarterly, 1972, 23(4): 413-431
[55] Pye, R. A formal, decision-theoretic approach to flexibility and robustness. Journal of Operational Research Society, 1978, 29(3): 215-227
[56] Pindyck, R. S. Irreversibility, Uncertainty, and Investment. Journal of Economic Literature, 1991, 29(3): 1110-1148
[57] Lambrecht, B. and Perraudin, W. Real options and Pre-emption under incomplete information, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 2003, 27(4): 619-643
[58] 夏晖，曾勇，唐小我．竞争环境下技术创新投资战略的实物期权方法综述．管理科学学报，7(1)：
[59] 夏晖．基于实物期权的技术创新扩散、竞争和交互模型研究[博士论文]，电子科技大学，2005
[60] Weeds, H. Strategic delay in a real options model of R&D competition. Review of Economic Studies, 2002, 69(3): 729-747
[61] Spencer, B. J. and Brander, J. A. Pre-commitment and flexibility: Applications to oligopoly theory. European Economic Review, 1992, 36(8): 1601-1626
[62] Grenadier, S. R. The strategic exercise of options: Development cascades and overbuilding in real estate markets. Journal of Finance, 1996, 51 (5): 1653-1679
[63] Grenadier, S. R. Information revelation through option exercise. Review of Financial Studies, 1999, 12(1): 95-129
[64] Mauer, D. and Triantis, A. J. Interactions of corporate financing and investment decisions: A dynamic framework. Journal of Finance, 1994, 49(4): 1253-1277
[65] Abel, A. B. and Eberly, J. A unified model of investment under uncertainty. American Economic Review, 1994,85(5): 1369-1384
[66] Abel, A. B. Optimal investment under uncertainty. American Economic Review, 1983, 73(1):228-233
[67] Abel, A. B. Comsumption and investment. In Handbook of Monetary Economics (Eds. Friedman, B. and Hahn, F.), New York: North-Holland, 1990
[68] Tobin, J. A general approach to monetary theory. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 1969, 1(1): 15-29
[69] Abel, A. B. and Eberly, J. The effects of irreversibility and uncertainty on capital accumulation. Journal of Monetary Economics, 1999, 44(3): 339-378
[70] Kogan, L. An equilibrium model of irreversible investment. Journal of Finacial Economics, 2001, 62(2): 201-245
[71] Cochrane, J. and Saa-Requejo, J. Beyond arbitrage: Good-ideal asset price bounds in incomplete market, Journal Political Economy, 2000, 108(1): 79-119
[72] Bernado, A. E. and Ledoit, O. Gain, loss and asset Pricing. Journal Political Economy, 2000, 108(1): 144-172
[73] Carr, P., Geman, H. and Madan, D. Pricing and hedging in incomplete markets. Journal of Financial Economics, 2001, 62(1): 131-167
[74] Bernado, A. E. and Chowdhry, B. Resources, real options and corporate strategy. Journal of Financial Economics, 2002, 63(2): 211-234
[75] Quigg, L. Empirical testing of real-option pricing models. Journal of Finance, 1993,48(2): 621-640
[76] Bertola, G. and Caballero, R. J. Irreversibility and aggregate investment. Review of Economic Studies, 1994, 61(2): 223-246
[77] Leahy, J. and Whited, T. The effects of uncertainty on investment: Some stylized facts. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 1996, 28(1): 64-83
[78] Caballero, R. and Pindyck, R. S. Uncertainty, investment and industry evolution. International Economic Review, 1996, 37(3): 641-662
[79] Harchaoui, T. M. and Lasserre, P. Testing the option value theory of irreversible investment. International Economic Review, 2001, 42(1): 141-166
[80] Moel, A. and Tufano, P. When real options exercised? An empirical study of mine closings, Review of Financial Stadies, 2002, 15(1): 35-64
[81] Yavas, A. and Simians, C. F. Real options: Experimental evidence. Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 2005, 31(1): 27-52
[82] Baldwin, C. Y. How capital budgeting deters innovation and what to do about it. Research Technology Management, 1991, 34(6):39-45
[83] Bowman, E. H. and Hurry, D. Strategy through the option lens: an integrated view of resource investment and incremental choice process. Academy of Management Review, 1993, 18(4):760-782
[84] Carr, N. G. Unreal options. Harvard Business Review, 2002, 82(12): 22
[85] Koght, B. and Kulatilaka, N. Capacities as real options. Organization Science, 2001, 12(6):744-759
[86] Koght, B. and Kulatilaka, N. Real options pricing and organizations: The contingent risks of extended theoretical domains. Academy of Management Review, 2004, 29(1): 102-110
[87] Burger-Helmchen, T. How do real options come into existence? A step toward an option-based theory of the firm. Working Paper (No. 0409054), University Louis Pasteur (France), 2004
[88] Kaighobadi, M. and Venkatesh, K. Flexible manufacturing system: an overview. Iternational Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1994, 14(4): 26-49
[89] Mascarenhas, B. Planning for flexibility. Long Range Planning, 1981, 14(5): 78-82
[90] Buzacott, J. A. The fundamental principles of flexibility in manufacturing systems. Proceedings of the 1st International Coference on Flexible Manufacturing Systems, Brighton, England, 1982:13-22
[91] Easton, G. and Rothschild, R. The influence of product and production flexibility on market strategy. In The Management of Strategic Change (Eds. A. M. Pettigrew), Oxford: Blackwell,1987
[92] Palaniswami, S. Measuring and managing flexibility: A strategic weapon for manufacturing firms. Proceedings of the 8th International Wording Seminar on Production Economics, Innsbruck, 1994,3:479-489
[93] Carlsson, B. Management of manufacturing flexibility: An international comparison. Omega, 1992, 20(l):11-22
[94] Upton, D. M. What really makes factories flexible? Harvard Business Review, 1995, 73(4): 74-84
[95] Jennings, D. F. and Seaman, S. L. High and low levels of organizational adaptation: An empirical analysis of strategy, structure and performance. Strategic Management Journal, 1994, 15(6): 459-475
[96] Gerwin, D. and Tarondeau, J.-C. International comparison of manufacturing flexibility. In Managing International manufacturing (Eds. K. Ferdows), Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1989
[97] Swamidass, P. M. and Newell, W. T. Manufacturing strategy, environmental uncertainty and performance: A path analytic model. Management Science, 1987, 33(4): 509-524
[98] Slack, N. and Correa, H. The flexibility of push and pull. Ineternational Journal of Operations and Production Management, 1992, 12(4): 82-92
[99] Gerwin, D. Manufacturing flexibility: A strategic perspective. Management Science, 1993, 39(4): 395-410
[100] Correa, H. and Gianesi, I. G. N. Service operations flexibility. Proceedings of the 1st EOMA Conderence, Oxford: Cambridge University Press, 1994: 385-390
[101] Brill, P. H. and Mandelbaum, M. On the measures of flexibility in manufacturing system. International Journal of Production Research, 1989, 27(5): 747-756
[102] Lau, R. S. M. Strategic flexibility: A new reality for world-class manufacturing. Advanced Management Journal, 1996,61(2): 11-15
[103] Fisher, M. L, Hammond, J. H, Obermeyer, W. R, and Raman, A. Making supply meet demand in an uncertain world. Harvard Business Review, 1994, 72(3): 83-93
[104] Cachon, G. P. and Larivieri, M. A. Capacity Choice and Allocation: Strategic Behavior and Supply Chain Performance. Management Science, 1999,45(8): 1091-1108
[105] Tsay, A. A. The quantity flexibility contract and supplier-customer incentives. Management Science, 1999,45(10): 1339-1358
[106] Tsay, A. A. and Lovejoy, W. S. Quantity flexibility contract and supply chain performance. Manufacturing and Service Operations Management, 1999, 1(2): 89-111
[107] Li, C. L. and Kouvelis, P. Flexible and risk-sharing supply contracts under price uncertainty. Management Science, 1999, 45(10): 1378-1398
[108] Bowersox, D. J., Stank, T. P. and Daugherty, P. J. Lean launch: Managing product introduction risk through response-based logistics. The Journal of Product Innovation Management, 1999, 16(6): 557-568
[109] Lee, H. L. The triple-A supply chain. Harvard Business Review, 2004, 82(10): 102-112
[110] Garavelli, A. C. Flexibility configurations for the supply chain management. International Journal of Production Economics, 2003, 85 (2): 141-153
[111] Aprile, D., Garavelli, A. C. and Giannoccaro, I. Operations planning and flexibility in a supply chain. Production Planning & Control, 2005, 16(1): 21-31
[112] Graves S C, Tomlin B T. Process Flexibility in Supply Chains. Management Science, 2003, 49(7): 907～919
[113] 张翠华，黄小原．具有柔性的供应链模型优化问题及其应用．东北大学学报(自然版)，2002a，23(4)：341-344
[114] 张翠华，黄小原．柔性供应链作业层模型及其优化．系统工程，2002b，20(2)：51-56
[115] 李院生，叶飞帆，方志梅，等．柔性供应链的优化及供应商响应时间分析[J]．工业工程管理，2005，(1)：89～93
[116][116] Ernst R, Kamrad B. Evaluation of supply chain structures through modularization and postponement [J]. European Journal of Operational Research, 2000, 124(3): 495～510
[117] 邓宁，江涛，张守凤．供应链柔性决策机制的建立．商业研究，2005，(315)：1-3，140
[118] Jordan, W. C. and Graves, S. C. Principles on the benefits of manufacturing process flexibility. Management Science, 1995, 41(4): 577-594
[119] Griffiths, J. and Margetts, D. Variation in production schedules: implications for both the company and its suppliers. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 2000, 103(1): 155-159
[120] Aldin, N. and Stahre, F. Electronic commerce, marketing channels and logistics platforms: a wholesaler perspective. European Journal of Operational Research, 2003, 144(2): 270～279
[121] Milner, J. M. and Kouvelis, P. Order Quantity and Timing Flexibility in Supply Chains: The Role of Demand Characteristics. Management Science, 2005, 51 (6): 970～985
[122] Biller, S., Bish, E. K. and Muriel, A. Impact of manufacturing process flexibility on supply chain performance in the automotive industry. In Supply Chain Structures: Coordination, Information and Operation (Eds.Song, J.-S., Yao, D. D.), Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001:79-125
[123] Shin, H., Collier, D. A. and Wilson, D. D. Supply management orientation and supplier/buyer performance. Journal of Operations Management, 2000, 18(3): 317-333
[124] Bish, E. k., Muriel, A. and Biller, S. Managing flexible capacity in a make-to-order environment. Management Science, 2005, 51(2): 167-180
[125] Barca, M. Economic Foundations of Strategic Management. Burlington: Ashgate, 2003
[126] Porter, M. E. Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Ananlysing Industries and Competitors. New York: The Free Press, 1980
[127] Porter, M. E. Competitive Advantage. New York: The Free Press, 1985
[128] Spulber, D. F. Economic analysis and management strategy: A survey. Journal of Economics and Management Strategy, 1993, 1(3): 535-574
[129] Bain, J. S. Industrial Organization (2nd Edition). New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968
[130] Stigler, G. J. Capital and Rates of Return in Manufacturing Industries. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1963
[131] Demsetz, H. Industry structure, market rivalry, and public policy, Journal of Law and Economics, 1973, 16(1): 1-9
[132] Coase, R. H. The nature of the firm, Economica, 1937, 4(16): 386-405
[133] Coase, R.H. The problem of social cost, Journal of Law and Economics, 1960,3(1): 1-44
[134] Williamson, O. E. Transaction-cost economics: The governance of contractual relations, Journal of Law and Economics, 1979, 22(2):233-261
[135] Jensen, M. C. and Meckling, W. H. Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure, Journal of Financial Economics, 1976, 3(4): 305-360
[136] Harrigan, K. R. Strategic Flexibility: A Management Guide for Changing Times. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1985
[137] Harrigan, K. R. Strategic flexibility in the old and new economies. In The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management (Eds. Hirt, M. A., Freeman, R. E. and Harrison, J. S.), Maiden: Blackell. 2001: 97-123
[138] Barney, J. B. and Arikan, A. M. The resource-base view: Origins and implications. In The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management (Eds. Hitt, M. A., Freeman, R. E. and Harrison, J. S.), Maiden: Blackell. 2001: 124-188
[139] Wernerfelt, B. A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 1984, 5(2): 171-180
[140] Rumelt, R. Toward a strategic theory of the firm. In Competitive Strategy Management (Eds. Lamb, R.), New Jewsey: Prentice Hall, 1984
[141] Barney, J. B. Strategic factor markets: expectations, luck and business strategy. Management Science, 1986,32(10): 1231-1241
[142] Barney, J. B. Firm resource and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 1991, 17(1): 99-120
[143] Liebeskind, J. P. Knowledge, strategy, and the theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 1996, 17(Winter Special Issue): 93-107
[144] Conner, K. R. and Prahalad, C. K. A resource-based theory of the firm: Knowledge vs opportunism. Organization Science, 1996, 7(5): 477-501
[145] Grant, R. M. Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 1996, 17(Winter Special Issue): 109-122
[146] Spender, J. G. Making knowledge the basis of a dynamic theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 1996,17(Winter Special Issue): 93-107
[147] Sanchez, R. and Mahoney, J. T. Modularity, flexibility and knowledge management in product and organization design. Strategic Management Journal, 1996, 17(Winter Special Issue): 63-76
[148] Sturgeon, T. J. Modular production networks: A new American model of industrial organization. Industrial and Corporate Change, 2002, 11(3): 451-496
[149] Lawarree, J. and Shin, D. Organizational flexibility and cooperative task allocation among agents. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 2005, 161(4): 621-635
[150] Sunder, S. Contract theory and strategic management: Expectations and actions. Working paper, Yale University, 2004
[151] Mills, D. E. Demand fluctuations and endogenous firm flexibility. Journal of Industrial Economics, 1984, 33(1): 55-71
[152] Mills, D. E. and Schumann, L. Industry structure with fluctuating demand. American Economic Review, 1985, 75(4): 758-767
[153] Das, B. J., Chappell, W. F. and Shughart II, W. F. Demand fluctuations and firm heterogeneity. Journal of Industrial Economics, 1993,41(1): 51-60
[154] Zimmermann, K. F. Flexibility in the face of demand fluctuations: Employment, capacity utilization, and industry structure, International Journal of Industrial Organization, 1995, 13(2): 179-193
[155] Hiebert, L. D. Cost flexibility and price dispersion. Journal of Industrial Economics, 1989, 38(1): 103-109
[156] von Ungern-Sternberg, T. The flexibility to switch between different products. Economica, 57(3): 355-369
[157] Weiss, C. S. On flexibility, Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 2001, 46(3): 347-356
[158] Saloner, G. Cournot Duopoly with two production periods. Journal of Economic Theory, 1987, 42(1): 183-183
[159] Pal, D. Cournot Duopoly with two production periods and cost differentials. Journal of Economic Theory, 1991, 55(2): 441-448
[160] Hamilton, J. H. and Slutsky, S. M. Endogenous timing in duopoly games: Stackelberg or Cournot. Games and Economic Behavior, 1990, 2(1): 29-46
[161] Ellingsen, T. On flexibility in oligopoly. Economics Letters, 1995,48(1): 83-89
[162] Marschak, J. and Miyasawa, K. Economic comparability of information systems. International Economic Review, 1968, 9(2): 137-174
[163] Hennessey, D. A. and Babcock, B. A. Information, flexibility and value added. Information Economics and Policy, 1998, 10(4): 431-449
[164] Hausman, D. M. and McPherson, M. S. Economic Analysis and Moral Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996
[165] Sanchez, R. Uncertainty, flexibility, and economic organization: Foundations for an options theory of the firm. Working paper, University of Western Australia, 1998
[166] Stokey, N. L., Lucas, R. E. and Prescott, E. C. Recurssive Method in Economic Dynamics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989
[167] Jensen, M. K. Monotone dynamic programming. Working Paper, Brown University, 2003
[168] Amire, R. Sensitivity of multisector optimal economic dynamics. Journal of Mathematical Economics, 1996, 25(1): 123-141
[169] Topkis, D. M. Minimizing a submodular function on a lattice. Operations Research, 1978,26(3): 35-45
[170] Topkis, D. M. Supermodularity and Complementarity. New Jersey: Princeton University Press,1998
[171] Yeo, K.T. and Qiu, F. The value of management flexibility: A real option approach to investment evaluation. International Journal of Project Management, 2003, 21 (4): 243 - 250
[172] Pires, J. N. and Sa da Costa, J. M. G. Object-oriented and distributed approach for programming robotic manufacturing cells. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2000, 16(1): 29-42
[173] Mohamed, Z. M. A flexible approach to (re) configure Flexible Manufacturing Cells. European Journal of Operational Research, 1996, 95(3): 566-576
[174] Wang, L. Integrated design-to-control approach for holonic manufacturing systems. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 2001, 17(1/2): 159-167
[175] Arnalte, S and Scala, R. M. An information system for computer-integrated manufacturing systems. Robotics and Computer-Integrated Manufacturing, 1997, 13(3): 217-228
[176] Feurstein, M. and Matte, r M. Fast high precision decision rules for valuing manufacturing flexibility. European Journal of Operational Research, 2000, 120(1): 108-117
[177] de la Fuente, A. Mathematical Methods and Models for Economists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000
[178] 唐小我，傅崇伦．价格歧视的有效性研究．电子科技大学学报，1996，25(2)：200-205
[179] 唐小我．二度价格歧视情形下的垄断企业收益最大化条件．电子科技大学学报，1997，26(2)：194-198
[180] 唐小我．三度价格歧视数量分析．管理工程学报，1999，13(1)：37-41
[181] Maskin, E. and Riley, J. Monopoly pricing with incomplete information. Rand Journal of Economics, 1984(15): 171-196
[182] Laffant, J. J., Maskin, E. and Rochet, J-C. Optimal nonlinear pricing with two-dimensional characteristics. In Information, Incentive, and Economic Mechanism (Eds. R. Radner, L. Hurwitz, T. Groves and S. Reiter), Rochester: University of Minnesota Press, 1987:256-266
[183] Rochet, J-C and Stole, L A. Nonlinear pricing with random participation. Review of Economic Studies, 2002, 69(1): 277-311
[184] Oi, W. Y. A disneyland dilemma: two-part tariffs for a michey mouse monopoly. Quarterly Journal of Economies, 1971, 85(1): 77-90
[185] Armstrong, M. Price discrimination by a many-product firm. Review of economics Studies, 1999, 66(1), 151-168
[186] Cassou, S. P. and Hause J. C. Uniform two-part tariffs and below marginal cost prices: Disneyland revisited. Economic Inquiry, 1999, 37(1), 74-85
[187] Edlin, A. S., Epelbaum, M. and Heller, W. P. Is perfect discrimination really efficient? Welfare and existence in general equilibrium. Econometrica, 1998, 66(4), 897-922
[188] De Borger, B. Optimal two-part tariffs in a model of discrete choice. Journal of pubic Economics, 2000, 76(1): 127-150
[189] Yoskwitz, D. W. Price dispersion and price discrimination: Empirical evidence from a spot market for water. Review of Industrial Organization, 2002, 20(3): 283-289
[190] Levine, M. E. Price discrimination without market power. Yale Journal on Regulation, 2002, 19(1): 1-35
[191] Armstrong, M. Competitive price discrimination. Rand Journal of Economics, 2001, 32(4): 579-605
[192] Gasbrielse, T. S. and Sorgard, L. The pro-competitive effect of two-part tariffs. International Journal of the Economics of Business, 1998, 5(1): 47-55
[193] Varian, H. R. Miroeconomic Analysis. London: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1992
[194] Economides, N. Network externalities, complementarities, and invitations to enter. European Journal of Political Economy, 1996, 12(2): 211-233
[195] Coase, R. H. Durability and monopoly. Journal of Law and Economics, 1972, 15(1): 143-149
[196] Mason, R. Network externalities and the Coase conjecture. European Economic Review, 2000, 44(1): 1981-1992
[197] Bensaid, B. and Lesne, J-P. Dynamic monopoly pricing with network externality. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 1996, 14(6): 837-855
[198] Baake, P. and Boom, A., Vertical product differentiation, network externalities, and compatibility decisions. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 2001, 19(1/2): 267-284
[199] Foros, Φ. and Hansend B., Competition and compatibility among Internet service providers. Information Economics and Policy, 2001, 13(4): 411-425
[200] 潘晓军，陈宏民．基于网络外部性的规模收益与产品差异化．管理科学学报，2003，6(3)：28-34
[201] 潘晓军，陈宏民．具有网络外部性特征产品的配额限制与差异化策略．系统工程理论方法应用，2001，10(2)：107-112
[202] Konishi, H., Le Breton, M. and Weber, S., Pure strategy Nash equilibrium in a group formation game with positive externalities. Games and Economic Behavior, 1997, 21(I/2): 161-182
[203] Lin, P. and, Saggi K., Timing of entry under externality, Journal of Economics, 2002, 75(3): 211-225
[204] Choi, J. P. and Thum, M. Market structure and the timing of technology adoption with network externality. European Economic Review, 1998, 42(2): 225-244
[205] Choi, J. P. Irreversible choice of uncertain technologies with network externalities. RAND Journal of Economics, 1994, 25(3): 382-401
[206] Pennings, E. and Lint, O., Market entry, phased rollout or abandonment: A real option approach. European Journal of Operational Research, 2000, 124(1): 125-138
[207] Sadanand, A. and Sadanand, V., Firm scale and the endogenous timing of entry: a choice between commitment and flexibility. Journal of Economic Theory, 1996, 70(2): 516-530
[208] Kim, J-Y. Production compatibility as a signal of quality in a market with network externality. International Journal of Industrial Organization, 2002, 20(7): 949-964
[209] Lockwood, B. Production externality and two-way distortion in principle-multi-agent problem. Journal of Economic Theory, 2000, 92(1): 142-166
[210] Swarm, P. The functional form of network effects. Information Economics and Policy, 2002, 14(3): 417-429
[211] Baye, M. R. and Ueng, S-F. Commitment and price competition in a dynamic differentiated duopoly. Journal of Economic Theory, 1999, 66(1): 41-52
[212] Hertzendorf, M. N. and Overgaard, P. B. Price competition and advertising signals: Signaling by competing senders. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy, 2001, 10(4): 621-662
[213] Milgrom, P. and Robert, J. Limit pricing and entry under incomplete information: An equilibrium analysis. Econometrica, 1982, 50(1): 443-460
[214] Pancheco-De-Almeida, G. and Zemsky, P. The effect of time-to-build on strategic investment under uncertainty. RAND Journal of Economics, 2003, 34(1): 166-182
[215] Huisman K. J., Kort P. M. Strategic technology adoption taking into future technology improvements: A real option approach. Working paper, Tilburg University, 2000
[216] Van Mieghem, J. A. Investment for flexible resource. Management Science, 1998, 44(8): 1071-1078
[217] 张维迎．博弈论与信息经济学．上海：上海三联书店，上海人民出版社，1997
[218] Kamat, R. and Open, S. S. Rational buyer meets rational seller: reserves market equilibria under alternative auction designs. Journal of Regulatory Economics, 2002, 21(3): 247-288
[219] Laffont, J-J. Pollution permits and compliance strategies. Journal of Public Economics, 1996, 62 (1/2): 85-125
[220] Laffont, J-J. Regulatory, moral hazard and insurance of environment risk. Journal of Public Economics, 1995, 58(3): 319-336
[221] Holmstrom, B. Managerial incentive problems: A dynamic perspective. Review of Economic Studies, 1999, 66(226): 169-182
[222] Grossman, S. and Hart, O. An analysis of the principle-agent problem. Econometrica, 1983, 51(1): 7-45
[223] Freshtman, C. and Judd, K. L. Equilibrium incentives in oligopoly. American Economic Review, 1987, 77(5): 927-940
[224] Miller, N. H. and Pazgal, A. I. The equivalence of price and quantity competition with delegation. RAND Journal of Economics, 2001, 32(2): 284-301
[225] Bhardwaj, P. Delegating pricing decisions. Marketing Science, 2001,20(2): 143-169
[226] Joseph, K. On the optimality of delegating pricing authority to the sales force. Journal of Marketing, 2001, 65(1): 62-70
[227] 孟庆国，陈剑．电信网络互联互通利益分配模型及激励机制．管理科学学报，2003，6(6)：40-46
[228] 倪得兵，唐小我，李仕明．经理业绩与经理行为的关系研究．管理科学学报，2003，6(3)：41-45
[229] 李垣，孙恺．企业家激励机制对分配性行为的治理分析．管理科学学报，2000，3(3)：33-38
[230] 林辉，何建敏．激励机制、投资项目与经营者行为，管理工程学报，2004，18(1)：91-93
[231] 张维迎．产权与企业内部的权力斗争．经济研究，2000，46(6)：11-20
[232] 张维迎，马捷．恶性竞争的产权基础．经济研究，1999，45(6)：11-20
[233] 徐新，邱菀华．道德风险与基于委托-代理理论的最优保险契约模型．系统工程理论与实践，2001，21(3)：26-30
[234] 徐新，邱菀华．委托-代理问题中信息对称情况下自然状态对最优契约的影响研究．系统工程理论与实践，2000，20(11)：62-66
[235] 丁元耀，贾让成．考虑自然状态负效用影响的委托代理模型[J]．管理工程学报，2000，14(4)：47-49
[236] 汪贤裕，钟胜，李康．一类多期委托代理关系的模型研究[J]．系统工程理论与实践，2001，21(3)：31-36
[237] Forrester, J. Industrial Dynamics. New York: MIT Press and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1961
[238] Sterman, J. D. Modeling managerial behavior: Misperceptions of feedback in a dynamic decision making experiment. Management Science, 1989, 35 (3): 321-339
[239] Lee, H. P., Padmanabhan, V. and Whang, S. Information distribution in a supply chain: The bullwhip effect. Management Science, 1997, 43(4): 546-558
[240] Chen, F., Drezner, Z., Ryan, J. K. and Simchi-Levi, D. Quantifying the bullwhip effect in a simple supply chain: The impact of forecasting, lead times, and information. Management Science, 2000, 46(3): 436-443
[241] Alwan, L. C., Liu, J. J. and Yao, D. Q. Stochastic characterization of upstream demand processes in a supply chain. IEEE Transaction, 2003, 35(3): 207-219
[242] Cachon, G. P. Managing supply chain demand variability with scheduled ordering policies. Management Science, 1999, 45(6): 843-856
[243] Dejonckheere, J., Disney, S. M., Lambrecht, M. R. and Towill, D. R. Transfer function analysis of forecasting induced bullwhip in supply chain. International Journal of Production Economics, 2002,78(2): 133-144
[244] Dejonckheere, J., Disney, S. M., Lambrecht, M. R. and Towill, D. R. Measuring and avoiding the bullwhip effect: A control theoretic approach. European Journal of Operational Research, 2003, 147(3): 567-590