性、政治与诗歌理念
摘要
二十世纪七十年代初,美国一批激进女性主义者掀起了女同性恋女性主义批评。这是一种较新的女性主义批评理论,一种历史、文化和政治的话语。该理论批判父权制和异性恋为压迫性的话语机制、质疑社会文化所规定的性和性别角色、认为女性的性身份具有多样性和复杂性,并提倡建立女性认同来重建社会秩序。女同性恋女性主义文学批评将女同性恋作为一个文学主题和一种文学批评的主要内容来张扬,以此体现女同性恋女性主义作家对社会的深刻思考与批评。艾德里安娜·里奇(1929 - )是当代美国著名的诗人和女性主义文学批评家,也是西方最重要的女同性恋女性主义理论家之一。她的女同性恋女性主义诗歌和散文积极关注广大女性和女同性恋的历史和社会现状,表现了她坦率的女性主义政治承诺。里奇对西方女同性恋女性主义的恒久贡献在于,她对“强制的异性恋”进行了深刻的分析,并提出了“女同性恋存在”和“女同性恋连续体”的概念。她的女同性恋女性主义思想对美国石墙事件之后的女同性恋女性主义批评话语以及女同性恋行动主义具有重要意义。
七十年代以来,国外学者们主要从政治、社会、历史、文化、心理等不同视角对文学中的女同性恋性质、女同性恋形象、身份政治以及女同性恋诗歌传统等问题进行了讨论。国内的女同性恋女性主义批评研究只限于为数不多的一般性理论介绍。一些期刊文章限于对少数几个英美女作家的女同性恋题材作品中的雌雄同体、姐妹情谊以及女同性恋身份等问题的分析。国外对里奇的研究主要涉及其作品中女性主义的发展、政治倾向性和诗歌美学等方面,而从女同性恋女性主义视角对性、政治和诗歌理念等关键性问题未做集中和深入研究。国内迄今为止对里奇的研究除了几篇涉及里奇女性主义的论文,只有为数极少的名篇翻译,对其女同性恋女性主义的学术探讨尚属空白。
本论文对里奇女同性恋女性主义思想中的性、政治和诗歌理念问题进行较为集中和深入的分析。论文认为,里奇的女同性恋女性主义重新界定了女同性恋的“性”、表明了她强烈的政治关注、革新了诗歌理念,由此开辟了女性主义文学、批评和政治视界的新领域。论文的重点是对里奇在其散文中建构的女同性恋女性主义批评理论进行解读,并将其女同性恋女性主义的代表性诗歌作为支撑材料来论证理论。关于“性”,里奇对女同性恋的“性”进行了重新界定。她认为女同性恋/女性的“性”既表现了身体欲望,又超越了身体欲望,是健全人格和精神力量的源泉,也是政治权力的体现。这是对传统社会文化建构的性别观和性欲观的质询,也是对女性性身份的多样性和复杂性以及作家将“性”政治化的权力的充分肯定;关于政治,里奇女同性恋女性主义吸纳“个人的即政治的”意识形态、批判父权制和强制的异性恋、提出“女同性恋存在”和“女同性恋连续体”的概念来重新命名女同性恋的经验实质。这些思想所指涉的政治意义在于超越了既定性别政治下男性主体的异性主义,绘制了一幅女性认同的蓝图,将女同性恋女性主义政治化为一种全新的批评观,挑战根深蒂固的女性和女同性恋歧视,为女性的历史和现状赋予新的意义;关于诗歌理念,里奇将女同性恋女性主义诗歌理念与政治思想融为一炉,以诗歌创新来呈现女同性恋/女性经验、表达共同的梦想并突显强烈的政治抱负。里奇背离传统的诗歌理念包含超越女同性恋写作的内在性和家常性、诗歌中的女性认同、对爱情诗歌传统的变革以及普通语言的使用。这些诗歌理念建立了私人和公共、个人和集体的联系,有助于表现诗歌的追寻自由、公正和健全人格的政治主题,这是里奇女同性恋女性主义诗歌的精髓。
论文的结论重申里奇的激进女性主义思想背后所掩藏的深刻批判性和革命性意义。里奇的女同性恋女性主义所关注的不单是一种个体化或纯粹自主化的女同性恋行为本身,而是关注女同性恋/女性历史与现状的社会、文化和政治话语机制,所批判的是男性主体的异性主义思维范式和话语机制。她提议重新建构女性主义分析和批评来彰显女同性恋/女性的历史沉寂和边缘化现实,将文学政治化。这种由性衍生到政治、进而到文学形式的策略,能够激发女性主义者对女性的性身份认同、女性的权力意识以及女性的性主体性和能动性的再思考,从而建立真正意义上的自由、平等和公正观念,对实现性别解放具有特殊的意义。这便是里奇女同性恋女性主义思想所具有的认识论高度,也是我们将里奇作为一个政治作家、理论家和人文主义学者来解读的根本所在。
论文对里奇的女同性恋女性主义理论解读比较深入和集中,所得结论将有助于了解西方女同性恋女性主义理论,探究文化多元化语境下女同性恋文学所体现的社会/群体/个人的现实。论文希望能够激发更多的女同性恋女性主义批评的学术探讨,也希望自己在该研究领域继续前行。
Lesbian feminism, initiated by a group of American radical feminists in the early 1970s, is a new feminist critical approach, a historical, cultural and political discourse. It critiques patriarchy and heterosexuality as oppressive discourse mechanisms, questions the socially and culturally prescribed gender and sexual roles, embraces the diversities and complexities of female sexual identity as well as advocates a radical reordering of society with the goal of establishing a woman-identified world. Lesbian feminist literary criticism publicizes lesbianism as a literary subject and the main content of literary criticism, which is a manifestation of the lesbian feminist writers’profound thinking about and critique of the society.
Adrienne Rich (1929- ), with her literary reputation as one of the American celebrated poets and feminist critics since the 1950s, has been a major voice in American lesbian feminism in the 1970s through the mid-1980s. Her lesbian feminist poetry and prose, concentrating on the explorations of the historical and social status of women in general and lesbians in particular, express her outspoken feminist political commitment. Rich’s most lasting contribution to lesbian feminism is her profound analysis of“compulsory heterosexuality”as an oppressive institution and initiation of her concepts of“lesbian existence”and“lesbian continuum”. Her lesbian feminist thought has significantly shaped lesbian feminist critical discourses and lesbian activism in the post-Stonewall era in the U.S.
In terms of previous scholarship, foreign scholars have primarily examined a range of issues including the nature of lesbianism, lesbian images, identity politics and lesbian poetic tradition from different perspectives such as politics, society, history, culture and psychology since the 1970s. Domestic research on lesbian feminist theory is limited to some general introductions. Some articles are confined to the analyses of the issues of androgyny, sisterhood and lesbian identities in the lesbian works of a few British and American women writers. As for the scholarship on Rich, the research in western academia primarily goes to the development of Rich’s feminism, political inclination and aesthetics in her poetry. But almost no concentrated and systematic work has been made on the essential issues of sexuality, politics and poetics in light of lesbian feminism. Domestic study on Rich only includes a few articles on her feminist works as well as a few pieces of translation work of Rich’s poems and essays. There is almost no academic work on Rich’s lesbian feminism.
The present dissertation seeks to give an in-focus and in-depth discussion on the most essential issues of sexuality, politics and poetics in Adrienne Rich’s lesbian feminism. The dissertation argues that Rich redefines lesbian sexuality, displays powerful political concerns and renovates the poetics, hence producing a new territory of feminist literature, criticism and political vision. The emphasis of the dissertation is the interpretation of Rich’s lesbian feminist critical theory constructed in her prose and the analysis of its embodiment in her most representative lesbian feminist poetry. In terms of sexuality, Rich redefines, in an innovative way, the lesbian sexuality as both the desire for physical intimacy and the transcendence of eroticism, as a source of integrity and strength of mind and as a political power in such a way as to question the traditionally constructed notion of gender and sexuality to be assertive of multiplicities and complexities in the materiality of female sexual identity, to be assertive in the writer’s right to politicize the sexuality; In terms of politics, Rich initiated the analysis of institutionalized heterosexuality as the key theme of lesbian feminism. Her powerful political inclination is perceived in incorporating the feminist ideology“the personal is the political”, critiquing patriarchy and compulsory heterosexuality, renaming the materiality of lesbian experiences by proposing the concepts of“lesbian existence”and“lesbian continuum”as well as urging the restructuring of feminist analysis and criticism. The political significance of these concepts consists in transcending the established male-dominating heterosexuality and drawing a blueprint of the woman-identified world, thus politicizing lesbian feminism as a new stance to challenge the deeply-embedded female/lesbian discrimination and endowing woman’s history and reality with new meaning. In terms of poetics, Rich fuses a lesbian feminist poetics out of politics. She manifests poetic originality in expression of her strong political commitment through representations of lesbian/female experiences and articulation of their common dream, including transcending the interiority and domesticity of lesbian writing, poetic identification with women, reforming the conventionality of romantic love poetry, and particularly, the use of common language. With these poetics of transgression, Rich means to build up the connections between the private and the public, between the individual and the collective, thus contributing to the political themes of seeking freedom, justice and integrity in her lesbian feminist poetry.
Rich’s lesbian feminist vision is profound in its critique and revolution behind her radicalism. What is essential for Rich’s lesbian feminist ideology is not an individualized or autonomized lesbian behavior, but the social, cultural and political institution that regulates the history and reality of lesbian/female existence. It critiques the male-dominating heterosexual paradigm and discourse mechanism. She urges the restructuring of the feminist analysis and criticism to publicize the silenced lesbian/female history and marginalized reality, in such a way as to politicize literature. This strategy of evolving from sexuality to politics and then to literature may stimulate feminists’rethinking about female sexual identity, consciousness of female power, female sexual subjectivity and agency to construct the notion of freedom, equality and justice in a real sense, and to fulfill new sex/gender liberation. This is the epistemology of Rich’s lesbian feminism. And this is what is essential in our understanding of Rich as a political writer, a theorist and a humanist intellectual.
This dissertation, with its in-depth and in-focus theoretical interpretation, will be conducive to the understanding of lesbian feminist theory as well as the exploration of the social, collective and individual actuality in lesbian literature in the era of cultural pluralism. The dissertation carries the hope that it will inspire more academic work on lesbian feminist criticism and the hope that this ongoing scholarship will be furthered in its own way.
七十年代以来,国外学者们主要从政治、社会、历史、文化、心理等不同视角对文学中的女同性恋性质、女同性恋形象、身份政治以及女同性恋诗歌传统等问题进行了讨论。国内的女同性恋女性主义批评研究只限于为数不多的一般性理论介绍。一些期刊文章限于对少数几个英美女作家的女同性恋题材作品中的雌雄同体、姐妹情谊以及女同性恋身份等问题的分析。国外对里奇的研究主要涉及其作品中女性主义的发展、政治倾向性和诗歌美学等方面,而从女同性恋女性主义视角对性、政治和诗歌理念等关键性问题未做集中和深入研究。国内迄今为止对里奇的研究除了几篇涉及里奇女性主义的论文,只有为数极少的名篇翻译,对其女同性恋女性主义的学术探讨尚属空白。
本论文对里奇女同性恋女性主义思想中的性、政治和诗歌理念问题进行较为集中和深入的分析。论文认为,里奇的女同性恋女性主义重新界定了女同性恋的“性”、表明了她强烈的政治关注、革新了诗歌理念,由此开辟了女性主义文学、批评和政治视界的新领域。论文的重点是对里奇在其散文中建构的女同性恋女性主义批评理论进行解读,并将其女同性恋女性主义的代表性诗歌作为支撑材料来论证理论。关于“性”,里奇对女同性恋的“性”进行了重新界定。她认为女同性恋/女性的“性”既表现了身体欲望,又超越了身体欲望,是健全人格和精神力量的源泉,也是政治权力的体现。这是对传统社会文化建构的性别观和性欲观的质询,也是对女性性身份的多样性和复杂性以及作家将“性”政治化的权力的充分肯定;关于政治,里奇女同性恋女性主义吸纳“个人的即政治的”意识形态、批判父权制和强制的异性恋、提出“女同性恋存在”和“女同性恋连续体”的概念来重新命名女同性恋的经验实质。这些思想所指涉的政治意义在于超越了既定性别政治下男性主体的异性主义,绘制了一幅女性认同的蓝图,将女同性恋女性主义政治化为一种全新的批评观,挑战根深蒂固的女性和女同性恋歧视,为女性的历史和现状赋予新的意义;关于诗歌理念,里奇将女同性恋女性主义诗歌理念与政治思想融为一炉,以诗歌创新来呈现女同性恋/女性经验、表达共同的梦想并突显强烈的政治抱负。里奇背离传统的诗歌理念包含超越女同性恋写作的内在性和家常性、诗歌中的女性认同、对爱情诗歌传统的变革以及普通语言的使用。这些诗歌理念建立了私人和公共、个人和集体的联系,有助于表现诗歌的追寻自由、公正和健全人格的政治主题,这是里奇女同性恋女性主义诗歌的精髓。
论文的结论重申里奇的激进女性主义思想背后所掩藏的深刻批判性和革命性意义。里奇的女同性恋女性主义所关注的不单是一种个体化或纯粹自主化的女同性恋行为本身,而是关注女同性恋/女性历史与现状的社会、文化和政治话语机制,所批判的是男性主体的异性主义思维范式和话语机制。她提议重新建构女性主义分析和批评来彰显女同性恋/女性的历史沉寂和边缘化现实,将文学政治化。这种由性衍生到政治、进而到文学形式的策略,能够激发女性主义者对女性的性身份认同、女性的权力意识以及女性的性主体性和能动性的再思考,从而建立真正意义上的自由、平等和公正观念,对实现性别解放具有特殊的意义。这便是里奇女同性恋女性主义思想所具有的认识论高度,也是我们将里奇作为一个政治作家、理论家和人文主义学者来解读的根本所在。
论文对里奇的女同性恋女性主义理论解读比较深入和集中,所得结论将有助于了解西方女同性恋女性主义理论,探究文化多元化语境下女同性恋文学所体现的社会/群体/个人的现实。论文希望能够激发更多的女同性恋女性主义批评的学术探讨,也希望自己在该研究领域继续前行。
Lesbian feminism, initiated by a group of American radical feminists in the early 1970s, is a new feminist critical approach, a historical, cultural and political discourse. It critiques patriarchy and heterosexuality as oppressive discourse mechanisms, questions the socially and culturally prescribed gender and sexual roles, embraces the diversities and complexities of female sexual identity as well as advocates a radical reordering of society with the goal of establishing a woman-identified world. Lesbian feminist literary criticism publicizes lesbianism as a literary subject and the main content of literary criticism, which is a manifestation of the lesbian feminist writers’profound thinking about and critique of the society.
Adrienne Rich (1929- ), with her literary reputation as one of the American celebrated poets and feminist critics since the 1950s, has been a major voice in American lesbian feminism in the 1970s through the mid-1980s. Her lesbian feminist poetry and prose, concentrating on the explorations of the historical and social status of women in general and lesbians in particular, express her outspoken feminist political commitment. Rich’s most lasting contribution to lesbian feminism is her profound analysis of“compulsory heterosexuality”as an oppressive institution and initiation of her concepts of“lesbian existence”and“lesbian continuum”. Her lesbian feminist thought has significantly shaped lesbian feminist critical discourses and lesbian activism in the post-Stonewall era in the U.S.
In terms of previous scholarship, foreign scholars have primarily examined a range of issues including the nature of lesbianism, lesbian images, identity politics and lesbian poetic tradition from different perspectives such as politics, society, history, culture and psychology since the 1970s. Domestic research on lesbian feminist theory is limited to some general introductions. Some articles are confined to the analyses of the issues of androgyny, sisterhood and lesbian identities in the lesbian works of a few British and American women writers. As for the scholarship on Rich, the research in western academia primarily goes to the development of Rich’s feminism, political inclination and aesthetics in her poetry. But almost no concentrated and systematic work has been made on the essential issues of sexuality, politics and poetics in light of lesbian feminism. Domestic study on Rich only includes a few articles on her feminist works as well as a few pieces of translation work of Rich’s poems and essays. There is almost no academic work on Rich’s lesbian feminism.
The present dissertation seeks to give an in-focus and in-depth discussion on the most essential issues of sexuality, politics and poetics in Adrienne Rich’s lesbian feminism. The dissertation argues that Rich redefines lesbian sexuality, displays powerful political concerns and renovates the poetics, hence producing a new territory of feminist literature, criticism and political vision. The emphasis of the dissertation is the interpretation of Rich’s lesbian feminist critical theory constructed in her prose and the analysis of its embodiment in her most representative lesbian feminist poetry. In terms of sexuality, Rich redefines, in an innovative way, the lesbian sexuality as both the desire for physical intimacy and the transcendence of eroticism, as a source of integrity and strength of mind and as a political power in such a way as to question the traditionally constructed notion of gender and sexuality to be assertive of multiplicities and complexities in the materiality of female sexual identity, to be assertive in the writer’s right to politicize the sexuality; In terms of politics, Rich initiated the analysis of institutionalized heterosexuality as the key theme of lesbian feminism. Her powerful political inclination is perceived in incorporating the feminist ideology“the personal is the political”, critiquing patriarchy and compulsory heterosexuality, renaming the materiality of lesbian experiences by proposing the concepts of“lesbian existence”and“lesbian continuum”as well as urging the restructuring of feminist analysis and criticism. The political significance of these concepts consists in transcending the established male-dominating heterosexuality and drawing a blueprint of the woman-identified world, thus politicizing lesbian feminism as a new stance to challenge the deeply-embedded female/lesbian discrimination and endowing woman’s history and reality with new meaning. In terms of poetics, Rich fuses a lesbian feminist poetics out of politics. She manifests poetic originality in expression of her strong political commitment through representations of lesbian/female experiences and articulation of their common dream, including transcending the interiority and domesticity of lesbian writing, poetic identification with women, reforming the conventionality of romantic love poetry, and particularly, the use of common language. With these poetics of transgression, Rich means to build up the connections between the private and the public, between the individual and the collective, thus contributing to the political themes of seeking freedom, justice and integrity in her lesbian feminist poetry.
Rich’s lesbian feminist vision is profound in its critique and revolution behind her radicalism. What is essential for Rich’s lesbian feminist ideology is not an individualized or autonomized lesbian behavior, but the social, cultural and political institution that regulates the history and reality of lesbian/female existence. It critiques the male-dominating heterosexual paradigm and discourse mechanism. She urges the restructuring of the feminist analysis and criticism to publicize the silenced lesbian/female history and marginalized reality, in such a way as to politicize literature. This strategy of evolving from sexuality to politics and then to literature may stimulate feminists’rethinking about female sexual identity, consciousness of female power, female sexual subjectivity and agency to construct the notion of freedom, equality and justice in a real sense, and to fulfill new sex/gender liberation. This is the epistemology of Rich’s lesbian feminism. And this is what is essential in our understanding of Rich as a political writer, a theorist and a humanist intellectual.
This dissertation, with its in-depth and in-focus theoretical interpretation, will be conducive to the understanding of lesbian feminist theory as well as the exploration of the social, collective and individual actuality in lesbian literature in the era of cultural pluralism. The dissertation carries the hope that it will inspire more academic work on lesbian feminist criticism and the hope that this ongoing scholarship will be furthered in its own way.
引文
1 Carruthers describes Rich’s vision of lesbian civitas as“a society predicated on familiarity and likenesses…a world of daughters and mothers, of women in infinite variety discovering a language, which celebrated their recovered energy and power. This image uses the lesbian bond to signify the wholeness and integrity.”For Carruthers, the logic of the image is right and necessary, since the poetic tradition has not given a language in which they can readily imagine their lives with integrity and completeness (Werner 81).
2 Sappho (6th century B.C.) is known as a Greek poet whose existing works are few: It can be fairly stated she was a poet of high reputation and that young girls of birth and education came to be the island of Lesbos where they studied under her tutelage and perhaps took part in a form of service dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite (Cosman 41)
3 Anne Koedt is an American radical feminist and author of The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm (1970), the classic feminist work on women’s sexuality. Koedt was connected to the group New York Radical Women and was a founding member in October 3, 1969 of New York Radical Feminists in the group’s first consciousness-raising and organizing group. The anthology Radical Feminism (1973) edited by Koedt, Ellen Levine and Anita Rapone is a documentary reader of radical feminism. (Echols 167-85)
4 Radicalesbians is a New York lesbian-feminist group established in 1970. They exploded the issue of lesbianism in the Second Congress to Unite Women on May 1, 1970 (Echols 213-5), protesting against Friedan’s remarks of excluding lesbians from the women’s movement. Their writings“The Woman-Identified Woman”became the manifesto of lesbian-feminism (Katz 140-5).
5 The Feminists, founded in 1968 and led by Ti-Grace Atkinson and Anne Koedt as a split from National Organization for Women (NOW), was a radical feminist group active in New York city from 1968-1973. Although The Feminists disbanded in 1973, they played an important role in the development of radical feminism (Echols 167-85).
6 The Second Congress to Unite Women was organized by NY-NOW (New York National Organization for Women) in New York on May 1, 1970. The lesbians wore lavender T-shirts with the words“lavender menace”across them and interrupted the conference, and for two hours took the floor to talk about what it was like to be a lesbian in a heterosexist culture”(Echols 213-5, Katz 139-140).
7 Redstockings, also known as Redstockings of the Women’s Liberation Movement, is a radical feminist group that was most active during the 1970s. It was started by Ellen Willis and Shulamith Firestone in February 1969, split up in 1970 and formally refounded in 1973 by Carol Hanisch. The group, still active now, is a strong advocate of consciousness raising -- the idea that women's submission to male supremacy was a conscious adaptation to their lack of power under patriarchy. Notable essays associated with the group include "The Redstockings Manifesto", "Program for Consciousness-Raising", and "The Politics of Housework". The refounded group published a journal, Feminist Revolution (Willis 144 -150)
9 New York Radical Women (1967–1969) was what Ellen Willis characterizes as“the first women's liberation group in New York City”NYRW was founded in New York City by Shulamith Firestone and Pan Allen. Early members included Carol Hanisch and Ellen Willis. NYRW participated in the first major Women’s Liberation Movement (WLM) demonstration and the protest against the Miss America pageant of 1968. (Willis 93).
10 According to Jonathan Ned Katz, the term“heterosexual”first appeared in 1893 in“Psychopathia Sexualis, with Especial Reference to Contrary Sexual Instinct: A Medico-Legal Study”by Richard von Krafft-Ebing, an Austrian psychiatrist and neurologist. This is one of the most famous and influential books on“pathological”sexuality in which Krafft-Ebing’s term“hetero-sexual”implicitly signifies“erotic normality”and his twin term“homo-sexual”is always associated with“perversion”and“contrary sexual instinct”(Katz 19-21).
11 Those mainly criticized books are as follows, Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering (Berkeley: U of California P, 1978), Dorothy Dinnerstein, The Mermaid and the Minotaur: Sexual Arrangements and the Human Malaise (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts Advice to Women (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Anchor, 1978) and Jean Baker Miller, Toward a New Psychology of Women (Boston: Beacon, 1976) (BBP27)
12 Demeter: In Greek mythology, Demeter is the Goddess of the harvest, who presided over grains, the fertility of the earth, the harvest, the sanctity of marriage. She and her daughter Persephone were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries. After Persephone was taken away to be the wife of Hades, the underground God, the mother and the daughter were separated. Life came to a standstill as the depressed Demeter searched for her lost daughter, wandering the earth night and day. Faced with the dying earth, Zeus forced Hades to retrieve Persephone four months a year.
13 There is no definitive historical evidence of pre-Greek matriarchal cultures that the conquering Greeks supplanted. The title of this poem is taken from Jane Alpert’s feminist theoretical essay of the same name. In Of Woman Born Rich calls Alpert’s essay“a search for vindication of the belief that patriarchy is in some ways a degeneration, that women exerting power would use it differently from men: non-possessively, nonviolently, nondestructively”(72).
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2 Sappho (6th century B.C.) is known as a Greek poet whose existing works are few: It can be fairly stated she was a poet of high reputation and that young girls of birth and education came to be the island of Lesbos where they studied under her tutelage and perhaps took part in a form of service dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite (Cosman 41)
3 Anne Koedt is an American radical feminist and author of The Myth of the Vaginal Orgasm (1970), the classic feminist work on women’s sexuality. Koedt was connected to the group New York Radical Women and was a founding member in October 3, 1969 of New York Radical Feminists in the group’s first consciousness-raising and organizing group. The anthology Radical Feminism (1973) edited by Koedt, Ellen Levine and Anita Rapone is a documentary reader of radical feminism. (Echols 167-85)
4 Radicalesbians is a New York lesbian-feminist group established in 1970. They exploded the issue of lesbianism in the Second Congress to Unite Women on May 1, 1970 (Echols 213-5), protesting against Friedan’s remarks of excluding lesbians from the women’s movement. Their writings“The Woman-Identified Woman”became the manifesto of lesbian-feminism (Katz 140-5).
5 The Feminists, founded in 1968 and led by Ti-Grace Atkinson and Anne Koedt as a split from National Organization for Women (NOW), was a radical feminist group active in New York city from 1968-1973. Although The Feminists disbanded in 1973, they played an important role in the development of radical feminism (Echols 167-85).
6 The Second Congress to Unite Women was organized by NY-NOW (New York National Organization for Women) in New York on May 1, 1970. The lesbians wore lavender T-shirts with the words“lavender menace”across them and interrupted the conference, and for two hours took the floor to talk about what it was like to be a lesbian in a heterosexist culture”(Echols 213-5, Katz 139-140).
7 Redstockings, also known as Redstockings of the Women’s Liberation Movement, is a radical feminist group that was most active during the 1970s. It was started by Ellen Willis and Shulamith Firestone in February 1969, split up in 1970 and formally refounded in 1973 by Carol Hanisch. The group, still active now, is a strong advocate of consciousness raising -- the idea that women's submission to male supremacy was a conscious adaptation to their lack of power under patriarchy. Notable essays associated with the group include "The Redstockings Manifesto", "Program for Consciousness-Raising", and "The Politics of Housework". The refounded group published a journal, Feminist Revolution (Willis 144 -150)
9 New York Radical Women (1967–1969) was what Ellen Willis characterizes as“the first women's liberation group in New York City”NYRW was founded in New York City by Shulamith Firestone and Pan Allen. Early members included Carol Hanisch and Ellen Willis. NYRW participated in the first major Women’s Liberation Movement (WLM) demonstration and the protest against the Miss America pageant of 1968. (Willis 93).
10 According to Jonathan Ned Katz, the term“heterosexual”first appeared in 1893 in“Psychopathia Sexualis, with Especial Reference to Contrary Sexual Instinct: A Medico-Legal Study”by Richard von Krafft-Ebing, an Austrian psychiatrist and neurologist. This is one of the most famous and influential books on“pathological”sexuality in which Krafft-Ebing’s term“hetero-sexual”implicitly signifies“erotic normality”and his twin term“homo-sexual”is always associated with“perversion”and“contrary sexual instinct”(Katz 19-21).
11 Those mainly criticized books are as follows, Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering (Berkeley: U of California P, 1978), Dorothy Dinnerstein, The Mermaid and the Minotaur: Sexual Arrangements and the Human Malaise (New York: Harper & Row, 1976), Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, For Her Own Good: 150 Years of the Experts Advice to Women (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Anchor, 1978) and Jean Baker Miller, Toward a New Psychology of Women (Boston: Beacon, 1976) (BBP27)
12 Demeter: In Greek mythology, Demeter is the Goddess of the harvest, who presided over grains, the fertility of the earth, the harvest, the sanctity of marriage. She and her daughter Persephone were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries. After Persephone was taken away to be the wife of Hades, the underground God, the mother and the daughter were separated. Life came to a standstill as the depressed Demeter searched for her lost daughter, wandering the earth night and day. Faced with the dying earth, Zeus forced Hades to retrieve Persephone four months a year.
13 There is no definitive historical evidence of pre-Greek matriarchal cultures that the conquering Greeks supplanted. The title of this poem is taken from Jane Alpert’s feminist theoretical essay of the same name. In Of Woman Born Rich calls Alpert’s essay“a search for vindication of the belief that patriarchy is in some ways a degeneration, that women exerting power would use it differently from men: non-possessively, nonviolently, nondestructively”(72).
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