俱乐部足球人力资本计量问题研究
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摘要
本文试从足球商业化中重要要素—人力资本分析足球俱乐部不同方式获得球员,其人力资本的价值计量。揭示欧洲、中国足球俱乐部成功失败的原因。只有正确认识足球运动员人力资本价值,才能使足球产业朝着健康的方向发展。球员人力资本作为一种资本必然满足资本概念所固有的本质:预付投资、盈利动机、所有权和客观风险四个性质。而要说明人力资本价值其环境很重要,足球市场不再是地域性概念,伴随着通讯技术的发展和国际贸易的发展,俱乐部获得球员的范围和占领消费市场都已经扩展到全球。某国的足球产业发展不仅有来自其他竞技体育的竞争,更有来自其他国足球产业的竞争。只有一个有着竞争力的联赛,才可能获得足球消费市场,因为足球消费所占个体消费总额比例是很小的,消费者在选购消费品“足球联赛”,选择优秀的才可能带给他精神上最大的满足(本文不讨论国际比赛)。而要形成一个有竞争力的联赛,需要其联赛中俱乐部能够提供高质量的对抗比赛,比赛的精彩又取决球员的技术水平。俱乐部获得高水平的球员依靠于一个发达的人力资本流动市场,人力资本流动市场的健康发展,必须理清人力资本。本文从四个方面试分析足球人力资本问题:
第一章为足球人力资本的界定。通过资本的定义引申出足球人力资本,因为其特殊性,本文采用了多层性来说明足球人力资本,从载体的投资者角度,将人力资本分为个体人力资本、俱乐部人力资本、混合人力资本。由于载体—人的特殊性,导致载体不可分割性,从而人力资本最终表现形式为个体人力资本。在这里存在一个俱乐部人力资本向个体人力资本转换的问题,投资不仅有物质方面的投资,也有时间投资(体现时间价值),球员在进入职业联赛前形成的人力资本主要由自己投资,进入联赛后,形成的人力资本一方面来自俱乐部投资,一方面来自球员时间投资(刻苦训练),对于这种混合人力资本形成的剩余价值的分配,由俱乐部投资形成的“俱乐部人力资本”,其收益通过预收方式占有合同期所有剩余价值,由于俱乐部与球员签订的合同是在联赛前,签订时人力资本价值认定主要是已经形成的人力资本,当合同期结束时,“俱乐部人力资本”全部转化为“个体人力资本”,新的个体人力资本产生的剩余价值由球员在以后的职业生涯中获得。体现了球员时间投资。
第二章为足球人力资本的环境因素。足球人力资本价值实现依赖于市场:一方面是要素市场,一方面是消费市场,而这两个市场都以国际贸易为背景,不再是传统的区域市场。俱乐部获得球员主要受合格球员的供求关系影响,俱乐部借助现代的通讯手段和先进的管理模式将消费市场的领域扩展到全球,从而足球人力资本价值最大体现应该是全球市场,其具体体现在全球各“联赛”竞争,也就是联赛之间瓜分市场份额。同时还有来自其他竞技体育的争夺消费者,形成不同的消费需求。“联赛”竞争力不仅取决于国内培训体系,还取决于不同区域的经济水平。培训体系的发达决定着供给的数量和质量,如果试图全部通过引入其他区域球员,一方面交易成本太高,另一方面存在断供的危险。足球是一种精神消费品,必然以物质水平为基础,以消费者消费结构为前提,既消费者可以支配的金额,以及发达的资本市场和先进管理水平。从而达到人力资本最大限度的释放。
第三章为转会制度下的人力资本计量。现代转会制度产生的必然,以及转会制度合理性带给足球经济的意义。转会制度是形成流动人力资本的有效手段,而要实现真正人力资本可流动性,必须对人力资本做出准确的计量。由于在球员职业生涯中,一方面对球员投资的不断进行,另一方面球员体能变化的自然性都对人力资本准确计量设置了难度。球员的技能与投资并不是完全正向关系,技能由技术、体能共同决定,而体能受自然因素影响,技术又依赖于体能的支持。从而造成不同时段投资与人力资本价值非正向关系。转会方式获得的球员,在自由转会制度下,由于经纪人的介入,使产生的剩余价值分配的博弈变得公平。球员的薪酬可以代表其人力资本的价值实现,利用买卖双方给予球员薪酬的差额,可以判断转会费的高低以及转会费的合理性,既俱乐部人力资本的体现。但利用这模型不能解决个体人力资本价值的合理性,从而导致个体人力资本使用价值—薪酬的合理性,利用买卖双方的特征量和球员的特征量,运用某一段时间的相关历史数据推导出变量之间的线性关系。再通过两个模型推导俱乐部经营以及联赛的竞争力形成的条件。
第四章为俱乐部自我培养形成的人力资本。俱乐部通过“青训”方式培养球员,由俱乐部全部投资形成球员的人力资本。在合同期,俱乐部获得人力资本产生的所有剩余价值。在这里人力资本不等于球员的薪酬,球员的薪酬仅是维持基本生活的费用。在同一个市场中,只要是同质品其价值必然相同,在合同期内俱乐部人力资本等于个体人力资本。但俱乐部培养球员,存在不合格品的成本问题,那么俱乐部在形成的合格品计量其培养成本必然与市场平均人力资本培养成本存在差异,从而导致俱乐部对球员人力资本价值计量的不准确性。某地域培训体系的价值又受国际间要素价格影响,因此俱乐部在选择采用何种方式获得球员时,必然受其成本的影响。培训体系价值与核心技术水平、先进的体能培训水平、良好的实战环境密不可分的。在区域经济不发达、资本流通不发达的情况下,俱乐部建立培训体系是必须的,只有利用区域要素价格的差异,降低俱乐部经营成本,逐渐形成“联赛”竞争力。
The current study tries to explore the answer to the successful operation of football clubs through analyzing the value of human capital measurement of the football club players. A correct understanding of the human capital value of football players will put the football industry toward a healthy direction. The human capital of football players is bound to display the intrinsic nature of capital concept: prepayment investment, profit-making motivation, ownership and objective risk. The realization of human capital value is determined by the market. Along with the development of communication technology and international trade, football market is no longer restricted by region. On the contrary, various football clubs have expanded their scope when seeking players. Meanwhile, consumer market of football industry has been expanded to the world as well. The football industry in a certain region has to confront the competition not only from other sports, but more from other region’s football industry. Only the competitive league is likely to win over the consumer market of football industry. This is because an individual’s consumption in football industry is very small in proportion to his total amount of spending. When choosing his goods "Football League", consumer will probably choose the best league to get the greatly mental satisfaction (The present thesis will not discuss the international competition). In order to form a competitive league, the league clubs need to be able to provide high-quality match which is directly determined by players’level of skills. The access to high-level players relies on a well-developed human capital circulation markets. The sound development of the human capital circulation markets, in turn, requires a clarification of human capital relation. Therefore, the present study analyzes the human capital of football market from four aspects.
In the first chapter, the definition of human capital in football industry is given. The definition of human capital in football industry is derived from the definition of capital. Due to its specificity, this article illustrates the nature of human capital in football industry from the investor's point of view in terms of carrier. Thus, the human capital will be divided into individual human capital, club human capital, mixed human capital. The particular carrier of the present study is human which leads to an indivisible carrier. Therefore, the ultimate realization of human capital is in the form of individual human capital. This is followed by a conversion from club human capital to individual human capital. Investment has many forms such as physical investment and time investment (reflecting the value of time). The human capital of a player before his entering the league is mainly his own investment. After player joins the professional league, the human capital is partly from the club investment and partly from his time investment (in the form of his arduous training). The surplus value of this mixed human capital, thus, should be distributed accordingly. The benefit of club human capital invested by the club takes all the surplus value by means of advance within the contract period. As the club signs a contract with the player before the league, the value of human capital is mainly the already formed human capital. When the contract is over, the club human capital completely converses to individual human capital. The surplus value generated by the new individual human capital will be gained by the player at a later career, which reflects player’s time investment.
Chapter II discusses the environmental factors of human capital in football industry. The realization of human capital value in football industry depends on two markets: elements market on the one hand and the consumer market on the other hand, and these two markets take international trade as the background, not the traditional regional market any more. Club’s obtaining of players was affected by the surplus and demand relation of qualified players. Clubs expand the consumer market to the world with the help of modern means of communication and advanced management mode. So the best realization of the value of human capital will be reflected in the global market. And its concrete reflection will be found in leagues’competition across the world, which is also the partition of the market share among the leagues. At the same time, other competitive sports try to grab the consumers as well to create a different consumer demand. The competitive power of league depends not only on the domestic training system, but also on the economic level in different regions. The well-developed training system determines the quantity and quality of players supply. If club attempts to build the training system entirely by introducing other regions’players, the transaction cost is too high. In addition, there is the risk of default. Football is a kind of spiritual consumer goods, bound to be based on the level of materials and on the premise of consumer’s consumption structure, that is, the amount of money consumers can dominate, well-developed capital market and the advanced management.
Chapter III focuses on the human capital measurement under the transfer system, including the inevitability of the emerging of modern transfer system as well as the rationality of transfer system to football economy. Transfer system is an effective way to form the flow of human capital. In order to achieve real mobility of human capital, human capital should be measured accurately. However, the continuous investment in player through his career and physical changes of the player add the difficulty to accurately measure the human capital. The relations between player’s skills and investment are not entirely positive. The technical skills are co-decided by player’s skills and physical condition, the former affected by natural factors and the latter relying on the physical support. These facts result in the non-positive relation between investment and human capital value in different period of time. Due to the involvement of brokers, the resulting distribution of surplus value produced by players obtained from transfer has become fair. Player’s pay can represent the realization of his human capital value. According to the pay difference of buyer and seller for a player, the level of transfer fee as well as the reasonableness of the transfer fee can be determined, that is, the realization of club human capital. However, this model can not solve the rationality of individual human capital value and also leads to the inaccuracy of payment measurement of individual human capital value. Instead, by using the features of buyers and sellers and the players as well, and using the related historical data in a certain period of time, a linear relationship of variables can be derived. Thus, the conditions for forming a league’s competitive power can be derived from these two models.
Chapter IV discusses the human capital formed by club self-cultivation. Club converse its investment to player’s human capital through the "green training". During the contract period, club acquires all the surplus value produced by human capital. It should be point out that the human capital and player salary are not the same. Player’s pay is just the expenditure to maintain his basic living. In the same market, as long as the product is the same, its value is necessarily the same. During the contract period, the club human capital is equal to the individual human capital. However, players produced by club will not be all unqualified during their training. Those unqualified players will cause cost for the club. When measuring the qualified players produced by a certain club, the cultivating cost will inevitably be different with the market average cost of cultivating players, which will result in the inaccurate measurement of player’s human capital on the club side. In a certain region, the value of the training system is influenced by the international price elements. Therefore, what kind of means club takes to obtain players is inevitably subject to its corresponding cost. The value of the training system is closely related to the level of core technology, advanced level of physical fitness training, a good environment. Under the circumstance of underdeveloped economy in the region, underdeveloped capital flows, the establishment of the club training system is necessary. Thus, only through bringing into full play the differences of regional price elements and reducing the operating cost of the club can the competitive power of a league be formed gradually.
第一章为足球人力资本的界定。通过资本的定义引申出足球人力资本,因为其特殊性,本文采用了多层性来说明足球人力资本,从载体的投资者角度,将人力资本分为个体人力资本、俱乐部人力资本、混合人力资本。由于载体—人的特殊性,导致载体不可分割性,从而人力资本最终表现形式为个体人力资本。在这里存在一个俱乐部人力资本向个体人力资本转换的问题,投资不仅有物质方面的投资,也有时间投资(体现时间价值),球员在进入职业联赛前形成的人力资本主要由自己投资,进入联赛后,形成的人力资本一方面来自俱乐部投资,一方面来自球员时间投资(刻苦训练),对于这种混合人力资本形成的剩余价值的分配,由俱乐部投资形成的“俱乐部人力资本”,其收益通过预收方式占有合同期所有剩余价值,由于俱乐部与球员签订的合同是在联赛前,签订时人力资本价值认定主要是已经形成的人力资本,当合同期结束时,“俱乐部人力资本”全部转化为“个体人力资本”,新的个体人力资本产生的剩余价值由球员在以后的职业生涯中获得。体现了球员时间投资。
第二章为足球人力资本的环境因素。足球人力资本价值实现依赖于市场:一方面是要素市场,一方面是消费市场,而这两个市场都以国际贸易为背景,不再是传统的区域市场。俱乐部获得球员主要受合格球员的供求关系影响,俱乐部借助现代的通讯手段和先进的管理模式将消费市场的领域扩展到全球,从而足球人力资本价值最大体现应该是全球市场,其具体体现在全球各“联赛”竞争,也就是联赛之间瓜分市场份额。同时还有来自其他竞技体育的争夺消费者,形成不同的消费需求。“联赛”竞争力不仅取决于国内培训体系,还取决于不同区域的经济水平。培训体系的发达决定着供给的数量和质量,如果试图全部通过引入其他区域球员,一方面交易成本太高,另一方面存在断供的危险。足球是一种精神消费品,必然以物质水平为基础,以消费者消费结构为前提,既消费者可以支配的金额,以及发达的资本市场和先进管理水平。从而达到人力资本最大限度的释放。
第三章为转会制度下的人力资本计量。现代转会制度产生的必然,以及转会制度合理性带给足球经济的意义。转会制度是形成流动人力资本的有效手段,而要实现真正人力资本可流动性,必须对人力资本做出准确的计量。由于在球员职业生涯中,一方面对球员投资的不断进行,另一方面球员体能变化的自然性都对人力资本准确计量设置了难度。球员的技能与投资并不是完全正向关系,技能由技术、体能共同决定,而体能受自然因素影响,技术又依赖于体能的支持。从而造成不同时段投资与人力资本价值非正向关系。转会方式获得的球员,在自由转会制度下,由于经纪人的介入,使产生的剩余价值分配的博弈变得公平。球员的薪酬可以代表其人力资本的价值实现,利用买卖双方给予球员薪酬的差额,可以判断转会费的高低以及转会费的合理性,既俱乐部人力资本的体现。但利用这模型不能解决个体人力资本价值的合理性,从而导致个体人力资本使用价值—薪酬的合理性,利用买卖双方的特征量和球员的特征量,运用某一段时间的相关历史数据推导出变量之间的线性关系。再通过两个模型推导俱乐部经营以及联赛的竞争力形成的条件。
第四章为俱乐部自我培养形成的人力资本。俱乐部通过“青训”方式培养球员,由俱乐部全部投资形成球员的人力资本。在合同期,俱乐部获得人力资本产生的所有剩余价值。在这里人力资本不等于球员的薪酬,球员的薪酬仅是维持基本生活的费用。在同一个市场中,只要是同质品其价值必然相同,在合同期内俱乐部人力资本等于个体人力资本。但俱乐部培养球员,存在不合格品的成本问题,那么俱乐部在形成的合格品计量其培养成本必然与市场平均人力资本培养成本存在差异,从而导致俱乐部对球员人力资本价值计量的不准确性。某地域培训体系的价值又受国际间要素价格影响,因此俱乐部在选择采用何种方式获得球员时,必然受其成本的影响。培训体系价值与核心技术水平、先进的体能培训水平、良好的实战环境密不可分的。在区域经济不发达、资本流通不发达的情况下,俱乐部建立培训体系是必须的,只有利用区域要素价格的差异,降低俱乐部经营成本,逐渐形成“联赛”竞争力。
The current study tries to explore the answer to the successful operation of football clubs through analyzing the value of human capital measurement of the football club players. A correct understanding of the human capital value of football players will put the football industry toward a healthy direction. The human capital of football players is bound to display the intrinsic nature of capital concept: prepayment investment, profit-making motivation, ownership and objective risk. The realization of human capital value is determined by the market. Along with the development of communication technology and international trade, football market is no longer restricted by region. On the contrary, various football clubs have expanded their scope when seeking players. Meanwhile, consumer market of football industry has been expanded to the world as well. The football industry in a certain region has to confront the competition not only from other sports, but more from other region’s football industry. Only the competitive league is likely to win over the consumer market of football industry. This is because an individual’s consumption in football industry is very small in proportion to his total amount of spending. When choosing his goods "Football League", consumer will probably choose the best league to get the greatly mental satisfaction (The present thesis will not discuss the international competition). In order to form a competitive league, the league clubs need to be able to provide high-quality match which is directly determined by players’level of skills. The access to high-level players relies on a well-developed human capital circulation markets. The sound development of the human capital circulation markets, in turn, requires a clarification of human capital relation. Therefore, the present study analyzes the human capital of football market from four aspects.
In the first chapter, the definition of human capital in football industry is given. The definition of human capital in football industry is derived from the definition of capital. Due to its specificity, this article illustrates the nature of human capital in football industry from the investor's point of view in terms of carrier. Thus, the human capital will be divided into individual human capital, club human capital, mixed human capital. The particular carrier of the present study is human which leads to an indivisible carrier. Therefore, the ultimate realization of human capital is in the form of individual human capital. This is followed by a conversion from club human capital to individual human capital. Investment has many forms such as physical investment and time investment (reflecting the value of time). The human capital of a player before his entering the league is mainly his own investment. After player joins the professional league, the human capital is partly from the club investment and partly from his time investment (in the form of his arduous training). The surplus value of this mixed human capital, thus, should be distributed accordingly. The benefit of club human capital invested by the club takes all the surplus value by means of advance within the contract period. As the club signs a contract with the player before the league, the value of human capital is mainly the already formed human capital. When the contract is over, the club human capital completely converses to individual human capital. The surplus value generated by the new individual human capital will be gained by the player at a later career, which reflects player’s time investment.
Chapter II discusses the environmental factors of human capital in football industry. The realization of human capital value in football industry depends on two markets: elements market on the one hand and the consumer market on the other hand, and these two markets take international trade as the background, not the traditional regional market any more. Club’s obtaining of players was affected by the surplus and demand relation of qualified players. Clubs expand the consumer market to the world with the help of modern means of communication and advanced management mode. So the best realization of the value of human capital will be reflected in the global market. And its concrete reflection will be found in leagues’competition across the world, which is also the partition of the market share among the leagues. At the same time, other competitive sports try to grab the consumers as well to create a different consumer demand. The competitive power of league depends not only on the domestic training system, but also on the economic level in different regions. The well-developed training system determines the quantity and quality of players supply. If club attempts to build the training system entirely by introducing other regions’players, the transaction cost is too high. In addition, there is the risk of default. Football is a kind of spiritual consumer goods, bound to be based on the level of materials and on the premise of consumer’s consumption structure, that is, the amount of money consumers can dominate, well-developed capital market and the advanced management.
Chapter III focuses on the human capital measurement under the transfer system, including the inevitability of the emerging of modern transfer system as well as the rationality of transfer system to football economy. Transfer system is an effective way to form the flow of human capital. In order to achieve real mobility of human capital, human capital should be measured accurately. However, the continuous investment in player through his career and physical changes of the player add the difficulty to accurately measure the human capital. The relations between player’s skills and investment are not entirely positive. The technical skills are co-decided by player’s skills and physical condition, the former affected by natural factors and the latter relying on the physical support. These facts result in the non-positive relation between investment and human capital value in different period of time. Due to the involvement of brokers, the resulting distribution of surplus value produced by players obtained from transfer has become fair. Player’s pay can represent the realization of his human capital value. According to the pay difference of buyer and seller for a player, the level of transfer fee as well as the reasonableness of the transfer fee can be determined, that is, the realization of club human capital. However, this model can not solve the rationality of individual human capital value and also leads to the inaccuracy of payment measurement of individual human capital value. Instead, by using the features of buyers and sellers and the players as well, and using the related historical data in a certain period of time, a linear relationship of variables can be derived. Thus, the conditions for forming a league’s competitive power can be derived from these two models.
Chapter IV discusses the human capital formed by club self-cultivation. Club converse its investment to player’s human capital through the "green training". During the contract period, club acquires all the surplus value produced by human capital. It should be point out that the human capital and player salary are not the same. Player’s pay is just the expenditure to maintain his basic living. In the same market, as long as the product is the same, its value is necessarily the same. During the contract period, the club human capital is equal to the individual human capital. However, players produced by club will not be all unqualified during their training. Those unqualified players will cause cost for the club. When measuring the qualified players produced by a certain club, the cultivating cost will inevitably be different with the market average cost of cultivating players, which will result in the inaccurate measurement of player’s human capital on the club side. In a certain region, the value of the training system is influenced by the international price elements. Therefore, what kind of means club takes to obtain players is inevitably subject to its corresponding cost. The value of the training system is closely related to the level of core technology, advanced level of physical fitness training, a good environment. Under the circumstance of underdeveloped economy in the region, underdeveloped capital flows, the establishment of the club training system is necessary. Thus, only through bringing into full play the differences of regional price elements and reducing the operating cost of the club can the competitive power of a league be formed gradually.
引文
1钟庆才.人力资本含义的新认识.新经济. 2004,2
2李建民.人力资本通论.上海:上海三联书店1999年8月
3《人力资本:特别是关于教育的理论与经济分析》1994
4约翰?伊特韦尔编.新帕尔格雷夫经济学词典.经济科学出版社. 1996
刘进.关于欧盟足球运动员转会费规则的竞争法思考.体育学刊5
6足球历史,百度空间
7张晓媚< <中、欧几种足球俱乐部盈利模式比较>>
多布森,戈达德.足球经济.机械工业出版社. 20048
[1]鲍明晓.体育产业.人民体育出版社. 2000
[2]多布森,戈达德.足球经济.机械工业出版社. 2004
[3]方竹兰.人力资本所有者拥有企业所有权是一个趋势.经济研究. 1997
[4]付海艳.人力资本流动的定价机制—基于“球员转会费模型”的研究. 2008,2
[5]加里·贝克尔.人力资本一特别是关于教育的理论与经济分析.北京大学出版社. 1987
[6]刘进.关于欧盟足球运动员转会费规则的竞争法思考.体育学刊. 2008,2
[7]马克思.资本论(第一卷).人民出版社出版. 1972
[8]青训.百度贴吧
[9]搜狐体育.转会排行榜. www.sohu.com
[10]魏建中,李从容.人力资本的基本性质与三层次分类.西安财经学报. 2004.2
[11]吴义华,周爱光.英格兰足球转会制度的发展和劳工证的作用.体育学刊. 2003,11
[12]西奥多·舒尔茨.人力资本投资.商务印书馆.1990
[13]英超联赛新转会制通过[EB]. http://sports.tom.com/Archive/2255/207
[14]约翰?伊特韦尔编.新帕尔格雷夫经济学词典.经济科学出版社. 1996
[15]张维迎.所有制、治理结构及委托一代理关系.经济研究. 1997,6
[16]正太竞争白热化——U19欧洲杯观感及利物浦青训探. www.soccer.hoopchina.com
[17]郑卸撮.英超足球俱乐部经营状况之研究.体育与科学. 2006,5
[18]中国球迷每周观看英超联赛时间超过100分钟[EB]
[19]钟庆才.人力资本含义的新认识.新经济. 2004,2
2李建民.人力资本通论.上海:上海三联书店1999年8月
3《人力资本:特别是关于教育的理论与经济分析》1994
4约翰?伊特韦尔编.新帕尔格雷夫经济学词典.经济科学出版社. 1996
刘进.关于欧盟足球运动员转会费规则的竞争法思考.体育学刊5
6足球历史,百度空间
7张晓媚< <中、欧几种足球俱乐部盈利模式比较>>
多布森,戈达德.足球经济.机械工业出版社. 20048
[1]鲍明晓.体育产业.人民体育出版社. 2000
[2]多布森,戈达德.足球经济.机械工业出版社. 2004
[3]方竹兰.人力资本所有者拥有企业所有权是一个趋势.经济研究. 1997
[4]付海艳.人力资本流动的定价机制—基于“球员转会费模型”的研究. 2008,2
[5]加里·贝克尔.人力资本一特别是关于教育的理论与经济分析.北京大学出版社. 1987
[6]刘进.关于欧盟足球运动员转会费规则的竞争法思考.体育学刊. 2008,2
[7]马克思.资本论(第一卷).人民出版社出版. 1972
[8]青训.百度贴吧
[9]搜狐体育.转会排行榜. www.sohu.com
[10]魏建中,李从容.人力资本的基本性质与三层次分类.西安财经学报. 2004.2
[11]吴义华,周爱光.英格兰足球转会制度的发展和劳工证的作用.体育学刊. 2003,11
[12]西奥多·舒尔茨.人力资本投资.商务印书馆.1990
[13]英超联赛新转会制通过[EB]. http://sports.tom.com/Archive/2255/207
[14]约翰?伊特韦尔编.新帕尔格雷夫经济学词典.经济科学出版社. 1996
[15]张维迎.所有制、治理结构及委托一代理关系.经济研究. 1997,6
[16]正太竞争白热化——U19欧洲杯观感及利物浦青训探. www.soccer.hoopchina.com
[17]郑卸撮.英超足球俱乐部经营状况之研究.体育与科学. 2006,5
[18]中国球迷每周观看英超联赛时间超过100分钟[EB]
[19]钟庆才.人力资本含义的新认识.新经济. 2004,2