采用mtDNA序列研究中国家养山羊的遗传多样性与起源分化
|
摘要
测定了饲养在中国的16个家养山羊品种(包括4个引进品种)96个个体的线粒体DNA(mtDNA)控制区(D-环)全序列，结果表明控制区全序列长度为1,212bp或1,213bp，共检测到90个变异(突变)位点，占分析位点总数的7.43％，其中简约信息位点69个，单一多态位点20个，所有这些突变均为两核苷酸间的变异。在1,075位有一个核苷酸的插入／缺失。所有的核苷酸替换均为转换，没有颠换发生。
群体核苷酸不配对分布曲线是一条不规则的多峰波浪型曲线，且所有序列Tajima D中性检验结果不显著(P＞0.10或0．05＜P＜0.10)，说明序列均为选择性中性，表明中国山羊在过去没有出现群体扩张。无论中国山羊，还是引进品种均表现出了较高的核苷酸多样度(Pi)和单倍型多样性(H)。整个家山羊群体的平均核苷酸差异数为19.475，核苷酸多样度为(1.608±0.09)％，这些差异共定义了54种单倍型，单倍型多样性为0.977。其中，中国家养山羊11个品种有41种单倍型，引进的4个品种有16种单倍型。中国山羊的单倍型多样性(0.973)比引进品种(0.913)高，但引进品种的核苷酸多样性(1.731％)、单倍型间的平均距离(0.0187)、单倍型间的平均核苷酸差异数(20.96)高于中国山羊品种(分别为1.531％、0.0151和18.554)，但差异均不显著(P＞0.05)。表明中国家养山羊的遗传多样性较为丰富。用Alrequin2.0软件进行了分子方差分析(AMOVA)，品种间的方差组分只占总变异的24.22％，经检验不显著(P＞0.05)。表明家山羊品种(系)间还没有出现显著的遗传分化，品种间表现出弱的遗传结构。
将本研究测定的96条mtDNA的D环全序列与文献报道的16条家山羊序列、2种野山羊(角(羊骨)羊和捻角山羊)的D环序列结合分析发现，文献报道的单倍型仅有3种在中国山羊中存在。各家养山羊品种间平均核苷酸差异数为19.475(7.50～30.42)，平均核苷酸差异率为1.607％(0.619％～2.512％)。品种间的Kimura双参数距离变异较大(0.0008～0.0315)。许多品种都具有独特的单倍型类型，只有10种单倍型在品种间有共享。各单倍型在品种间和品种内的分布和频率也不平衡。
用PAUP4.0软件构建了56条单倍型和2条野山羊D环全序列的MP和ML
系统发育无根树，在Kimura双参数模型下，用MEGA软件构建了ME树，并进
行了Bootstrap检验。结果三种一致树各分支的统计置信度(凡值)都在50%以上，
三种树的拓扑结构是相似的，家山羊的所有单倍型分成了3个有明显区别的簇一
一1、n、m，表明中国家养山羊有多个母系来源。但中国家养山羊有哪些母系
来源，野生种间是先杂交、再家养，还是先有独立的起源、后来再有野生种的基
因渗入等需要进一步研究。
细胞色素b(cytb)基因在线粒体基因组中进化速度适中，较短的1个DNA片
段就能包含从种下水平到属水平乃至纲水平的系统发育信息，而且在一定的进化尺
度内cytb基因不受饱和效应的严重影响，所提供的系统发育信息和遗传分化水平适
于分析种间和属间差异。实验测定了位于线粒体DNA上的唯一的蛋白质编码基因
—细胞色素b全序列，结果表明细胞色素b基因序列全长为1，14obp，编码379
个氨基酸和一个终止密码子。16个家养品种的42条序列中，共有17个多态位点，
其中单一多态位点7个，简约信息位点10个，在215、241和302三个位置产生
了氨基酸的变化。在第一位密码子和第三位密码子位置富含碱基A，而第二位富
含T。第三密码子的碱基组成存在较大偏倚，第3位G的含量最低，只有3.6%一
6.3%。与7个野山羊的11条序列比较，家养山羊同各野生山羊的序列差异变异范
围很大，平均核营酸差异数为16.512一89.905，序列差异百分比为 1.448%一
7.886%。转换发生的数目显著高于颠换，无论是转换还是颠换，在密码子的第三位
碱基发生的概率均远高于第一和第二位密码子。氨基酸的密码子使用频率极不均
衡。
用绵羊作为外群，16个家养品种的42条细胞色素b序列以及7个野生种的11
条序列构建了系统发育MP树，结果表明除角滑羊外，家山羊、野生山羊分别聚
在不同的枝上，但在家山羊群体内部出现了遗传分化，本实验中测定的所有家山
羊个体聚为3大类。野生山羊种，如角招，羊，同家山羊的分化不明显。
In the study, complete sequence of mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) control region (CR, D-loop) was sequenced in 96 individuals from 16 domestic goat breeds (strains) raised in China (include 4 foreign breeds). The complete sequence of mtDNA CR is 1,212 or l,213bp(base pair). 90 sites were polymorphic (7.43% in 1,212) with 69 parsimony informative polymorphic sites, 20 singleton polymorphic sites and one insertion/deletion in 1075 sites. All polymorphic sites were two variants with transitition .
The curve of nucleotide mismatch distributions in domestic goats population took on unimodal and wavilness. Tajima's test of selective neutrality was not significant (P > 0.10 or 0.05 < P < 0.10) .It revealed that all sequence of domestic goats were selective neutrality and that goat population did not undergo expansions. High nucleotide diversity (Pi=0.977) and haplotype diversity(H=1.608%)were manifested either in Chinese goat or in foreign goat populations. All sequence polymorphic sites defined 54 haplotypes with 16 haplotypes within 4 foreign breeds , 41 within 11 Chinese breeds. Chinese indigenous goats showed higher haplotype diversity(0.973) than foreign breeds(0.913), while nucleotide diversity, pairwise distance and average number of nucleotide differences among haplotypes were less than foreign breeds. These results suggested richer genetic diversity within Chinese goat populations. The hierarchical components of mtDNA variation computed under the analysis of molecular variance(AMOVA) framework sh
owed that smaller but not significant percentage existed among breeds(24.22%;P>0.05) .The AMOVA results revealed that there were no significant divergence and far weaker genetic structure among breeds.
Only 3 haplotypes existed within Chinese goat populations by analyzing 96 sequences in the study, combined 16 domestic goats and 2 wild goats(Copra aegagrus and Capra falconeri) reported in documents. The average number of nucleotide differences , average number of nucleotide subs, per site between breeds were 19.475(7.50~30.42) and 1.607%(0.619%~2.512%), respectively. The Kimura 2-parameter distance between breeds varied from 0.0008 to 0.0315. Many breeds had its unique haplotypes and only 10 haplotypes were shared among some breeds. The distributions and frequencies were unequilibrium either among breeds or within breeds.
Maximum parsimony tree and. maximum-likehood tree were constructed by using PAUP4.0 software , including 56 haplotypes and 2 wild capra sequences. While minumum
evolution tree was established by MEGA software. All trees tested by 1000 times bootstrap replications. Three phylogenetic trees had same branch structure and higher confidence probabilities .All domestic haplotypes were divided three high obvious divergent clusters (I , II and III ) that showed multiple maternal origins of Chinese domestic goat population. More and deeper research should be continued if we want to get specific answer to some questions, for example, which wild capra maternal origins contributed to Chinese domestic goats ? Whether wild Capra crossed before domestication or independent domestication and subsequent introgression?
The rate of cytochrome b (cyt &) evolution is relatively moderate. The cytochrome b genes that the only cytochrome coded by mitochondrial DNA, even small fragment sequence, contains phylogenetically informative and unlikely to be severely compromised by saturation effects. So it is thought to be variable enough for population level questions, and conserved enough for clarifying deeper phylogenetic relationships. In the study , cyt b gene were sequenced in 42 individuals from 16 domestic goat breeds(strains) in China. The complete sequence was l,140bp that coded 379 amino acid and one termination. 17 sites were polymorphic with 7 singleton polymorphic sites ,10 parsimony informative which caused 3 amino acid change at 215,242 and 302 sites. Rich adenine(A) presented in the 1st and 3rd codons, while the 2nd had rich thymine(T). The base composition showed more bias at 3rd codon that guanine (G) cont
群体核苷酸不配对分布曲线是一条不规则的多峰波浪型曲线，且所有序列Tajima D中性检验结果不显著(P＞0.10或0．05＜P＜0.10)，说明序列均为选择性中性，表明中国山羊在过去没有出现群体扩张。无论中国山羊，还是引进品种均表现出了较高的核苷酸多样度(Pi)和单倍型多样性(H)。整个家山羊群体的平均核苷酸差异数为19.475，核苷酸多样度为(1.608±0.09)％，这些差异共定义了54种单倍型，单倍型多样性为0.977。其中，中国家养山羊11个品种有41种单倍型，引进的4个品种有16种单倍型。中国山羊的单倍型多样性(0.973)比引进品种(0.913)高，但引进品种的核苷酸多样性(1.731％)、单倍型间的平均距离(0.0187)、单倍型间的平均核苷酸差异数(20.96)高于中国山羊品种(分别为1.531％、0.0151和18.554)，但差异均不显著(P＞0.05)。表明中国家养山羊的遗传多样性较为丰富。用Alrequin2.0软件进行了分子方差分析(AMOVA)，品种间的方差组分只占总变异的24.22％，经检验不显著(P＞0.05)。表明家山羊品种(系)间还没有出现显著的遗传分化，品种间表现出弱的遗传结构。
将本研究测定的96条mtDNA的D环全序列与文献报道的16条家山羊序列、2种野山羊(角(羊骨)羊和捻角山羊)的D环序列结合分析发现，文献报道的单倍型仅有3种在中国山羊中存在。各家养山羊品种间平均核苷酸差异数为19.475(7.50～30.42)，平均核苷酸差异率为1.607％(0.619％～2.512％)。品种间的Kimura双参数距离变异较大(0.0008～0.0315)。许多品种都具有独特的单倍型类型，只有10种单倍型在品种间有共享。各单倍型在品种间和品种内的分布和频率也不平衡。
用PAUP4.0软件构建了56条单倍型和2条野山羊D环全序列的MP和ML
系统发育无根树，在Kimura双参数模型下，用MEGA软件构建了ME树，并进
行了Bootstrap检验。结果三种一致树各分支的统计置信度(凡值)都在50%以上，
三种树的拓扑结构是相似的，家山羊的所有单倍型分成了3个有明显区别的簇一
一1、n、m，表明中国家养山羊有多个母系来源。但中国家养山羊有哪些母系
来源，野生种间是先杂交、再家养，还是先有独立的起源、后来再有野生种的基
因渗入等需要进一步研究。
细胞色素b(cytb)基因在线粒体基因组中进化速度适中，较短的1个DNA片
段就能包含从种下水平到属水平乃至纲水平的系统发育信息，而且在一定的进化尺
度内cytb基因不受饱和效应的严重影响，所提供的系统发育信息和遗传分化水平适
于分析种间和属间差异。实验测定了位于线粒体DNA上的唯一的蛋白质编码基因
—细胞色素b全序列，结果表明细胞色素b基因序列全长为1，14obp，编码379
个氨基酸和一个终止密码子。16个家养品种的42条序列中，共有17个多态位点，
其中单一多态位点7个，简约信息位点10个，在215、241和302三个位置产生
了氨基酸的变化。在第一位密码子和第三位密码子位置富含碱基A，而第二位富
含T。第三密码子的碱基组成存在较大偏倚，第3位G的含量最低，只有3.6%一
6.3%。与7个野山羊的11条序列比较，家养山羊同各野生山羊的序列差异变异范
围很大，平均核营酸差异数为16.512一89.905，序列差异百分比为 1.448%一
7.886%。转换发生的数目显著高于颠换，无论是转换还是颠换，在密码子的第三位
碱基发生的概率均远高于第一和第二位密码子。氨基酸的密码子使用频率极不均
衡。
用绵羊作为外群，16个家养品种的42条细胞色素b序列以及7个野生种的11
条序列构建了系统发育MP树，结果表明除角滑羊外，家山羊、野生山羊分别聚
在不同的枝上，但在家山羊群体内部出现了遗传分化，本实验中测定的所有家山
羊个体聚为3大类。野生山羊种，如角招，羊，同家山羊的分化不明显。
In the study, complete sequence of mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) control region (CR, D-loop) was sequenced in 96 individuals from 16 domestic goat breeds (strains) raised in China (include 4 foreign breeds). The complete sequence of mtDNA CR is 1,212 or l,213bp(base pair). 90 sites were polymorphic (7.43% in 1,212) with 69 parsimony informative polymorphic sites, 20 singleton polymorphic sites and one insertion/deletion in 1075 sites. All polymorphic sites were two variants with transitition .
The curve of nucleotide mismatch distributions in domestic goats population took on unimodal and wavilness. Tajima's test of selective neutrality was not significant (P > 0.10 or 0.05 < P < 0.10) .It revealed that all sequence of domestic goats were selective neutrality and that goat population did not undergo expansions. High nucleotide diversity (Pi=0.977) and haplotype diversity(H=1.608%)were manifested either in Chinese goat or in foreign goat populations. All sequence polymorphic sites defined 54 haplotypes with 16 haplotypes within 4 foreign breeds , 41 within 11 Chinese breeds. Chinese indigenous goats showed higher haplotype diversity(0.973) than foreign breeds(0.913), while nucleotide diversity, pairwise distance and average number of nucleotide differences among haplotypes were less than foreign breeds. These results suggested richer genetic diversity within Chinese goat populations. The hierarchical components of mtDNA variation computed under the analysis of molecular variance(AMOVA) framework sh
owed that smaller but not significant percentage existed among breeds(24.22%;P>0.05) .The AMOVA results revealed that there were no significant divergence and far weaker genetic structure among breeds.
Only 3 haplotypes existed within Chinese goat populations by analyzing 96 sequences in the study, combined 16 domestic goats and 2 wild goats(Copra aegagrus and Capra falconeri) reported in documents. The average number of nucleotide differences , average number of nucleotide subs, per site between breeds were 19.475(7.50~30.42) and 1.607%(0.619%~2.512%), respectively. The Kimura 2-parameter distance between breeds varied from 0.0008 to 0.0315. Many breeds had its unique haplotypes and only 10 haplotypes were shared among some breeds. The distributions and frequencies were unequilibrium either among breeds or within breeds.
Maximum parsimony tree and. maximum-likehood tree were constructed by using PAUP4.0 software , including 56 haplotypes and 2 wild capra sequences. While minumum
evolution tree was established by MEGA software. All trees tested by 1000 times bootstrap replications. Three phylogenetic trees had same branch structure and higher confidence probabilities .All domestic haplotypes were divided three high obvious divergent clusters (I , II and III ) that showed multiple maternal origins of Chinese domestic goat population. More and deeper research should be continued if we want to get specific answer to some questions, for example, which wild capra maternal origins contributed to Chinese domestic goats ? Whether wild Capra crossed before domestication or independent domestication and subsequent introgression?
The rate of cytochrome b (cyt &) evolution is relatively moderate. The cytochrome b genes that the only cytochrome coded by mitochondrial DNA, even small fragment sequence, contains phylogenetically informative and unlikely to be severely compromised by saturation effects. So it is thought to be variable enough for population level questions, and conserved enough for clarifying deeper phylogenetic relationships. In the study , cyt b gene were sequenced in 42 individuals from 16 domestic goat breeds(strains) in China. The complete sequence was l,140bp that coded 379 amino acid and one termination. 17 sites were polymorphic with 7 singleton polymorphic sites ,10 parsimony informative which caused 3 amino acid change at 215,242 and 302 sites. Rich adenine(A) presented in the 1st and 3rd codons, while the 2nd had rich thymine(T). The base composition showed more bias at 3rd codon that guanine (G) cont
引文
常洪．1995．家畜遗传资源学纲要．北京：中国农业出版社．7-14，44-45。
陈宏等，1995，家畜线粒体 DNA(mtDNA)的研究，黄牛杂志，21(1)：7-13。
陈灵芝(主编)．1993．中国的生物多样性———现状与保护对策，北京：科学出版社。
陈永久，张亚平，沈发荣 等．1999．中国5中珍稀绢蝶非损伤性取样的 mtDNA 序列及系统进化．遗传学报．26(3)：203-207。
陈幼春．1998．家养动物(见《中国生物多样性国情研究报告》)．中国环境科学出版社．123-126。
村松青著，郭荣昌译．1988．动物染色体。哈尔滨：黑龙江人民出版社．116-169。
达尔文，叶晓(译)．1982．动物和植物在家养下的变异．北京：科学出版社，76—77。
渡边诚喜等．1965，日畜会报．36：293-298。
冯维祺等．1997．中国家养动物品种资源浅析．畜牧兽医学报．28(4)；300-303。
葛颂，洪德元．1994．遗传多样性及其检测方法．生物多样性研究的原理和方法(钱迎倩，马克平 主编)．北京：中国科学技术出版社。
郭郛，李约瑟(英)，成庆泰著．1999．中国古代动物史．科学出版社．407-410。
黄勇富，张亚平等．1998．猪线粒体 DNA 多态性与中国地方猪种起源分化的关系．遗传学报．25(40)：322～329．
黄勇富．1996．中国主要地方猪种遗传多样性及其起源分化研究，四川农业大学博士学位论文。
季维置，宿兵主编．1998．遗传多样性研究的原理和方法．浙江科学技术出版社．44。
贾永红，简承松等，1999．贵州四个山羊品种mtDNA多态性及起源分化．动物学研究 20(2)：88～92。
蒋英，陶雍．1988．中国山羊．西安：陕西科学技术出版社．1—4。
兰宏，王文，施立明．1993．西南地区家猪和野猪 mtDNA 遗传多样性研究．遗传学报．22(1)：283。
兰宏，熊习昆，林世英等，1993．云南黄牛和大额牛的 mtDNA 多态性研究．遗传学报．20(5)：415。
李建文．1987．奶山羊血清运铁蛋白类型与产奶量和繁殖性能的关系研究．畜牧兽医杂志．2：7-9。
李祥龙，张亚平，陈圣偶等，1997．山羊品种间线粒体 DNA 限制性片段长度多态性研究．动物学研究．18(4)：421—428。
李祥龙．1997．我国主要地方山羊品种遗传多样性及其起源分化研究，四川农业大学博士学位论文。
李远超，朱海，张富全．1996．绒山羊毛色遗传规律．见：中国山羊业的成就和进展，赵有璋主编．北京：中国农业出版社，53-56。
铃木正三等．1956．日畜会报，27；115-119。
龙继蓉．2001．中国家兔遗传多样性研究，四川农业大学博士学位论文。
吕宝中，钟扬，高莉萍 等译．Massatoshi N.,Sudhir K[美]著．2002．分子进化与系统发育．北京：高等教育出版社．64-73。
罗玉柱．1997．山羊育种原理与实践．甘肃：甘肃科学技术出版社．30-34。
马月辉．1999．中国家养动物多样性概况．生物多样性．5：394-399。
欧阳叙向．1994．湖南地方山羊品种血液蛋白多态性研究．全国山羊生产与科技成果交流大会论文．中国．郑州。
山西农业大学 主编．1981．养羊学．北京：中国农业出版社．1-3。
宿兵等．1995．中国小熊猫(Ailurus fulgens)的遗传多样性．中国的遗传学研究。
宿兵等．1996．中国黑冠长臂猿的分子系统学研究．中国科学，26：414-419。
王杰，钟勇，欧阳熙等．1994．高原型和山谷型藏羊生态特征比较研究．西南民族学院学报．3：293-298。
王杰，钟勇，王永等．1993．安哥拉山羊血液蛋白多态性研究．西南民族学院学报．1：19-24。
王义权，周开亚，徐珞珊 等．1999．几种游蛇的 cyt b 基因片段分析及其演化关系．动物学报，45(3)：332-338．
王永等编著．1998．中国绒山羊研究．四川科学技术出版社．54-86。
王永，王杰，郑玉才等．1998．成都麻羊血液生化遗传标记的研究．西南民族学院学报．3：293-299．
谢成侠著．1985．中国农史研究丛书——《中国养牛羊史(附养鹿简史)》．北京：农业出版社．140。
叶绍辉，王文等．1998．云南保种山羊线粒体 DNA 限制性酶切研究．中国畜牧杂志．34(3)：11～12。
张才骏等．1990．青海山羊血红蛋白多态性研究．青海畜牧兽医杂志．4：5-6。
张亚平，施立明．1992．动物线粒体 DNA 多态性的研究概况．动物学研究．13(3)：289—298。
张亚平，王文，宿兵等．1995．大熊猫微卫星 DNA 的筛选及其应用．动物学研究，16：301-306。
张亚平．1997．长臂猿的 DNA 序列进化及其系统发育研究．遗传学报，24(3)：231-237。
赵建成，吴跃峰主编．2002．生物资源学．北京：科学出版社．270-289。
赵兴波，李宁，吴常信．1998．猪线粒体 DNA D-loop PCR-RFLP 分析．中国农业大学学报，3(5)：13-17。
赵有璋．2001．试论 21 世纪初叶我国养羊业的可持续发展问题．全国养羊生产与学术研讨会议论文集．中国草食动物 2001年专辑．6-11．
郑丕留 等．1986-1989．中国畜禽品种志．上海科学技术出版社。
中国羊品种志编写组．1992．中国羊品种志．上海：上海科学技术出版社．3-4。
汪松，陈灵芝等．1990．中国科学院生物多样性研讨会会议录．北京：中国科学院生物科学与技术局。
Ajmone-Marsan P, Negrini R, Crepaldi P, Milanesi E, Gorni C, Valentini A, Cicogna M. 2001. Assessing genetic diversity in Italian goat populations using AFLP markers.Anim Genet. 32(5):281-8.
Alexander L., A. Stewart, A. Mackinlay, T. Kapelinskaya, T. Tkach, and S. Gorodetsky. 1988. Isolation and
characterization of the bovine K-casein gene. Eur. J. Biothem. 178:395-401．
AH S., Muller C. R., Epplen J.T. 1986． DNA finger printing by oligonucleotide probes specific for simple repeats. Human Genetics, 74:23 9-243．
Allard M.D.,L.D. Ellsworth, and R.L.Honeycutt. 1991． The production single-stranded DNA suitable for sequencing using the polymerase chain reaclion.Biotechniques. 10:24-26．
Ambrosol R.1987． Content of αs1-casein and coagulation properties in goat milk.J.Dairy Sci.71:24-28．
Anderson S., de Bruijn M.H., Coulson A.R., Eperon I.C., Sanger F. and Young I.G 1982． Complete sequence of bovine mitochondrial DNA. Conserved features of the mammalian mitochondrial genome. J. Mol. Biol. 156 (4) : 683-717．
Anderson, S., A. T. Bankier, B. G Barell, M. H. de Bruijn, A. R. Coulson et al. 1981． Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome. Nature 290:457-465．
Andrews P. 1988． A phylogenetic analysis of the primates Pp. 143-175 in M. J. Benton, ed. The phytogeny and classification of the tetrapods. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Andrews T. D., L. S. Jermiin, and S. Easteal. 1998． Accelerated evolution of cytochrome b in simian primates: adaptive evolution in concert with other mitochondrial proteins? J. Mol. Evol. 47:249-257．
Arai K., Munechika I.., Ito I., Kikkawa. A., Kanazawa T. and Kosugiyama M. 1997． Phylogenetic relationship of Caprinae estimated by cytochrome b gene sequence analysis. Anim. Sci. Technol .(Jpn.)68(2) :148．
Asdell S.A. 1944． The genetic sex on intersexual goats and a probable linkage with the gene for hornlessness. Science 99:124．
Avise J. C. 1986． Mitochondrial DNA and evolutionary genetics of higher animals. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, B 312:328-334．
Avise J. C., and G C. Johns. 1999． Proposal for a standardized temporal scheme of biological classification for extant species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:7358-7363．
Avise J. C., Lansman R. A. 1983． Polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA in populations of high animals, in "Evolution of Genes and Proteins", Nei M. and R. K.Koehn (eds.), Sunderland.
Bailey J.F., Richards M.B., Macaulay V.A., Colson I.B., James I.T., Bradley D.G, Hedges R.E., Sykes B.C. 1996． Ancient DNA suggests a recent expansion of European cattle from a diverse wild progenitor species.Proc R Soc Land B Biol Sci. 263(1376) :1467-73．
Bell B.R. et al.l985． Effects of cytoplasmic in heritance on production traits of dairy cattle. J. Dair. Sci. 687:2038-2051．
Bernadi G, D. Mounchiround, C.Gautier and G Bernardi. 1988． Compositional patterns in vertebrate genomes:Conservation and change in evolution.J.Mol.Evol.28:7-18．
Bernadi G,B. Olofsson, J. Filipski, M.Zerial, J.Salinas, G.Cuny et al.1985． The mosaic genome of war-blooded vertebrates. Science 228:953-958．
Bhat P. P. et al. 1990． Polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in cattle and buffaloes.Biochem. Genet.28(7/8) :311-318．
Bjorn M. Ursing, Ulfur Arnason. 1998． The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequence of the Pig (Sus scrofa). J Mol Evol. 47:302-306
Botettcher P. J.,Freeman A.E.,Johnston S. D.et al.1996． Relationship between polymorphism for mitochondrial eleoxyribonucleic acid and yield traits of Holestein cows. J. Dair. Sci.79(4) :647-654．
Bradley D. G, MacHugh D. E., Cunningham P. & Loftus R. T. 1996． Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 5131-5135．
Bradley D.G, Machugh D.E., Cunninghamp., and Loftus R.T.1996． Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93: 5131-5135．
Brown D.R. et al. 1989． Molecular analysis of cytoplasmic genetic variation in Holstein cows. J.Anim.Sci.67:1926-1932．
Brown D.R. et al.1988． Mitochondrial respiratory metabolism and performance of cattle. J.Anim.Sci.66:1347-1354．
Brown V. M. 1983． Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of Humans as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 76:1967-1971．
Brown V. M. et al. 1979． Rapid evolution of animal mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 76:1967-1971．
Canatore R., M. Roberti, G Pesole, A. Ludovico, F. Milella, M. N. Gadaleta, and C. Saccone. 1994． Evolutionary analysis of cytochrome b sequences in some Perciformes: evidence for a slower rate of evolution than in mammals. J. Mol. Evol. 39:589-597．
Cann R., M. Stoneking and A. C. Wilson. 1987． Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution. Nature 325: 31-36．
Cann R. L., W. M. Brown, and A. C. Wilson. 1984． Polymorphic sites and the mechanism of evolution in human mitochondrial DNA. Genetics 106:479-499．
Caroli A., Jann O., Budelli E., Bolla P., Jager S., Erhardt G 2001． Genetic polymorphism of goat kappa-casein (CSN3) in different breeds and characterization at DNA level.Anim Genet. 32(4) :226-30．
Castresana J. 2001． Cytochrome b phylogeny and the taxonomy of great apes and mammals. Mol. Bio. Evol. 18:465-471．
Chatterjee B., Rao GR. 1994． Superhelical density of goat mitochondrial DNA: fluorimetric studies.Indian J Biochem Biophys. 31(1) :77-79．
Chen H., Leibenguth F. 1995． Restriction endonuclease analysis of mitochondrial DNA of three farm animal species: cattle, sheep and goat.Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol. 111(4) :643-649．
Chikuni K., Y. Mori, T. Tabata, M. Saito, M. Monma, and M. Kosugiyama. 1995． Molecular phylogeny based on the AT-casein and cytochrome b sequences in the mammalian suborder Ruminantia. J. Mol.
Evol. 41:859-866．
Collura R., Stewart V .C .1995． Insertions and duplications of mtDNA in the nuclear genomes of old world monkeys and hominoids. Nature, 378:485-489．
Corbet GB.1978． The mammals of the Palaearctic Region:Ataxonomic review,British Museum(Natural History):London.
Cremer T. et al. 1988． Detection of chromosome aberrations in metaphase and interphase tumor cells by in situ hybridization using chromosome specific library probes. Hum Genet. 80:235-236．
David E. MacHugh, Daniel G Bradley. 2001． Livestock genetic origins: Goats buck the trend. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 5382-5384．
David I. B., Blacker A. W. 1972． Matenal and cytoplasmic inheritance of mtDNA in xenopus. Developm.Biol.29:152-161．
Dewoody J. A ..Chesser R .K.,Baker R. J.1999． A translocated mitochondrial cytochrome b pseudogene in voles(Rodentia:Mcrotus). J. Mol. Evol. 48:380-382．
Dobzhansky T. 1937． Genetics and the origin of species. Columbia University Press, New York.
Dove W.L. 1935． Physiology of horn growth. J. Exp. Zool. 69: 347-404．
Efemov G.Braend M. 1964． Proc 9th Conf Anim Blood Grps.Prague,313-320．
Eldridge F. E. 1985． Cytogenetics of livestock. 189-209． AVI publishing company ,INC.
Epstein H. 1971． The Origin of the Domestic Animals of Africa, Vol. 1, pp. 185-555． Africana Publishing Corporation, New York.
Epstein H., and I. L. Mason. 1984． Cattle, pp. 6-27 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, edited by I. L. Mason. Longman, New York.
Esposti M. D., S. De Vries, M. Crimi, A. Ghelli, T. Patarnello, and A. Mery. 1993． Mitochondrial cytochrome devolution and structure of the protein. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1143: 243-271．
Evans H.J., R.A. Buckland, and A. Summer. 1973． Chromosome homology and heterochromatin in goat, sheep, and ox studied by banding techniques. Chromosoma 48: 383-402．
Excoffier L. 2000． Analysis of Population Subdivision,in Handbook of Statistical Genetics D.Balding, M.Bishop and C.Cannings.(eds.)Wiley & Sons,Ltd.
Excoffier L., and Z. Yang. 1999． Substitution rate variation among sites in mitochondrial hypervariable region I of humans and chimpanzees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 16:1357-1368．
Excoffier L.,and M.Slatkin.1995． Maximum-likelihood estimation of molecular haplotype frequencies in a diploid population.Mol.Biol.Evol. 12:921-927．
Excoffier L.,and P.Smouse.l994． Using allele frequencies and geographic subdivision to reconstruct gene genealogies within a species.Molecular variance parsimony.Genetics. 136:343-359．
Excoffier L.,Smouse P.,and QuattroJ.1992． Analysis of molecular variance inferred from metric distances among DNA haplotypes:Application to human mitochondrial DNA restriction
data.Genetics. 131:479-491．
Felsenstein J.1985． Confidence limits on phytogenies:An approach using the bootstrap.Evolution 39:783-791．
Felsenstein J.1988． Phylogenies from molecular sequences: Inference and reliability. Annu. Rev. Genet. 22:521-565．
Fitch W.M. and E.Margoliash.1967． Construction of phylogenetic trees.Science 155:279-284．
Fu Y.-X. and W.-H .Li. 1993． Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations.Genetics 133:693-709．
Fu Y.-X.1997． Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations against population growth, hitchhiking and background selection.Genetics147:915-925．
Garza J. C.,Woodruff D. S. 1992． A phylogentic study of the gibbons (Hylobates) using DNA obtained non-invasively from hair. Mol. Phyl. Evol.,1:202-210．
Giles R.E.1980． Maternal inheritance of human motochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 77:6715-6719．
Girman D.J., Vila C., Geffen E., Creel S., Mills M.G, McNutt J.W., Ginsberg J., Kat P.W., Mamiya K.H., Wayne R.K. 2001． Patterns of population subdivision, gene flow and genetic variability in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus).Mol Ecol. 10(7) : 1703-1723．
Gissi C., Gullberg A. and Arnason U. The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus. Genomics. 1998． 50(2) : 161-169．
Giuffra E., Kijas J.M., Amarger V., Carlborg O., Jeon J.T., Andersson L. 2000． The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and subsequent introgression.Genetics. 154(4) : 1785-91．
Glenn C. Johns and John C. Avise. 1998． A Comparative summary of genetic distances in the vertebrates from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Mol. Biol. Evol. 15(11) :1481-1490．
Golding G B. 1983． Estimates of DNA and protein sequence divergence: an examination of some assumptions. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1:125-142．
Green E.D., Baker C. 1996． The surface morphology of the omasum of the African goat.J S Afr Vet Assoc. 67(3) : 117-122．
Groves P., and Shields, G 1996． Phylogenetics of the Caprinae based on cytochrome b sequence. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 5: 467-476．
Guillemot E., F. Gary, H.M. Berland, V. Durand, R. Darre and E.P. Cribiu. 1991． Cytogenetic investigation in Saanen and Alpine artificial insemination bucks. Identification of a Robertsonian translocation. Genet. Sel. Evol. 23: 449-454．
Gustincich S., G.Manfioletti, GDel Sal, C.Schneider, and P.Carnichi.1991． A fast method for high quality genomic DNA extraction from whole human blood. Biotechniques 11:298-301．
Halanych K.M., and Robinson T. J. 1999． The utility of cytochrome b and 12S rDNA data for phylogeny reconstruction of leporid (Lagomorpha) genera. J. Mol. Evol. 48: 369-379．
Harlward T. M. 1992． Use of single primer DNA amplification in genetic studies of peanut(Arachis hypoaea L) .Plant molecular biology, 18:315-325．
Harpending, R. C., 1994． Signature of ancient population growth in a low-resolution mitochondrial DNA mismatch distribution. Hum. Biol. 66:591-600．
Harris D.R.1962． The distribution and ancestry of the domestic goat.Proc. Linn. Soc. London. 173:79．
Harris H. 1966． Enzyme polymorphism in man .Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond B 184:298-310．
Harrison R. G 1989． Animal mitochondrial DNA as a genetic makers in population and evolutionary biology.Trends Ecol. Evol. 4:6-11．
Hartl G.B.,Willing R.and Nadlinger K.1994． Allozymes in mammalian population genetics and systematics: indicative function of a maker system reconsidered. In: Schierwater B., Streit B., Wangner G P. and DeSalle R.(eds) Molecular Ecology and Evolution: Approaches and Applications,Birkhauser,Basel,pp.299-231．
Hassanin A., Lecointre G and Tillier S. 1998． The 'evolutionary signal' of homoplasy in protein-coding gene sequences and its consequences for a priori weighting in phylogeny. C. R. Acad. Sci. III, Sci. Vie 321 (7) : 611-620．
Hassanin A., Pasquet E. and Vigne J.-D. 1998． Molecular systematics of the subfamily Caprinae (Artiodactyla,Bovidae) as determined from cytochrome b sequences. J. Mammal. Evol. 5 (3) : 217-236．
Hatefi Y.1985． The mitochondrial electron transport and oxidative phosporylation system. Annu. Rev. Biochem 4:1015-1069．
Hauswirth W.W. and Laipis P. J. 1982． Mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in a maternal lineage of Holstein cows. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79 (15) : 4686-4690．
Hecht S.J., Stedman K.E., Carlson J.O., DeMartini J.C. 1996． Distribution of endogenous type B and type D sheep retrovirus sequences in ungulates and other mammals.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 93(8) :3297-302．
Helbig A. J.,and Seeibold I. 1996． Are storks and New World vultures paraphyletic? Mol. Phylogenent. Evol 6:315-319．
Hendy M.D.and D.Penny and M.A.Stell .1994． A discrete Fourier analysis of evolutionary trees. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.91:3339-3343．
Hendy M.D.and D.Penny. 1982． Branch and bound algorithms to determine minimal evolutionary tree.Math. Biosci.59:277-290．
Hendy M.D.and D.Penny. 1989． A framework for the quantitative study of evolutionary trees.Syst.Zool.38:297-309．
Hendy M.D.and D.Penny.1993． Spectral analysis of phylogenetic data.J.Classification 10:5-24．
Herre W.,and ROhrs M.1973． Haustiere-Zoologish Gesehen .G.Fisher,Stuttgart.
Herre W.1958． Abstannung und Domestikation der Haustiere.In Hammond J.,Johansson I., and Haring
F.(eds.),Handbuch der TierzUchtung, I,Paul Parey.Hamburg and Berlin.p.1．
Hershktovitz M.A.,and Lewis L.A.1996． Deep-Ievel diagnotic value of the Rdna-ITS region. Mol. Biol. Evol 13:1276-1295．
Hiendleder S., Kaupe B., Wassmuth R., Janke A. 2002． Molecular analysis of wild and domestic sheep questions current nomenclature and provides evidence for domestication from two different subspecies.Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 269(1494) :893-904．
Hiendleder, S., Mainz, K., Plante, Y. & Lewalski, H. 1998． The Complete Mitochondrial DNA sequence of the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and comparison with the other major Ovine haplotype. J. Hered. 89: 113-120．
Hiendleder.S. 1998． A low rate of replacement substitutions in two major Ovis aries mitochondrial genomes. Anim. Genet. 29 (2) : 116-122．
Hiendleder,S., Lewalski,H., Wassmuth,R. and Janke,A. 1998． The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and comparison with the other major ovine haplotype. J. Mol. Evol. 47 (4) : 441-448．
Hiendleder.S., Mainz,K., Plante,Y. and Lewalski.H. 1998． Analysis of mitochondrial DNA indicates that domestic sheep are derived from two different ancestral maternal sources: no evidence for contributions from urial and argali sheep. J. Hered. 89 (2) : 113-120．
Hill E.W., Bradley D.G, Al-Barody M., Ertugrul O., Splan R.K., Zakharov I., Cunningham E.P. 2002． History and integrity of thoroughbred dam lines revealed in equine mtDNA variation.Anim Genet. 33(4) :287-94．
Hillis D. M., and Huelsenbeck J. P. 1992． Signal, noise, and reliability in molecular phylogenetic analysis. J. Hered. 83: 189-195．
Hojny J. et al.1991． Animal Genetics.22:251-258．
Honeycutt R. L., M. A. Nedbal, R. M. Adkins, and L. L. Janecek. 1995． Mammalian mitochondrial DNA evolution: a comparison of the cytochrome b and cytochrome c oxi-dase II genes. J. Mol. Evol. 40:260-272．
Horai S., Kondo R., Murayama K., Hayashi S., Koike H., and Nakai N.1991． Phylogenetic affiliation of ancient and contemporary humans inferred from mitochondrial DNA. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B.Biol.Sci.333:409．
Huang Y. F., Shi X. W., Zhang Y. P. 1999． Mitochondrial genetic variation in Chinese pigs and wild boars. Biochem Genet. 37(11-12) :335-43．
Hutchinson C.A. et al. 1980． Maternal inheritance of mammalian mitochondrial DNA. Nature,251:536-538．
Igarashi M.L., Machado T.M., Ferro J.A., Contel E.P. 2000． Structure and genetic relationship among Brazilian naturalized and imported goat breeds.Biochem Genet. 38(11-12) :353-365．
Ikemura T. and S. Aota. 1998． Global variation in G+C content along vertebrate genome DNA. Possible correlation with chromosome band structure.J.Mol.Bio.203:1-13．
Ikemura T.1985． Condon usage and tRNA content in unicellular and multicellular organisms.Mol.Biol.Evol.2:13-34．
Ina Y.1995． New methods for estimating the number of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitution. J.Mol.Evol.40:190-226．
Irwin D. M, T. D. Kocher and A. C. Wilson. 1991． Evolution of the cytochrome b gene of mammals. J. Mol. Evol. 32: 128-144．
ISCNDA1989． 1990． International system for cytogenetics nomenclature of domestic animals. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 53: 65-79．
Jaszczak K, Parada R, Guszkiewicz A. 1999． Cytogenetic study of some tissues and age-related changes in cell proportions in a goat-sheep chimera.Cytogenet Cell Genet. 84(1-2) :55-57．
Jeffreys A. J., Wilson V., Thein S. L. 1985． Individual-specific "fingerprints" of human DNA. Nature,316:76-79．
Jermiin L. S., D. Graur, R. M. Lowe and R. H. Crozier. 1994． Analysis of directional mutation pressure and nucleotide content in mitochondrial cytochrome b genes. J. Mol. Evol. 39: 160-173．
Jin L. and Nei M. 1991． Relative efficiencies of the maximum-parsimony and distance-matrix methods of phylogeny construction for restriction data. Mol. Bid Evol. 8(3) :356-365．
Jin L., and M. Nei. 1990． Limitations of the evolutionary parsimony method of phylogenetic analysis. Mol. Biol. Evol. 7:82-102． .
Johns G C., and J. C. Avise. 1998． A comparative summary of genetic distances in the vertebrates from the mitochondrial cytochrome b. Mol. Biol. Evol. 15:1481-1490．
Johnson W.E., Slattery J.P., Eizirik E., Kim J.H., Raymond M.M., Bonacic C., Cambre R., Crawshaw P., Nunes A., Seuanez H.N., Moreira M.A., Seymour K.L., Simon F., Swanson W.,O'Brien S.J. 1999． Disparate phylogeographic patterns of molecular genetic variation in four closely related South American small cat species.Mol Ecol. 8(12 Suppl 1) :S79-94．
Jukes T. and Cantor C.1969． Evolution of protein molecules.In:Mammalian Protein Metabolism,edited by Munro HN,New York: Academic press,21-132．
Kahila Bar-Gal,G and Greenblatt,C. The relationships between Capra species from the southern Levant to other Capra species based on mitochondrial cytochrome b sequence.(Unpublished)
Katsumata M.,Amano T.,Tannaka K.,Nozawa K.,Bahk K.,Park B.,and Lee C.1982． Blood protein variations of the Korean native goats(in Japanese). Jap. J.Zootech.Sci.53:521．
Katsumata M.,Nozawa K.,Amano T.,Shinjyo A.,and Abe T. 1981． Blood protein gene constitution of Japanese Sannen breed of goat. Jap. J.Zootech. Sci.52:553．
Kenneth M. Halanych, John R. Demboski, Bettine Jansen van Vuuren, David R. Klein and Joseph A. Cook.
1999 .Cytochrome b Phylogeny of North American Hares and Jackrabbits (Lepus, Lagomorpha) and the Effects of Saturation in Outgroup Taxa. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 11( 2) : 213-221．
Kijas J.M., Andersson L. 2001． A phylogenetic study of the origin of the domestic pig estimated from the near-complete mtDNA genome.J Mol Evol. 52(3) :302-8．
Kikkawa Y., Amano T., Suzuki H. 1995． Analysis of genetic diversity of domestic cattle in east and Southeast Asia in terms of variations in restriction sites and sequences of mitochondrial DNA.Biochem Genet. 33(1-2) :51-60．
Kim K.I., Lee J.H., Li K., Zhang Y.P., Lee S.S., Gongora J., Moran C. 2002． Phylogenetic relationships of Asian and European pig breeds determined by mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequence polymorphism.Anim Genet. 33(1) :19-25．
Kim, K-II., Yang, Y-H., Lee, S-S., Park, C., Ma, R., Bouzat, J. L. & Lewin, H. A. 1999． Phylogenetic relationships of Cheju horses to other horse breeds as determined by mtDNA D-loop sequence polymorphism.Animal Genetics 2: 102-108．
Kim,K.S., Lee,S.E., Jeong,H.W. and Ha,J.H. 1998． The complete nucleotide sequence of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) mitochondrial genome. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 10 (2) : 210-220 .
Kimura M. 1983． The neutral theory of molecular evolution.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Kimura M.1980． A simple method for estimating evolutionary rate of base substitution through comparative studies of nucleotide sequence J.Mol.Evol. 16:111-120．
Kocher T. D., and A. C. Wilson. 1991． Sequence evolution of mitochondrial DNA in humans and chimpanzees: control region and protein-coding regions, pp. 391-413 in Evolution of Life: Fossils, Molecules and Culture, edited by S. Osawa and T. Honio. Springer Verlag, Tokyo.
Kocher T. D., R. K. Thomas, A. Meyer, S. V. Edwards, S. PAAbo, F. X. Viliablanca, and A. C. Wilson. 1989． Dynamics of mitochondrial DNA evolution in animals: ampli-fication and sequencing with conserved primers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:6196-6200．
Koike K., M. Kobayashi, K. Yaginuma, M. Taira, E. Yoshida, and M. Imai. 1982． Nucleotide sequence and evolution of the rat mitochondrial cytochrome b gene containing the ochre termination codon. Gene 20: 177-185．
Kraus E, and M. Miyamoto. 1991． Rapid cladogenesis among the pecoran ruminants: evidence from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Syst. Zool. 40:117-130．
Kumar S., K.Tamura and M.Nei.l994． MEGA: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis software for microcomputers.Comput. Appl. Biosci.10:189-191．
Kumar S., K.Tamura I. Jakobsen and M.Nei. 2000． MEGA: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis, ver.2． Pennsylvania State University,University Park,and Arizona State University,Tempe.
Kumar S.,and S.B.Hedges.1998． A molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution. Nature 392:917-919．
Kumar S.1996． A stepwise algorithm for finding minimum evolution trees.Mol.Biol.Evol. 13:584-593．
Kumar S.1996． Pattern of nucleotide substitution in mitochondrial protein coding genes of vertebrates.Genetics 143:537-548．
Lagonigro R., Pietrola E., D'Andrea M., Veltri C., Pilla F. 2001． Molecular genetic characterization of the goat s2-casein E allele.Anim Genet. 32(6) :391-393．
Lansman R. A. 1983． Critical experiment test of the possibility of "panternal leakage" of mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acid. Sci. USA,80:1969-1971．
Lau, C. H., Drinkwater, R. D., Yusoff, K., Tan, S. G., Hetzel, D. J. & Barker, J. S. 1998． Genetic diversity of Asian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): mitochondrial DNA D-loop and cytochrome b sequence variation Anim. Genet. 29: 253-264．
Lau, C. H., Drinkwater, R. D., Yusoff, K., Tan, S. G, Hetzel, D. J. S. & Barker, J. S. F. 1998． Genetic diversity of Asian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): mitochondrial DNA D-loop and cytochrome b sequence variation. Animal Genetics 29 (4) : 253-264
Lauvergne J.J., Renieri C., Audiot A. 1987． Estimating erosion of phenotypic variation in a French goat population.J Hered. 78(5) :307-14．
Lewontin R.C. and Hubby J.L.1966． Amolecular approach to the study of genie heterozygosity in natural populations. II.Amount of variation and degree of heterozygosity in natural populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics. 54:595-609．
Li W. H., 1977． Distribution of nucleotide differences between two randomly chosen cistrons in a finite population.Genetics 85:331-337．
Li Jin and Masatoshi Nei. 1991． Relative efficiencies of the maximum-parsimony and distance-matrix methods of phylogeny construction for restriction data. Mol. Bid Evol. 8(3) :356-365． .
Li W.-H. 1997． Molecular evolution. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass.
Lin,C.S., Sun,Y.L., Liu,C.Y, Yang,P.C., Chang, L.C., Cheng,I.C., Mao,S.J. and Huang,M.C. 1999． Complete nucleotide sequence of pig (Sus scrofa) mitochondrial genome and dating evolutionary divergence within Artiodactyla.Gene. 236(1) : 107-114．
Loftus R.T., MacHugh D.E., Ngere L.O., Balain D.S., Badi A.M., Bradley D.G, Cunningham E.P. 1994． Mitochondrial genetic variation in European, African and Indian cattle populations.Anim Genet. 25(4) :265-271．
Loftus, R. T, Ertugrul, O., Harba, A. H., El-Barody, M. A., MacHugh, D. E., Park, S. D. & Bradley, D. G 1999． A microsatellite survey of cattle from a centre of origin: the Near East . Mol. Ecol. 8: 2015-2022．
Loftus, R. T., MacHugh, D. E., Bradley, D. G, Sharp, P. M. & Cunningham, P. 1994． Evidence for two independent domestication of cattle. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91: 2757-2761．
Lopez,J.V., Cevario,S. and O'Brien.S.J. 1996． Complete nucleotide sequences of the domestic cat (Felis catus) mitochondrial genome and a transposed mtDNA tandem repeat (Numt) inthe nuclear genome. Genomics 33 (2) : 229-246 .
Lubchenco J. et al. 1991． The sustainable biosphete initiative: An Ecological Research Agenda. Ecology.72(2) :371-412．
Luikart Q Biju-Duval MP, Ertugrul O, Zagdsuren Y, Maudet C, Taberlet P. 1999． Power of 22 microsatellite markers in fluorescent multiplexes for parentage testing in goats (Capra hircus).Anim Genet. 30(6) :431-8．
Luikart G, Gielly L., Excoffier L., Vigne J.D., Bouvet J., Taberlet P. 2001． Multiple maternal origins and weak phylogeographic structure in domestic goats.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 98(10) :5927-32．
Lydeard C., and K. J. Roe. 1997． The phylogenetic utility of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene for inferring relationships among Actinopterygian fishes. Pp. 285-303 in T. D. Kocher and C. A. Stepien, eds. Molecular systematics offish. Academic Press, New York.
Ma D.-P, A. Zharkikh, D. Graur, J. L. Vandeberg, and W.-H. Li. 1993． Structure and evolution of oppossum, guin ea pig, and porcupine cytochrome b genes. J. Mol. Evol. 36:327-334．
Ma Ning, Li Yongjun,Lou Yujie et al. 1996． Study on polymorphism of blood proteins in Liaoning and Inner Mongolian cashmere goats.In:Intenational conference on goats,Vol 1． Beijing:International Academic Pub.,213-215．
MacHugh D.E., Troy C.S., McCormick R, Olsaker I., Eythorsdottir E., Bradley D.G 1999． Early medieval cattle remains from a Scandinavian settlement in Dublin: genetic analysis and comparison with extant breeds.Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 354(1379) :99-108; discussion 108-109．
MacHugh, D. E., Shriver, M. D., Loftus, R. T, Cunningham, P. & Bradley, D. G 1997． Microsatellite DNA Variation and the Evolution, Domestication and Phylogeography of Taurine and Zebu Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus).Genetics 146: 1071-1086．
Mannen H, Nagata Y, Tsuji S. 2001． Mitochondrial DNA reveal that domestic goat (Capra hircus) are genetically affected by two subspecies of bezoar (Capra aegagurus).Biochem Genet. 39(5-6) : 145-54．
Mannen H., Tsuji, S., Loftus, R. T. & Bradley, D. G 1998． Mitochondrial DNA Variation and Evolution of Japanese Black Cattle (Bos taunts). Genetics. 150: 1169-1175．
Mannen I.I., Kojima T.,Oyama K.,Mukai F.,Ishida,T.,and Tsuji,S.1998． Effect of mitochondrial DNA variation on carcass traits of Japanese cattle.J.Anim.Sci. USA 91:2757．
Mason I.L.1984． Evolution of domesticated animal.Longman,London.
McNeely J . A .et al. 1992． Parks for Life. Gland, Switzerland :IUCN.
McNeely J .A. et al. 1990 .Conserving the World's Biological Diversity .Washington ,D. C . and Gland. Switzerland.
Meadow A. 1993． Animal domestication in the Middle East: a revised view from the Eastern margin, pp.
295-320 in Harappar Civilization, edited by G Possehl. Oxfird abd IBH, New Dehli.
Mercier J., J. Vilotte, and C. Provot. 1990． Structure and function of milk protein genes. Pp. 233-258 in H. Gelderman and E. Ellendorf, eds. Genome analysis in domestic animals. Weinheim, New York.
Meyer A,Wilson A C. 1990． Origion of tetrapods inferred from their mitochondrial DNA affiliation to lungfish. J, Mol. Evol 31:359-364．
Meyer A. 1994． Shortcomings of the cytochrome b gene as a molecular marker. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9:278-280．
Meyer A.,Kocher T. D.,Basasibwakip et al. 1990 .Monophyletic origion of lake victoria cichild fishes suggested by mitochondrial DNA sequences. Nature 347:550-553．
Mikkel H. Schierup and Jotun Hein. 2000． Consequences of recombination on traditional phylogenetic analysis. Genetics 156: 879-891．
Montgomery GW., H.M. Henry, K.G Dodds, A.E. Beattie, T. Wuliji, and A.M. Crawford. 1996． Mapping the Horns (Ho) locus in sheep: A further locus controlling horn development in domestic animals. J. Hered. 87: 358-363．
Moore S.S., Sargeant L., King T.J., Mattick J.S., Georges M. & Hetzel D.J.S. 1991． The conservation of dinucleotide microsatellites among mammalian genomes allows the use of heterologous PCR primer pairs in closely related species. Genomics 10: 654-660．
Moore W. S., and V. R. Defilippis. 1997． The window of taxonomic resolution for phylogenies based on mitochondrial cytochrome b. Pp. 83-119 in D. P. MINDELL, ed. Avian molecular evolution and systematics. Academic Press, New York.
Moreiro M. A. M., and H. N. Seuanez. 1999． Mitochondrial pseudogenes and phyletic relationships of Cebuella and callithrix (Platyrrhini, Primates). Primates 40(2) :353-364．
Moritz c. 1995． Use of molecular phylogenies for conservation. London:Philosophical transactions of the Royal society.349(B):113-118．
Mortiz C. 1994． Applications of mitochondrial DNA analysis in conservations critical review. Molec. Ecol. ,401-411．
Mortiz C. 1994． Defining evolutionary significant units for conservation. Trends Ecol. Evol, 373-375．
Mortiz C., T. E. Dowling, and W. M. Brown. 1987． Evolution of animal mitochondrial DNA: relevance for population biology and systematics. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:269-292
Mullis K.B., Faloona F.A. 1987． specific synthesis of DNA in virto via a polymerase catalysed chain reaction. Meth Enzymol, 155:335-350．
Nei M. 1987． Molecular Evolutionary Genetics. New York:Columbia University Press.
Nei M,and W.H.Li.1979． Mathematical model for studying genetic variation in terms of restriction endonucleases. Proc. Natl. Acid. Sci. USA,76:5269-5273．
Nei M. ,and Tajima F. 1981． DNA polymorphism detectable by restriction endnucleases. Genetics
97:145-163．
Nei M.,S.Kumar,K.Takahashi.l998． The optimization principle in phylogenetic analysis tends to give incorrect topologies when the number of nucleotides or amino acids used is small. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:12390-12397．
Nei M.1975． Molecular population genetics and evolution. North-Holland, Amsterdam,The Netherlands.
Okumura N., Kurosawa Y., Kobayashi E., Watanobe T., Ishiguro N., Yasue H.,Mitsuhashi T. 2001． Genetic relationship amongst the major non-coding regions of mitochondrial DNAs in wild boars and several breeds of domesticated pigs.Anim Genet. 32(3) : 139-47．
Oppenheim S.M., Moyer A.L., Bondurant R.H., Rowe J.D., Anderson GB. 2000 . Successful pregnancy in goats carrying their genetically identical conceptus.Theriogenology. 54(4) :629-639．
Orita M., Suzuki T.,Hayashi K.1989． Rapid and sensitive detection of point mutation and DNA polymorphisms using the polymerase chain reaction.Genomics,5:874-879．
Osawa S.1995． Evolution of the genetic code.Oxford University Press,Oxford,U.K.
Paabo S. 1985． A new key to freshwater and soil gymnamoebae. Freshwater Biological Association ,Ambleside,Cumbia,UK.
Parma P., Feligini M., Noe L., Aleandri R., Iametti S., Greppi GF., Enne G 1999． Detection of the goat as2-casein genetic variants by ASA-PCR.Anim Genet. 30(3) :231．
Parsons T. J., D. S. Muniec, K. Sullivan, N. Woodyatt, R. Alliston-Greiner et al. 1997． A high observed substitution rate in the human mitochondrial DNA control region. Nat. Genet. 15:363-368．
Piumi F., L. Schibler, D. Vaiman, A. Oustry, and E.P. Cribiu. 1998． Comparative cytogenetic mapping reveals chromosome rearrangements between the X chromosomes of two closely related Mammalian species (cattle and goats). Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 81: 36-41．
Plante Y., Schmutz S. M., Lang K. et al. 1991． Detection of leucochimates in bovine twins by DNA fingerprinting. Anim. Genet. ,23:295-302．
Ponce de Leon, F.A., S. Ambady, GA. Hawkins, S.M. Kappes, M.D. Bishop, J.M. Robl, and C.W. Beattie. 1996． Development of a bovine X chromosome linkage group and painting probes to assess cattle, sheep, and goat X chromosome segment homologies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 93: 3450-3454．
Powell J.R.1994． Moleculartechniques in populations genetics: A brief history. In: Schierwater B., Streit B., Wangner G P. and DeSalle R.(eds) Molecular Ecology and Evolution: Approaches and Applications,Birkhauser,Basel,pp. 131-151．
Pragati P. et al.1987． Hemoglobin polymorphism in Ganjam and black Bengad goats. Indian Vet J.666-668．
Pringle H. 1998． NEOLITHIC AGRICULTURE: Reading the signs of ancient animal domestication . Science 282: 1448．
Ramunno L., Cosenza G, Pappalardo M., Longobardi E., Gallo D., Pastore N., Di Gregorio P., Rando A. 2001． Characterization of two new alleles at the goat CSN1S2 locus.Anim Genet. 32(5) :264-8．
Ramunno L., Longobardi E., Pappalardo M., Rando A., Di Gregorio P., Cosenza G, Mariani P., Pastore N., Masina P. 2001． An allele associated with a non-detectable amount of alpha s2 casein in goat milk. Anim Genet. 32(1) :19-26．
Rand, A. L. 1994． Thermal habit, metabolic rate and the evolution of mitochondrial DNA. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9:125-131．
Raup D.M. 1986． Biological extinction in earth history. Science 231: 1528-1533．
Raymond M., and F. Rousset. 1995． An exact test for population differentiation. Evolution 49: 1280-1283．
Ricordeau G.1991． In Genetic resources of pig, sheep ang goat (edit by Maijala K.).471-474,Elsevier science publishers B.V.,Amsterdam.
Rider C.C.,Taylor C.B. 范培昌译.1980． 同工酶.北京：科学出版社 (1987) .
Robinson D. R, and L. R. Foulds. 1981． Comparison of phylogenetic trees. Math. Biosci.53:131-147．
Roger A. 1995． Genetic evidence for a Pleistocene population explosion. Evolution 49:608-615．
Roger A.R. and H.Harpending.1992． Population growth makes waves in the distribution of pairwise genetic differences.Mol.Biol.Evol.9:552-569．
Rohl A., Brinkmann B., Forster L., Forster P. 2001． An annotated mtDNA database.Int J Legal Med. 115(1) :29-39．
Rozas J. and Rozas ,R. 1999． DnaSP version 3:an integrated program for molecular population genetics and molecular evolution analysis. Bioinformatics 15:174-175．
Saiki R. K., Gelfand D. H., Stoffel S. et al. 1988． Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase.Science,239:481-479．
Saitbekova N, Gaillard C, Obexer-Ruff G, Dolf G 1999． Genetic diversity in Swiss goat breeds based on microsatellite analysis.Anim Genet. 30(1) :36-41．
Saitou N., and T. Imanishi. 1989． Relative efficiencies of the Fitch-Margoliash, maximum-parsimony, maximum-likelihood, minimum-evolution, and neighbor-joining methods of phylogenetic tree construction in obtaining the correct tree. Mol. Biol. Evol 6:514-525．
Saitou, N., and M. Nei 1987． The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 4:406-425．
Sanger F. 1977． DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acid. Sci. USA,74:5463-5467．
Scherthan H. .Cremer T. .Aranason U. et al. 1994． Comparative chromosome painting disclose homologous segments in distantly related mammals. Nature Genet.,6:342-347．
Schibler L., D.Vaiman, A. Oustry, C. Giraud-Delville, and Edmond P. C. 1998． Comparative gene mapping: A fine-scale survey of chromosome rearrangements between ruminants and humans. Genome research. 8:901-915．
Schibler L., E. P. Cribiu, A.Oustry-Vaiman, Jean-Pierre F.,and D. Vaiman. 2000． Fine mapping suggests
that the goat Polled Intersex Syndrome and the human Blepharophimosis Ptosis Epicanthus Syndrome map to a 100-kb homologous Region. Genome Research. 10:311-318．
Schreiber A., Seibold I., Notzold G, Wink M. 1999． Cytochrome b gene haplotypes characterize chromosomal lineages of anoa, the Sulawesi dwarf buffalo (Bovidae: Bubalus sp.). J Hered. 90(1) :165-176．
Schroth W.,Streit B.and Schierwater B.1996． Evolutionary handicap for sea turtles.Nature.384:521-522．
Simon C. F. , Frati F,Beckenbach A. et al. 1994． Evolution, weighting, and phylogenetic utility of mitochondrial gene sequences and a compilation of conserved polymerase chain reaction primers. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am 87(6) :651-701．
Sitnikova T. .A.Rzhetsky and M.Nei.l995． Interior-branch and bootstrap tests of phylogenetic trees.Mol.Biol.Evol.12:319-333．
Sitnikova T.1996． Bootstrap method of interior-branch test for phylogenetic trees. Mol.Biol.Evol. 13:605-611．
Soller M., B. Padeh, M. Wysoki, and N. Ayalon. 1969． Cytogenetics of Saanen goats showing abnormal development of the reproductive tract associated with the dominant gene for polledness. Cytogenetics 8: 51-37．
Soltis D.E.,Soltis P.S.,Nickrent D.L. et al.1997． Angiosperm phylogeny inferred from 18S ribosomal DNA sequences Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 84:1-49．
Sonja Meyer, Cunter Weiss and Arndt von Haeseler. 1999． Pattern of nucleotide substitution and rate heterogeneity in hypervariable regions I and II of human mtDNA. Genetics, 152:1103-1110．
Sourdis J., and C. Krimbas. 1987． Accuracy of phylogenetic trees estimated from DNA sequence data. Mol. Biol. Evol. 4: 159-166．
Sourdis J., and M. Nei. 1988． Relative efficiencies of the maximum parsimony and distance-matrix methods in obtaining the correct phylogenetic tree. Mol. Biol. Evol. 5:298-3 11．
Sudhir Kumar, Koichiro Tamura, Ingrid B. Jakobsen, and Masatoshi Nei .2001． MEGA2: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis software, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA.
Sueoka N.1962． On the genetic basis of variation and heterogeneity of DNA base composition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA48:582-592．
Suzuki S. and Stormont C.1961 .Immunogenetic letters.2:47-48．
Suzuki S. et al.1960． I Tierzucht Zuchtungsbiol.74:236-247．
Swofford D. L. and W. P. Maddison. 1987． Reconstructing ancestral character states under Wagner parsimony. Mathematical Biosciences 87:199-229．
Swofford D. L., G J. Olsen, P. J. Waddell, and D. M. Hillis. 1996． Phylogenetic inference. 407-514 in D. M. Hillis, C. Moritz, and B. K. Mable (ed.),Molecular Systematics, 2nd edition. (Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, Massachusetts).
Swofford D. L.and D.P.Begle.1993． PAUP:Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony,ver.3． 1 user's manual. Illionois Natural History Survey.Champaign, IL.
Swofford D. L. 1991． When are phytogeny estimates from morphological and molecular data incongruent? 295-333． in: M. M. Miyamoto and J. Cracraft (ed.), Phylogenetic Analysis of DNA Sequences (Oxford University Press: New York, N. Y.).
Swofford D. L. and G J. Olsen. 1990． Phytogeny reconstruction. 411-501． in D. M. Hillis and C. Moritz (ed.), Molecular Systematics (Sinauer Associates:Sunderland, Massachusetts).
Swofford D. L. and S. H. Berlocher. 1987． Inferring evolutionary trees from gene frequency data under the principle of maximum parsimony. Systematic Zoology 36:293-325．
Swofford D. L. and W. P. Maddison. 1992． Parsimony, character-state reconstructions, and evolutionary inferences. 186-223 in R. L. Mayden (ed.), Systematics, Historical Ecology, and North American Freshwater Fishes (Stanford University Press: Stanford).
Tajima F. 1996． The amount of DNA polymorphism maintained in a finite population when the neutral mutation rate varies among sites.Genetics143:1457-1465．
Tajima F. and Nei M.1984． Estimation of evolutionary distance between nucleotide sequences.Mol.Biol.Evol. 1:269-285．
Tajima F.1983． Evolutonary relationship of DNA sequences in finite population.Genetics105:437-640．
Tajima F.1989． Statistical method for testing the neutral mutation hypothesis by DNA polymorphism.Genetics123:585-589．
Tajima F.I 993． Measurement of DNA polymorphism.In:Mechanisms of Molecular Evolution. Introduction to Molecular Paleopopulation Biology,edited by Takahata N.and Clark A.G,Tokyo,Sunderland,MA:Japan Scientific Societies Press.Sinaure Associates,Inc.37-59．
Takada T, Kikkawa Y, Yonekawa H, Kawakami S, Amano T. 1997． Bezoar (Capra aegagrus) is a matriarchal candidate for ancestor of domestic goat (Capra hircus): evidence from the mitochondrial DNA diversity.Biochem Genet. 35(9-10) :315-26．
Tamura K.,and Nei M.1993． Estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions in the control region of mitochondrial DNA in human and chimpanzees. Mol.Biol.Evol.10:512．
Tanaka-Ueno T, Matsui M, Chen S L et al. 1998． Phylogenetic relationships of brown frogs from Taiwan and Japan assessed by mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences(Rana:Ranidae).Zool. Sci. 15:283-288．
Tanaka-Ueno T, Matsui M, Sato T et al.1998． Phylogenetical relationships of brown frogs with 24 chromosomes from Far East Russia and Hokkaido assessed by mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences(Rana:Ranidae).Zool. Sci. 15:289-294．
Tananka T ,Matsui M, Takenaka O . 1996． Phylogenetic relationships of Japanese brown frogs (Rana:Ranidae) assessed by cytochrome b gene sequences. Bioch. Syst. Ecol24(4) :299-307．
Tananka T ,Matsui M,Takenaka O et al. 1994． Estimation of phylogenetic relationships among Japanese brown frogs from mitochondrial cytochrome b gene(amphibia:anura).Zoological Science 11:753-757．
Tautz D.1989． Hyper variability of simple sequence as a general source for polymorphic DNA makers. Nucleic Acids Research,17:6463-6471．
Thompson J. D., Gibson T.J., Plewniak F., Jeanmougin R, and Higgins D. G 1997． The Clustal X windows interface:flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools. Nucl. Acids Res 24:4867-4882．
Thompson,J. D., Higgins,D. G.,and Gibson,T.J.1994． Clustal W:Improying the sensitivity of progressive multiple alignment through sequence weighting. Nucl. Acids Res 22:4673-4680．
Threadgill D., and J. Womack. 1990． Genomic analysis of the major bovine milk protein genes. Nucleic Acids Res. 18:6935-6942．
Toelle V.D.et al.1986． Cytoplasmic effects in swine.J.Anim.Sci.63(suppl.):203．
Troy C.S., MacHugh D.E., Bailey J.R, Magee D.A., Loftus R.T., Cunningham P., Chamberlain A.T., Sykes B.C., Bradley D.G. 2001． Genetic evidence for Near-Eastern origins of European cattle Nature. 410(6832) :1088-91．
Upholt W.B. et al.1977． Mapping of mitochondrial DNA of individual sheep and goats:rapid evolution in the D-loop region.Cell,11:571-583．
Vaiman D., E. Pailhoux, L. Schibler, A. Oustry, S. Chaffaux,C. Cotinot, M. Fellous, and E.P. Cribiu. 1997． Genetic mapping of the polled/intersex locus (PIS) in goats.Theriogenology 47: 103-109．
Vaiman D., L. Schibler, A. Oustry-Vaiman, E. Pailhoux, T. Goldammer, M. Stevanovic, J.P. Furet, M. Schwerin, C. Cotinot, M. Fellous et al. 1999． High-resolution Human/Goat comparative map of the goat Polled/Intersex syndrome (PIS): The human homologue is contained in a human YAC from HSA3q23． Genomics 56: 31-39．
Vaiman D., L. Schibler, F. Bourgeois, A. Oustry, Y. Amigues, and E.P. Cribiu. 199b6． A genetic linkage map of the male goat genome. Genetics 144: 279-305．
Vaiman D., O. Koutita A. Oustry, J.M. Elsen, E. Manfredi, M. Fellous, and E.P. Cribiu. 1996a. Genetic mapping of the autosomal region involved in XX sex-reversal and horn development in goats. Mamm. Genome 7: 133-137．
Vigne J.D.,Carrere L.Saliege J.F.,Person A.,Bocherens H.,Guilaine J.&Briois F.2000． in Proc.4th Int. Symp. on Archzeozoology of Southwestern Asia and adjacent areos(Archaeological Research and Consultancy.Publication 32,Gronigne,The Netherlands),pp.A83-A106．
Vila C., Savolainen P., Maldonado J. E.,Amorim I. R., Rice J. E., Honeycutt R. L, Crandall K. A., Lundeberg J. & Wayne R. K. 1997． Multiple and ancient origins of the domestic Dog . Science 276, 1687-1689．
Vila C., Leonard J. A., Gotherstrom A., Marklund S., Sandberg K., Liden K., Wayne R. K. & Ellegren
H. 2001． Widespread origins of domestic horse lineages.Science 291: 474-477．
Vila C., Maldonado J.E., Wayne R.K. 1999． Phylogenetic relationships, evolution, and genetic diversity of the domestic dog.J Hered. 90(1) :71-77．
Vos P.,Hoghers R., Bleeker M.et al. 1995． AFLP:a new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nucleic Acids Research 23(21) :4407-4414．
Wakeley J. 1993． Substitution rate variation among sites in hyperva riable region 1 of human mitochondrial DNA. J. Mol. Evol. 37: 613-623．
Ward P., B. L. Frazier K. Dew-Jager and S. Paabo. 1991． Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerindian tribe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 8720-8724．
Watanable T. et al. 1985． Polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA in pigs based on restriction enddonuclease cleavage pattern. Biochem. Gent. 23(11-12) : 105-113．
Watanable T. et al. 1989． Pig mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in native Philippine cattle based on restriction endonuclease cleavage patterns. Biochem. Gent. 27(7-8) :431-438．
Watanable T. et al.1986． Pig mitochondrial DNA:polymoriphism,restriction map orientation and sequence data. Biochem. Gent.24(5-6) ,385-395．
Watanable T.,Hayashi Y.,Semba R.,Ogaswara N. 1985． Bovine mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in restriction endonuclease cleavage patterns and the location of the polymorphic sites. Biochem. Gent.23(11-12) :945-957．
Watanobe T., Ishiguro N., Nakano M., Takamiya H.., Matsui A., Hongo H. 2002． Prehistoric Introduction of domestic pigs onto the Okinawa Islands: Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence.J Mol Evol. 55(2) :222-231．
Watanobe, T., Okumura, N., Ishiguro, N., Nakano, M., Matsui, A., Sahara, M. & Komatsu, M. 1999 .Genetic relationship and distribution of the Japanese wild boar (Sus scrqfa leucomystax) and Ryukyu wild boar (Sus scrqfa riukiuanus) analysed by mitochondrial DNA. Mol. Ecol. 8: 1509-1512．
Welsh J., McClelland M. 1990． Fingerprinting genome using PCR with arbitrary primers. Nucleic Acids Research, 18:7213-7218．
Williams J. G K. et al. 1990． DNA polymorphism amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic makers. Nucleic Acids.,18:6531-6535．
Wilson A. C., L. R. Maxson, and V. M. Sarich. 1974． Two types of molecular evolution. Evidence from studies of interspecific hybridization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 71: 2843-2847．
Wilson A. C., V. M. Sarich, and L. R. Maxson. 1974． The importance of gene rearrangement in evolution: evidence from studies on rates of chromosomal, protein, and anatomical evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 71:3028-3030．
Wilson E. O. et al .1988 .The current state of biological diversity. In Wilson E. O. and Francis M. Peter (eds.) ,Biodiversity. National Academy Press ,Washington D. C.
Wlson A. C., R. L. Cann, S. M. Carr, M. Geoge, U. B. Gyliensten, K. M. Helimbychowski, R. G Higuchi, S. R. Palumbi, E. M. Prager, R. D. Sage, and M. Stoneking.1985． Mitochondrial DNA and two perspectives on evolutionary genetics. Biol. J. Linnaean Sot. 26:375-400．
Wood N. J., Phua S.H.1996． Variation in the control sequence of the sheep mitochondrial genome. Anim. Genet. 27:25-33．
Wyman A.R. and White R.1980． Ahighly polymorphic locus in human DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 77:6754-6758．
Xu,X. and Arnason,U. 1994． The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the horse, Equus caballus: extensive heteroplasmy of the control region. Gene. 148 (2) : 357-362 .
Xu,X., Gullberg,A. and Arnason,U. 1996． The complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the donkey and mtDNA comparisons among four closely related mammalian species-pairs.J, Mol. Evol. 43 (5) : 438-446 .
Xu,X., Janke,A. and Arnason,U. 1996． The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the greater Indian rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis, and the Phylogenetic relationship among Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla (+ Cetacea). Mol. Biol. Evol. 13 (9) : 1167-1173．
Xue-Mei LD, Yun-Xin Fu, and Ya-Ping Zhang . 2002． Evolution of Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Pseudogene in Genus Nycticebus. Mol. Biol. Evol 19(12) :2337-2341．
Yahyaoui M.H., Coll A., Sanchez A., Folch J.M. 2001． Genetic polymorphism of the caprine kappa casein gene.J Dairy Res. 68(2) :209-16．
Yang Z. & Kumar S. 1996． Approximate methods for estimating the pattern of nucleotide substitution and the variation of substitution rates among sites. Mol. Biol. Evol. 13: 650-659．
Yang F. T. et al. 1990． A comparative study of karyotypes of muntjacs by chromosome painting. Chromosoma, 103:642-652．
Yang L.,Zhao S.H.,Li K.,Peng Z. Z.,Montgomery GW.1999． Determinationof genetic relationships among five indigenous Chinese goat breeds with six microsatellite markers.Anim. Gent.30:452-455．
Yoder A. D., Cartmill M, Ruvolo M et al. 1996． Ancient single origin for Malagasy primates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 93:5122-5126．
Yoder A.D,Vilgalys R., Ruvolo M.1996． Molecular evolutionary dynamics of cytochrome b in Strepsirrhine primates :the phylogenetic significance of third-position transversions. Mol. Biol. Evol. 13(10) :1339-1350．
Yu Y.Nie L.,He Z-Q., Wen J-K., Jian C-S. & Zhang Y-P. 1999． Mitochondrial DNA variation in cattle of South China: origin and introgression. Animal Genetics 30 (4) : 245-250．
Zeder, M. A. & Hesse, B. 2000． The Initial Domestication of goats (Capra hircus) in the Zagros mountains 10,000 years Ago. Science 287: 2254-2257．
Zeuner F.E.1963． A history of domesticated animals,Hutchinson,London.
Zhang Y P, Ryder O. A . 1994． Phylogenetic relationships of bears (the Ursidae ) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol. Phylogent. Evol. 3:351-359．
Zhang Y. P., Ryder O.A. 1994． Non-invasive giant panda paternity exclusion. Zoo Biolog,14:569-573．
陈宏等，1995，家畜线粒体 DNA(mtDNA)的研究，黄牛杂志，21(1)：7-13。
陈灵芝(主编)．1993．中国的生物多样性———现状与保护对策，北京：科学出版社。
陈永久，张亚平，沈发荣 等．1999．中国5中珍稀绢蝶非损伤性取样的 mtDNA 序列及系统进化．遗传学报．26(3)：203-207。
陈幼春．1998．家养动物(见《中国生物多样性国情研究报告》)．中国环境科学出版社．123-126。
村松青著，郭荣昌译．1988．动物染色体。哈尔滨：黑龙江人民出版社．116-169。
达尔文，叶晓(译)．1982．动物和植物在家养下的变异．北京：科学出版社，76—77。
渡边诚喜等．1965，日畜会报．36：293-298。
冯维祺等．1997．中国家养动物品种资源浅析．畜牧兽医学报．28(4)；300-303。
葛颂，洪德元．1994．遗传多样性及其检测方法．生物多样性研究的原理和方法(钱迎倩，马克平 主编)．北京：中国科学技术出版社。
郭郛，李约瑟(英)，成庆泰著．1999．中国古代动物史．科学出版社．407-410。
黄勇富，张亚平等．1998．猪线粒体 DNA 多态性与中国地方猪种起源分化的关系．遗传学报．25(40)：322～329．
黄勇富．1996．中国主要地方猪种遗传多样性及其起源分化研究，四川农业大学博士学位论文。
季维置，宿兵主编．1998．遗传多样性研究的原理和方法．浙江科学技术出版社．44。
贾永红，简承松等，1999．贵州四个山羊品种mtDNA多态性及起源分化．动物学研究 20(2)：88～92。
蒋英，陶雍．1988．中国山羊．西安：陕西科学技术出版社．1—4。
兰宏，王文，施立明．1993．西南地区家猪和野猪 mtDNA 遗传多样性研究．遗传学报．22(1)：283。
兰宏，熊习昆，林世英等，1993．云南黄牛和大额牛的 mtDNA 多态性研究．遗传学报．20(5)：415。
李建文．1987．奶山羊血清运铁蛋白类型与产奶量和繁殖性能的关系研究．畜牧兽医杂志．2：7-9。
李祥龙，张亚平，陈圣偶等，1997．山羊品种间线粒体 DNA 限制性片段长度多态性研究．动物学研究．18(4)：421—428。
李祥龙．1997．我国主要地方山羊品种遗传多样性及其起源分化研究，四川农业大学博士学位论文。
李远超，朱海，张富全．1996．绒山羊毛色遗传规律．见：中国山羊业的成就和进展，赵有璋主编．北京：中国农业出版社，53-56。
铃木正三等．1956．日畜会报，27；115-119。
龙继蓉．2001．中国家兔遗传多样性研究，四川农业大学博士学位论文。
吕宝中，钟扬，高莉萍 等译．Massatoshi N.,Sudhir K[美]著．2002．分子进化与系统发育．北京：高等教育出版社．64-73。
罗玉柱．1997．山羊育种原理与实践．甘肃：甘肃科学技术出版社．30-34。
马月辉．1999．中国家养动物多样性概况．生物多样性．5：394-399。
欧阳叙向．1994．湖南地方山羊品种血液蛋白多态性研究．全国山羊生产与科技成果交流大会论文．中国．郑州。
山西农业大学 主编．1981．养羊学．北京：中国农业出版社．1-3。
宿兵等．1995．中国小熊猫(Ailurus fulgens)的遗传多样性．中国的遗传学研究。
宿兵等．1996．中国黑冠长臂猿的分子系统学研究．中国科学，26：414-419。
王杰，钟勇，欧阳熙等．1994．高原型和山谷型藏羊生态特征比较研究．西南民族学院学报．3：293-298。
王杰，钟勇，王永等．1993．安哥拉山羊血液蛋白多态性研究．西南民族学院学报．1：19-24。
王义权，周开亚，徐珞珊 等．1999．几种游蛇的 cyt b 基因片段分析及其演化关系．动物学报，45(3)：332-338．
王永等编著．1998．中国绒山羊研究．四川科学技术出版社．54-86。
王永，王杰，郑玉才等．1998．成都麻羊血液生化遗传标记的研究．西南民族学院学报．3：293-299．
谢成侠著．1985．中国农史研究丛书——《中国养牛羊史(附养鹿简史)》．北京：农业出版社．140。
叶绍辉，王文等．1998．云南保种山羊线粒体 DNA 限制性酶切研究．中国畜牧杂志．34(3)：11～12。
张才骏等．1990．青海山羊血红蛋白多态性研究．青海畜牧兽医杂志．4：5-6。
张亚平，施立明．1992．动物线粒体 DNA 多态性的研究概况．动物学研究．13(3)：289—298。
张亚平，王文，宿兵等．1995．大熊猫微卫星 DNA 的筛选及其应用．动物学研究，16：301-306。
张亚平．1997．长臂猿的 DNA 序列进化及其系统发育研究．遗传学报，24(3)：231-237。
赵建成，吴跃峰主编．2002．生物资源学．北京：科学出版社．270-289。
赵兴波，李宁，吴常信．1998．猪线粒体 DNA D-loop PCR-RFLP 分析．中国农业大学学报，3(5)：13-17。
赵有璋．2001．试论 21 世纪初叶我国养羊业的可持续发展问题．全国养羊生产与学术研讨会议论文集．中国草食动物 2001年专辑．6-11．
郑丕留 等．1986-1989．中国畜禽品种志．上海科学技术出版社。
中国羊品种志编写组．1992．中国羊品种志．上海：上海科学技术出版社．3-4。
汪松，陈灵芝等．1990．中国科学院生物多样性研讨会会议录．北京：中国科学院生物科学与技术局。
Ajmone-Marsan P, Negrini R, Crepaldi P, Milanesi E, Gorni C, Valentini A, Cicogna M. 2001. Assessing genetic diversity in Italian goat populations using AFLP markers.Anim Genet. 32(5):281-8.
Alexander L., A. Stewart, A. Mackinlay, T. Kapelinskaya, T. Tkach, and S. Gorodetsky. 1988. Isolation and
characterization of the bovine K-casein gene. Eur. J. Biothem. 178:395-401．
AH S., Muller C. R., Epplen J.T. 1986． DNA finger printing by oligonucleotide probes specific for simple repeats. Human Genetics, 74:23 9-243．
Allard M.D.,L.D. Ellsworth, and R.L.Honeycutt. 1991． The production single-stranded DNA suitable for sequencing using the polymerase chain reaclion.Biotechniques. 10:24-26．
Ambrosol R.1987． Content of αs1-casein and coagulation properties in goat milk.J.Dairy Sci.71:24-28．
Anderson S., de Bruijn M.H., Coulson A.R., Eperon I.C., Sanger F. and Young I.G 1982． Complete sequence of bovine mitochondrial DNA. Conserved features of the mammalian mitochondrial genome. J. Mol. Biol. 156 (4) : 683-717．
Anderson, S., A. T. Bankier, B. G Barell, M. H. de Bruijn, A. R. Coulson et al. 1981． Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome. Nature 290:457-465．
Andrews P. 1988． A phylogenetic analysis of the primates Pp. 143-175 in M. J. Benton, ed. The phytogeny and classification of the tetrapods. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Andrews T. D., L. S. Jermiin, and S. Easteal. 1998． Accelerated evolution of cytochrome b in simian primates: adaptive evolution in concert with other mitochondrial proteins? J. Mol. Evol. 47:249-257．
Arai K., Munechika I.., Ito I., Kikkawa. A., Kanazawa T. and Kosugiyama M. 1997． Phylogenetic relationship of Caprinae estimated by cytochrome b gene sequence analysis. Anim. Sci. Technol .(Jpn.)68(2) :148．
Asdell S.A. 1944． The genetic sex on intersexual goats and a probable linkage with the gene for hornlessness. Science 99:124．
Avise J. C. 1986． Mitochondrial DNA and evolutionary genetics of higher animals. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, B 312:328-334．
Avise J. C., and G C. Johns. 1999． Proposal for a standardized temporal scheme of biological classification for extant species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:7358-7363．
Avise J. C., Lansman R. A. 1983． Polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA in populations of high animals, in "Evolution of Genes and Proteins", Nei M. and R. K.Koehn (eds.), Sunderland.
Bailey J.F., Richards M.B., Macaulay V.A., Colson I.B., James I.T., Bradley D.G, Hedges R.E., Sykes B.C. 1996． Ancient DNA suggests a recent expansion of European cattle from a diverse wild progenitor species.Proc R Soc Land B Biol Sci. 263(1376) :1467-73．
Bell B.R. et al.l985． Effects of cytoplasmic in heritance on production traits of dairy cattle. J. Dair. Sci. 687:2038-2051．
Bernadi G, D. Mounchiround, C.Gautier and G Bernardi. 1988． Compositional patterns in vertebrate genomes:Conservation and change in evolution.J.Mol.Evol.28:7-18．
Bernadi G,B. Olofsson, J. Filipski, M.Zerial, J.Salinas, G.Cuny et al.1985． The mosaic genome of war-blooded vertebrates. Science 228:953-958．
Bhat P. P. et al. 1990． Polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in cattle and buffaloes.Biochem. Genet.28(7/8) :311-318．
Bjorn M. Ursing, Ulfur Arnason. 1998． The Complete Mitochondrial DNA Sequence of the Pig (Sus scrofa). J Mol Evol. 47:302-306
Botettcher P. J.,Freeman A.E.,Johnston S. D.et al.1996． Relationship between polymorphism for mitochondrial eleoxyribonucleic acid and yield traits of Holestein cows. J. Dair. Sci.79(4) :647-654．
Bradley D. G, MacHugh D. E., Cunningham P. & Loftus R. T. 1996． Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93: 5131-5135．
Bradley D.G, Machugh D.E., Cunninghamp., and Loftus R.T.1996． Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93: 5131-5135．
Brown D.R. et al. 1989． Molecular analysis of cytoplasmic genetic variation in Holstein cows. J.Anim.Sci.67:1926-1932．
Brown D.R. et al.1988． Mitochondrial respiratory metabolism and performance of cattle. J.Anim.Sci.66:1347-1354．
Brown V. M. 1983． Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA of Humans as revealed by restriction endonuclease analysis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 76:1967-1971．
Brown V. M. et al. 1979． Rapid evolution of animal mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA., 76:1967-1971．
Canatore R., M. Roberti, G Pesole, A. Ludovico, F. Milella, M. N. Gadaleta, and C. Saccone. 1994． Evolutionary analysis of cytochrome b sequences in some Perciformes: evidence for a slower rate of evolution than in mammals. J. Mol. Evol. 39:589-597．
Cann R., M. Stoneking and A. C. Wilson. 1987． Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution. Nature 325: 31-36．
Cann R. L., W. M. Brown, and A. C. Wilson. 1984． Polymorphic sites and the mechanism of evolution in human mitochondrial DNA. Genetics 106:479-499．
Caroli A., Jann O., Budelli E., Bolla P., Jager S., Erhardt G 2001． Genetic polymorphism of goat kappa-casein (CSN3) in different breeds and characterization at DNA level.Anim Genet. 32(4) :226-30．
Castresana J. 2001． Cytochrome b phylogeny and the taxonomy of great apes and mammals. Mol. Bio. Evol. 18:465-471．
Chatterjee B., Rao GR. 1994． Superhelical density of goat mitochondrial DNA: fluorimetric studies.Indian J Biochem Biophys. 31(1) :77-79．
Chen H., Leibenguth F. 1995． Restriction endonuclease analysis of mitochondrial DNA of three farm animal species: cattle, sheep and goat.Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol. 111(4) :643-649．
Chikuni K., Y. Mori, T. Tabata, M. Saito, M. Monma, and M. Kosugiyama. 1995． Molecular phylogeny based on the AT-casein and cytochrome b sequences in the mammalian suborder Ruminantia. J. Mol.
Evol. 41:859-866．
Collura R., Stewart V .C .1995． Insertions and duplications of mtDNA in the nuclear genomes of old world monkeys and hominoids. Nature, 378:485-489．
Corbet GB.1978． The mammals of the Palaearctic Region:Ataxonomic review,British Museum(Natural History):London.
Cremer T. et al. 1988． Detection of chromosome aberrations in metaphase and interphase tumor cells by in situ hybridization using chromosome specific library probes. Hum Genet. 80:235-236．
David E. MacHugh, Daniel G Bradley. 2001． Livestock genetic origins: Goats buck the trend. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98: 5382-5384．
David I. B., Blacker A. W. 1972． Matenal and cytoplasmic inheritance of mtDNA in xenopus. Developm.Biol.29:152-161．
Dewoody J. A ..Chesser R .K.,Baker R. J.1999． A translocated mitochondrial cytochrome b pseudogene in voles(Rodentia:Mcrotus). J. Mol. Evol. 48:380-382．
Dobzhansky T. 1937． Genetics and the origin of species. Columbia University Press, New York.
Dove W.L. 1935． Physiology of horn growth. J. Exp. Zool. 69: 347-404．
Efemov G.Braend M. 1964． Proc 9th Conf Anim Blood Grps.Prague,313-320．
Eldridge F. E. 1985． Cytogenetics of livestock. 189-209． AVI publishing company ,INC.
Epstein H. 1971． The Origin of the Domestic Animals of Africa, Vol. 1, pp. 185-555． Africana Publishing Corporation, New York.
Epstein H., and I. L. Mason. 1984． Cattle, pp. 6-27 in Evolution of Domesticated Animals, edited by I. L. Mason. Longman, New York.
Esposti M. D., S. De Vries, M. Crimi, A. Ghelli, T. Patarnello, and A. Mery. 1993． Mitochondrial cytochrome devolution and structure of the protein. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1143: 243-271．
Evans H.J., R.A. Buckland, and A. Summer. 1973． Chromosome homology and heterochromatin in goat, sheep, and ox studied by banding techniques. Chromosoma 48: 383-402．
Excoffier L. 2000． Analysis of Population Subdivision,in Handbook of Statistical Genetics D.Balding, M.Bishop and C.Cannings.(eds.)Wiley & Sons,Ltd.
Excoffier L., and Z. Yang. 1999． Substitution rate variation among sites in mitochondrial hypervariable region I of humans and chimpanzees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 16:1357-1368．
Excoffier L.,and M.Slatkin.1995． Maximum-likelihood estimation of molecular haplotype frequencies in a diploid population.Mol.Biol.Evol. 12:921-927．
Excoffier L.,and P.Smouse.l994． Using allele frequencies and geographic subdivision to reconstruct gene genealogies within a species.Molecular variance parsimony.Genetics. 136:343-359．
Excoffier L.,Smouse P.,and QuattroJ.1992． Analysis of molecular variance inferred from metric distances among DNA haplotypes:Application to human mitochondrial DNA restriction
data.Genetics. 131:479-491．
Felsenstein J.1985． Confidence limits on phytogenies:An approach using the bootstrap.Evolution 39:783-791．
Felsenstein J.1988． Phylogenies from molecular sequences: Inference and reliability. Annu. Rev. Genet. 22:521-565．
Fitch W.M. and E.Margoliash.1967． Construction of phylogenetic trees.Science 155:279-284．
Fu Y.-X. and W.-H .Li. 1993． Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations.Genetics 133:693-709．
Fu Y.-X.1997． Statistical tests of neutrality of mutations against population growth, hitchhiking and background selection.Genetics147:915-925．
Garza J. C.,Woodruff D. S. 1992． A phylogentic study of the gibbons (Hylobates) using DNA obtained non-invasively from hair. Mol. Phyl. Evol.,1:202-210．
Giles R.E.1980． Maternal inheritance of human motochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 77:6715-6719．
Girman D.J., Vila C., Geffen E., Creel S., Mills M.G, McNutt J.W., Ginsberg J., Kat P.W., Mamiya K.H., Wayne R.K. 2001． Patterns of population subdivision, gene flow and genetic variability in the African wild dog (Lycaon pictus).Mol Ecol. 10(7) : 1703-1723．
Gissi C., Gullberg A. and Arnason U. The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus. Genomics. 1998． 50(2) : 161-169．
Giuffra E., Kijas J.M., Amarger V., Carlborg O., Jeon J.T., Andersson L. 2000． The origin of the domestic pig: independent domestication and subsequent introgression.Genetics. 154(4) : 1785-91．
Glenn C. Johns and John C. Avise. 1998． A Comparative summary of genetic distances in the vertebrates from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Mol. Biol. Evol. 15(11) :1481-1490．
Golding G B. 1983． Estimates of DNA and protein sequence divergence: an examination of some assumptions. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1:125-142．
Green E.D., Baker C. 1996． The surface morphology of the omasum of the African goat.J S Afr Vet Assoc. 67(3) : 117-122．
Groves P., and Shields, G 1996． Phylogenetics of the Caprinae based on cytochrome b sequence. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 5: 467-476．
Guillemot E., F. Gary, H.M. Berland, V. Durand, R. Darre and E.P. Cribiu. 1991． Cytogenetic investigation in Saanen and Alpine artificial insemination bucks. Identification of a Robertsonian translocation. Genet. Sel. Evol. 23: 449-454．
Gustincich S., G.Manfioletti, GDel Sal, C.Schneider, and P.Carnichi.1991． A fast method for high quality genomic DNA extraction from whole human blood. Biotechniques 11:298-301．
Halanych K.M., and Robinson T. J. 1999． The utility of cytochrome b and 12S rDNA data for phylogeny reconstruction of leporid (Lagomorpha) genera. J. Mol. Evol. 48: 369-379．
Harlward T. M. 1992． Use of single primer DNA amplification in genetic studies of peanut(Arachis hypoaea L) .Plant molecular biology, 18:315-325．
Harpending, R. C., 1994． Signature of ancient population growth in a low-resolution mitochondrial DNA mismatch distribution. Hum. Biol. 66:591-600．
Harris D.R.1962． The distribution and ancestry of the domestic goat.Proc. Linn. Soc. London. 173:79．
Harris H. 1966． Enzyme polymorphism in man .Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond B 184:298-310．
Harrison R. G 1989． Animal mitochondrial DNA as a genetic makers in population and evolutionary biology.Trends Ecol. Evol. 4:6-11．
Hartl G.B.,Willing R.and Nadlinger K.1994． Allozymes in mammalian population genetics and systematics: indicative function of a maker system reconsidered. In: Schierwater B., Streit B., Wangner G P. and DeSalle R.(eds) Molecular Ecology and Evolution: Approaches and Applications,Birkhauser,Basel,pp.299-231．
Hassanin A., Lecointre G and Tillier S. 1998． The 'evolutionary signal' of homoplasy in protein-coding gene sequences and its consequences for a priori weighting in phylogeny. C. R. Acad. Sci. III, Sci. Vie 321 (7) : 611-620．
Hassanin A., Pasquet E. and Vigne J.-D. 1998． Molecular systematics of the subfamily Caprinae (Artiodactyla,Bovidae) as determined from cytochrome b sequences. J. Mammal. Evol. 5 (3) : 217-236．
Hatefi Y.1985． The mitochondrial electron transport and oxidative phosporylation system. Annu. Rev. Biochem 4:1015-1069．
Hauswirth W.W. and Laipis P. J. 1982． Mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in a maternal lineage of Holstein cows. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79 (15) : 4686-4690．
Hecht S.J., Stedman K.E., Carlson J.O., DeMartini J.C. 1996． Distribution of endogenous type B and type D sheep retrovirus sequences in ungulates and other mammals.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 93(8) :3297-302．
Helbig A. J.,and Seeibold I. 1996． Are storks and New World vultures paraphyletic? Mol. Phylogenent. Evol 6:315-319．
Hendy M.D.and D.Penny and M.A.Stell .1994． A discrete Fourier analysis of evolutionary trees. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA.91:3339-3343．
Hendy M.D.and D.Penny. 1982． Branch and bound algorithms to determine minimal evolutionary tree.Math. Biosci.59:277-290．
Hendy M.D.and D.Penny. 1989． A framework for the quantitative study of evolutionary trees.Syst.Zool.38:297-309．
Hendy M.D.and D.Penny.1993． Spectral analysis of phylogenetic data.J.Classification 10:5-24．
Herre W.,and ROhrs M.1973． Haustiere-Zoologish Gesehen .G.Fisher,Stuttgart.
Herre W.1958． Abstannung und Domestikation der Haustiere.In Hammond J.,Johansson I., and Haring
F.(eds.),Handbuch der TierzUchtung, I,Paul Parey.Hamburg and Berlin.p.1．
Hershktovitz M.A.,and Lewis L.A.1996． Deep-Ievel diagnotic value of the Rdna-ITS region. Mol. Biol. Evol 13:1276-1295．
Hiendleder S., Kaupe B., Wassmuth R., Janke A. 2002． Molecular analysis of wild and domestic sheep questions current nomenclature and provides evidence for domestication from two different subspecies.Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 269(1494) :893-904．
Hiendleder, S., Mainz, K., Plante, Y. & Lewalski, H. 1998． The Complete Mitochondrial DNA sequence of the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and comparison with the other major Ovine haplotype. J. Hered. 89: 113-120．
Hiendleder.S. 1998． A low rate of replacement substitutions in two major Ovis aries mitochondrial genomes. Anim. Genet. 29 (2) : 116-122．
Hiendleder,S., Lewalski,H., Wassmuth,R. and Janke,A. 1998． The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the domestic sheep (Ovis aries) and comparison with the other major ovine haplotype. J. Mol. Evol. 47 (4) : 441-448．
Hiendleder.S., Mainz,K., Plante,Y. and Lewalski.H. 1998． Analysis of mitochondrial DNA indicates that domestic sheep are derived from two different ancestral maternal sources: no evidence for contributions from urial and argali sheep. J. Hered. 89 (2) : 113-120．
Hill E.W., Bradley D.G, Al-Barody M., Ertugrul O., Splan R.K., Zakharov I., Cunningham E.P. 2002． History and integrity of thoroughbred dam lines revealed in equine mtDNA variation.Anim Genet. 33(4) :287-94．
Hillis D. M., and Huelsenbeck J. P. 1992． Signal, noise, and reliability in molecular phylogenetic analysis. J. Hered. 83: 189-195．
Hojny J. et al.1991． Animal Genetics.22:251-258．
Honeycutt R. L., M. A. Nedbal, R. M. Adkins, and L. L. Janecek. 1995． Mammalian mitochondrial DNA evolution: a comparison of the cytochrome b and cytochrome c oxi-dase II genes. J. Mol. Evol. 40:260-272．
Horai S., Kondo R., Murayama K., Hayashi S., Koike H., and Nakai N.1991． Phylogenetic affiliation of ancient and contemporary humans inferred from mitochondrial DNA. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B.Biol.Sci.333:409．
Huang Y. F., Shi X. W., Zhang Y. P. 1999． Mitochondrial genetic variation in Chinese pigs and wild boars. Biochem Genet. 37(11-12) :335-43．
Hutchinson C.A. et al. 1980． Maternal inheritance of mammalian mitochondrial DNA. Nature,251:536-538．
Igarashi M.L., Machado T.M., Ferro J.A., Contel E.P. 2000． Structure and genetic relationship among Brazilian naturalized and imported goat breeds.Biochem Genet. 38(11-12) :353-365．
Ikemura T. and S. Aota. 1998． Global variation in G+C content along vertebrate genome DNA. Possible correlation with chromosome band structure.J.Mol.Bio.203:1-13．
Ikemura T.1985． Condon usage and tRNA content in unicellular and multicellular organisms.Mol.Biol.Evol.2:13-34．
Ina Y.1995． New methods for estimating the number of synonymous and nonsynonymous substitution. J.Mol.Evol.40:190-226．
Irwin D. M, T. D. Kocher and A. C. Wilson. 1991． Evolution of the cytochrome b gene of mammals. J. Mol. Evol. 32: 128-144．
ISCNDA1989． 1990． International system for cytogenetics nomenclature of domestic animals. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 53: 65-79．
Jaszczak K, Parada R, Guszkiewicz A. 1999． Cytogenetic study of some tissues and age-related changes in cell proportions in a goat-sheep chimera.Cytogenet Cell Genet. 84(1-2) :55-57．
Jeffreys A. J., Wilson V., Thein S. L. 1985． Individual-specific "fingerprints" of human DNA. Nature,316:76-79．
Jermiin L. S., D. Graur, R. M. Lowe and R. H. Crozier. 1994． Analysis of directional mutation pressure and nucleotide content in mitochondrial cytochrome b genes. J. Mol. Evol. 39: 160-173．
Jin L. and Nei M. 1991． Relative efficiencies of the maximum-parsimony and distance-matrix methods of phylogeny construction for restriction data. Mol. Bid Evol. 8(3) :356-365．
Jin L., and M. Nei. 1990． Limitations of the evolutionary parsimony method of phylogenetic analysis. Mol. Biol. Evol. 7:82-102． .
Johns G C., and J. C. Avise. 1998． A comparative summary of genetic distances in the vertebrates from the mitochondrial cytochrome b. Mol. Biol. Evol. 15:1481-1490．
Johnson W.E., Slattery J.P., Eizirik E., Kim J.H., Raymond M.M., Bonacic C., Cambre R., Crawshaw P., Nunes A., Seuanez H.N., Moreira M.A., Seymour K.L., Simon F., Swanson W.,O'Brien S.J. 1999． Disparate phylogeographic patterns of molecular genetic variation in four closely related South American small cat species.Mol Ecol. 8(12 Suppl 1) :S79-94．
Jukes T. and Cantor C.1969． Evolution of protein molecules.In:Mammalian Protein Metabolism,edited by Munro HN,New York: Academic press,21-132．
Kahila Bar-Gal,G and Greenblatt,C. The relationships between Capra species from the southern Levant to other Capra species based on mitochondrial cytochrome b sequence.(Unpublished)
Katsumata M.,Amano T.,Tannaka K.,Nozawa K.,Bahk K.,Park B.,and Lee C.1982． Blood protein variations of the Korean native goats(in Japanese). Jap. J.Zootech.Sci.53:521．
Katsumata M.,Nozawa K.,Amano T.,Shinjyo A.,and Abe T. 1981． Blood protein gene constitution of Japanese Sannen breed of goat. Jap. J.Zootech. Sci.52:553．
Kenneth M. Halanych, John R. Demboski, Bettine Jansen van Vuuren, David R. Klein and Joseph A. Cook.
1999 .Cytochrome b Phylogeny of North American Hares and Jackrabbits (Lepus, Lagomorpha) and the Effects of Saturation in Outgroup Taxa. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 11( 2) : 213-221．
Kijas J.M., Andersson L. 2001． A phylogenetic study of the origin of the domestic pig estimated from the near-complete mtDNA genome.J Mol Evol. 52(3) :302-8．
Kikkawa Y., Amano T., Suzuki H. 1995． Analysis of genetic diversity of domestic cattle in east and Southeast Asia in terms of variations in restriction sites and sequences of mitochondrial DNA.Biochem Genet. 33(1-2) :51-60．
Kim K.I., Lee J.H., Li K., Zhang Y.P., Lee S.S., Gongora J., Moran C. 2002． Phylogenetic relationships of Asian and European pig breeds determined by mitochondrial DNA D-loop sequence polymorphism.Anim Genet. 33(1) :19-25．
Kim, K-II., Yang, Y-H., Lee, S-S., Park, C., Ma, R., Bouzat, J. L. & Lewin, H. A. 1999． Phylogenetic relationships of Cheju horses to other horse breeds as determined by mtDNA D-loop sequence polymorphism.Animal Genetics 2: 102-108．
Kim,K.S., Lee,S.E., Jeong,H.W. and Ha,J.H. 1998． The complete nucleotide sequence of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris) mitochondrial genome. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 10 (2) : 210-220 .
Kimura M. 1983． The neutral theory of molecular evolution.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
Kimura M.1980． A simple method for estimating evolutionary rate of base substitution through comparative studies of nucleotide sequence J.Mol.Evol. 16:111-120．
Kocher T. D., and A. C. Wilson. 1991． Sequence evolution of mitochondrial DNA in humans and chimpanzees: control region and protein-coding regions, pp. 391-413 in Evolution of Life: Fossils, Molecules and Culture, edited by S. Osawa and T. Honio. Springer Verlag, Tokyo.
Kocher T. D., R. K. Thomas, A. Meyer, S. V. Edwards, S. PAAbo, F. X. Viliablanca, and A. C. Wilson. 1989． Dynamics of mitochondrial DNA evolution in animals: ampli-fication and sequencing with conserved primers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:6196-6200．
Koike K., M. Kobayashi, K. Yaginuma, M. Taira, E. Yoshida, and M. Imai. 1982． Nucleotide sequence and evolution of the rat mitochondrial cytochrome b gene containing the ochre termination codon. Gene 20: 177-185．
Kraus E, and M. Miyamoto. 1991． Rapid cladogenesis among the pecoran ruminants: evidence from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Syst. Zool. 40:117-130．
Kumar S., K.Tamura and M.Nei.l994． MEGA: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis software for microcomputers.Comput. Appl. Biosci.10:189-191．
Kumar S., K.Tamura I. Jakobsen and M.Nei. 2000． MEGA: Molecular evolutionary genetics analysis, ver.2． Pennsylvania State University,University Park,and Arizona State University,Tempe.
Kumar S.,and S.B.Hedges.1998． A molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution. Nature 392:917-919．
Kumar S.1996． A stepwise algorithm for finding minimum evolution trees.Mol.Biol.Evol. 13:584-593．
Kumar S.1996． Pattern of nucleotide substitution in mitochondrial protein coding genes of vertebrates.Genetics 143:537-548．
Lagonigro R., Pietrola E., D'Andrea M., Veltri C., Pilla F. 2001． Molecular genetic characterization of the goat s2-casein E allele.Anim Genet. 32(6) :391-393．
Lansman R. A. 1983． Critical experiment test of the possibility of "panternal leakage" of mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acid. Sci. USA,80:1969-1971．
Lau, C. H., Drinkwater, R. D., Yusoff, K., Tan, S. G., Hetzel, D. J. & Barker, J. S. 1998． Genetic diversity of Asian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): mitochondrial DNA D-loop and cytochrome b sequence variation Anim. Genet. 29: 253-264．
Lau, C. H., Drinkwater, R. D., Yusoff, K., Tan, S. G, Hetzel, D. J. S. & Barker, J. S. F. 1998． Genetic diversity of Asian water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis): mitochondrial DNA D-loop and cytochrome b sequence variation. Animal Genetics 29 (4) : 253-264
Lauvergne J.J., Renieri C., Audiot A. 1987． Estimating erosion of phenotypic variation in a French goat population.J Hered. 78(5) :307-14．
Lewontin R.C. and Hubby J.L.1966． Amolecular approach to the study of genie heterozygosity in natural populations. II.Amount of variation and degree of heterozygosity in natural populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics. 54:595-609．
Li W. H., 1977． Distribution of nucleotide differences between two randomly chosen cistrons in a finite population.Genetics 85:331-337．
Li Jin and Masatoshi Nei. 1991． Relative efficiencies of the maximum-parsimony and distance-matrix methods of phylogeny construction for restriction data. Mol. Bid Evol. 8(3) :356-365． .
Li W.-H. 1997． Molecular evolution. Sinauer, Sunderland, Mass.
Lin,C.S., Sun,Y.L., Liu,C.Y, Yang,P.C., Chang, L.C., Cheng,I.C., Mao,S.J. and Huang,M.C. 1999． Complete nucleotide sequence of pig (Sus scrofa) mitochondrial genome and dating evolutionary divergence within Artiodactyla.Gene. 236(1) : 107-114．
Loftus R.T., MacHugh D.E., Ngere L.O., Balain D.S., Badi A.M., Bradley D.G, Cunningham E.P. 1994． Mitochondrial genetic variation in European, African and Indian cattle populations.Anim Genet. 25(4) :265-271．
Loftus, R. T, Ertugrul, O., Harba, A. H., El-Barody, M. A., MacHugh, D. E., Park, S. D. & Bradley, D. G 1999． A microsatellite survey of cattle from a centre of origin: the Near East . Mol. Ecol. 8: 2015-2022．
Loftus, R. T., MacHugh, D. E., Bradley, D. G, Sharp, P. M. & Cunningham, P. 1994． Evidence for two independent domestication of cattle. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91: 2757-2761．
Lopez,J.V., Cevario,S. and O'Brien.S.J. 1996． Complete nucleotide sequences of the domestic cat (Felis catus) mitochondrial genome and a transposed mtDNA tandem repeat (Numt) inthe nuclear genome. Genomics 33 (2) : 229-246 .
Lubchenco J. et al. 1991． The sustainable biosphete initiative: An Ecological Research Agenda. Ecology.72(2) :371-412．
Luikart Q Biju-Duval MP, Ertugrul O, Zagdsuren Y, Maudet C, Taberlet P. 1999． Power of 22 microsatellite markers in fluorescent multiplexes for parentage testing in goats (Capra hircus).Anim Genet. 30(6) :431-8．
Luikart G, Gielly L., Excoffier L., Vigne J.D., Bouvet J., Taberlet P. 2001． Multiple maternal origins and weak phylogeographic structure in domestic goats.Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 98(10) :5927-32．
Lydeard C., and K. J. Roe. 1997． The phylogenetic utility of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene for inferring relationships among Actinopterygian fishes. Pp. 285-303 in T. D. Kocher and C. A. Stepien, eds. Molecular systematics offish. Academic Press, New York.
Ma D.-P, A. Zharkikh, D. Graur, J. L. Vandeberg, and W.-H. Li. 1993． Structure and evolution of oppossum, guin ea pig, and porcupine cytochrome b genes. J. Mol. Evol. 36:327-334．
Ma Ning, Li Yongjun,Lou Yujie et al. 1996． Study on polymorphism of blood proteins in Liaoning and Inner Mongolian cashmere goats.In:Intenational conference on goats,Vol 1． Beijing:International Academic Pub.,213-215．
MacHugh D.E., Troy C.S., McCormick R, Olsaker I., Eythorsdottir E., Bradley D.G 1999． Early medieval cattle remains from a Scandinavian settlement in Dublin: genetic analysis and comparison with extant breeds.Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 354(1379) :99-108; discussion 108-109．
MacHugh, D. E., Shriver, M. D., Loftus, R. T, Cunningham, P. & Bradley, D. G 1997． Microsatellite DNA Variation and the Evolution, Domestication and Phylogeography of Taurine and Zebu Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus).Genetics 146: 1071-1086．
Mannen H, Nagata Y, Tsuji S. 2001． Mitochondrial DNA reveal that domestic goat (Capra hircus) are genetically affected by two subspecies of bezoar (Capra aegagurus).Biochem Genet. 39(5-6) : 145-54．
Mannen H., Tsuji, S., Loftus, R. T. & Bradley, D. G 1998． Mitochondrial DNA Variation and Evolution of Japanese Black Cattle (Bos taunts). Genetics. 150: 1169-1175．
Mannen I.I., Kojima T.,Oyama K.,Mukai F.,Ishida,T.,and Tsuji,S.1998． Effect of mitochondrial DNA variation on carcass traits of Japanese cattle.J.Anim.Sci. USA 91:2757．
Mason I.L.1984． Evolution of domesticated animal.Longman,London.
McNeely J . A .et al. 1992． Parks for Life. Gland, Switzerland :IUCN.
McNeely J .A. et al. 1990 .Conserving the World's Biological Diversity .Washington ,D. C . and Gland. Switzerland.
Meadow A. 1993． Animal domestication in the Middle East: a revised view from the Eastern margin, pp.
295-320 in Harappar Civilization, edited by G Possehl. Oxfird abd IBH, New Dehli.
Mercier J., J. Vilotte, and C. Provot. 1990． Structure and function of milk protein genes. Pp. 233-258 in H. Gelderman and E. Ellendorf, eds. Genome analysis in domestic animals. Weinheim, New York.
Meyer A,Wilson A C. 1990． Origion of tetrapods inferred from their mitochondrial DNA affiliation to lungfish. J, Mol. Evol 31:359-364．
Meyer A. 1994． Shortcomings of the cytochrome b gene as a molecular marker. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9:278-280．
Meyer A.,Kocher T. D.,Basasibwakip et al. 1990 .Monophyletic origion of lake victoria cichild fishes suggested by mitochondrial DNA sequences. Nature 347:550-553．
Mikkel H. Schierup and Jotun Hein. 2000． Consequences of recombination on traditional phylogenetic analysis. Genetics 156: 879-891．
Montgomery GW., H.M. Henry, K.G Dodds, A.E. Beattie, T. Wuliji, and A.M. Crawford. 1996． Mapping the Horns (Ho) locus in sheep: A further locus controlling horn development in domestic animals. J. Hered. 87: 358-363．
Moore S.S., Sargeant L., King T.J., Mattick J.S., Georges M. & Hetzel D.J.S. 1991． The conservation of dinucleotide microsatellites among mammalian genomes allows the use of heterologous PCR primer pairs in closely related species. Genomics 10: 654-660．
Moore W. S., and V. R. Defilippis. 1997． The window of taxonomic resolution for phylogenies based on mitochondrial cytochrome b. Pp. 83-119 in D. P. MINDELL, ed. Avian molecular evolution and systematics. Academic Press, New York.
Moreiro M. A. M., and H. N. Seuanez. 1999． Mitochondrial pseudogenes and phyletic relationships of Cebuella and callithrix (Platyrrhini, Primates). Primates 40(2) :353-364．
Moritz c. 1995． Use of molecular phylogenies for conservation. London:Philosophical transactions of the Royal society.349(B):113-118．
Mortiz C. 1994． Applications of mitochondrial DNA analysis in conservations critical review. Molec. Ecol. ,401-411．
Mortiz C. 1994． Defining evolutionary significant units for conservation. Trends Ecol. Evol, 373-375．
Mortiz C., T. E. Dowling, and W. M. Brown. 1987． Evolution of animal mitochondrial DNA: relevance for population biology and systematics. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18:269-292
Mullis K.B., Faloona F.A. 1987． specific synthesis of DNA in virto via a polymerase catalysed chain reaction. Meth Enzymol, 155:335-350．
Nei M. 1987． Molecular Evolutionary Genetics. New York:Columbia University Press.
Nei M,and W.H.Li.1979． Mathematical model for studying genetic variation in terms of restriction endonucleases. Proc. Natl. Acid. Sci. USA,76:5269-5273．
Nei M. ,and Tajima F. 1981． DNA polymorphism detectable by restriction endnucleases. Genetics
97:145-163．
Nei M.,S.Kumar,K.Takahashi.l998． The optimization principle in phylogenetic analysis tends to give incorrect topologies when the number of nucleotides or amino acids used is small. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:12390-12397．
Nei M.1975． Molecular population genetics and evolution. North-Holland, Amsterdam,The Netherlands.
Okumura N., Kurosawa Y., Kobayashi E., Watanobe T., Ishiguro N., Yasue H.,Mitsuhashi T. 2001． Genetic relationship amongst the major non-coding regions of mitochondrial DNAs in wild boars and several breeds of domesticated pigs.Anim Genet. 32(3) : 139-47．
Oppenheim S.M., Moyer A.L., Bondurant R.H., Rowe J.D., Anderson GB. 2000 . Successful pregnancy in goats carrying their genetically identical conceptus.Theriogenology. 54(4) :629-639．
Orita M., Suzuki T.,Hayashi K.1989． Rapid and sensitive detection of point mutation and DNA polymorphisms using the polymerase chain reaction.Genomics,5:874-879．
Osawa S.1995． Evolution of the genetic code.Oxford University Press,Oxford,U.K.
Paabo S. 1985． A new key to freshwater and soil gymnamoebae. Freshwater Biological Association ,Ambleside,Cumbia,UK.
Parma P., Feligini M., Noe L., Aleandri R., Iametti S., Greppi GF., Enne G 1999． Detection of the goat as2-casein genetic variants by ASA-PCR.Anim Genet. 30(3) :231．
Parsons T. J., D. S. Muniec, K. Sullivan, N. Woodyatt, R. Alliston-Greiner et al. 1997． A high observed substitution rate in the human mitochondrial DNA control region. Nat. Genet. 15:363-368．
Piumi F., L. Schibler, D. Vaiman, A. Oustry, and E.P. Cribiu. 1998． Comparative cytogenetic mapping reveals chromosome rearrangements between the X chromosomes of two closely related Mammalian species (cattle and goats). Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 81: 36-41．
Plante Y., Schmutz S. M., Lang K. et al. 1991． Detection of leucochimates in bovine twins by DNA fingerprinting. Anim. Genet. ,23:295-302．
Ponce de Leon, F.A., S. Ambady, GA. Hawkins, S.M. Kappes, M.D. Bishop, J.M. Robl, and C.W. Beattie. 1996． Development of a bovine X chromosome linkage group and painting probes to assess cattle, sheep, and goat X chromosome segment homologies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 93: 3450-3454．
Powell J.R.1994． Moleculartechniques in populations genetics: A brief history. In: Schierwater B., Streit B., Wangner G P. and DeSalle R.(eds) Molecular Ecology and Evolution: Approaches and Applications,Birkhauser,Basel,pp. 131-151．
Pragati P. et al.1987． Hemoglobin polymorphism in Ganjam and black Bengad goats. Indian Vet J.666-668．
Pringle H. 1998． NEOLITHIC AGRICULTURE: Reading the signs of ancient animal domestication . Science 282: 1448．
Ramunno L., Cosenza G, Pappalardo M., Longobardi E., Gallo D., Pastore N., Di Gregorio P., Rando A. 2001． Characterization of two new alleles at the goat CSN1S2 locus.Anim Genet. 32(5) :264-8．
Ramunno L., Longobardi E., Pappalardo M., Rando A., Di Gregorio P., Cosenza G, Mariani P., Pastore N., Masina P. 2001． An allele associated with a non-detectable amount of alpha s2 casein in goat milk. Anim Genet. 32(1) :19-26．
Rand, A. L. 1994． Thermal habit, metabolic rate and the evolution of mitochondrial DNA. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9:125-131．
Raup D.M. 1986． Biological extinction in earth history. Science 231: 1528-1533．
Raymond M., and F. Rousset. 1995． An exact test for population differentiation. Evolution 49: 1280-1283．
Ricordeau G.1991． In Genetic resources of pig, sheep ang goat (edit by Maijala K.).471-474,Elsevier science publishers B.V.,Amsterdam.
Rider C.C.,Taylor C.B. 范培昌译.1980． 同工酶.北京：科学出版社 (1987) .
Robinson D. R, and L. R. Foulds. 1981． Comparison of phylogenetic trees. Math. Biosci.53:131-147．
Roger A. 1995． Genetic evidence for a Pleistocene population explosion. Evolution 49:608-615．
Roger A.R. and H.Harpending.1992． Population growth makes waves in the distribution of pairwise genetic differences.Mol.Biol.Evol.9:552-569．
Rohl A., Brinkmann B., Forster L., Forster P. 2001． An annotated mtDNA database.Int J Legal Med. 115(1) :29-39．
Rozas J. and Rozas ,R. 1999． DnaSP version 3:an integrated program for molecular population genetics and molecular evolution analysis. Bioinformatics 15:174-175．
Saiki R. K., Gelfand D. H., Stoffel S. et al. 1988． Primer-directed enzymatic amplification of DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase.Science,239:481-479．
Saitbekova N, Gaillard C, Obexer-Ruff G, Dolf G 1999． Genetic diversity in Swiss goat breeds based on microsatellite analysis.Anim Genet. 30(1) :36-41．
Saitou N., and T. Imanishi. 1989． Relative efficiencies of the Fitch-Margoliash, maximum-parsimony, maximum-likelihood, minimum-evolution, and neighbor-joining methods of phylogenetic tree construction in obtaining the correct tree. Mol. Biol. Evol 6:514-525．
Saitou, N., and M. Nei 1987． The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 4:406-425．
Sanger F. 1977． DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors. Proc. Natl. Acid. Sci. USA,74:5463-5467．
Scherthan H. .Cremer T. .Aranason U. et al. 1994． Comparative chromosome painting disclose homologous segments in distantly related mammals. Nature Genet.,6:342-347．
Schibler L., D.Vaiman, A. Oustry, C. Giraud-Delville, and Edmond P. C. 1998． Comparative gene mapping: A fine-scale survey of chromosome rearrangements between ruminants and humans. Genome research. 8:901-915．
Schibler L., E. P. Cribiu, A.Oustry-Vaiman, Jean-Pierre F.,and D. Vaiman. 2000． Fine mapping suggests
that the goat Polled Intersex Syndrome and the human Blepharophimosis Ptosis Epicanthus Syndrome map to a 100-kb homologous Region. Genome Research. 10:311-318．
Schreiber A., Seibold I., Notzold G, Wink M. 1999． Cytochrome b gene haplotypes characterize chromosomal lineages of anoa, the Sulawesi dwarf buffalo (Bovidae: Bubalus sp.). J Hered. 90(1) :165-176．
Schroth W.,Streit B.and Schierwater B.1996． Evolutionary handicap for sea turtles.Nature.384:521-522．
Simon C. F. , Frati F,Beckenbach A. et al. 1994． Evolution, weighting, and phylogenetic utility of mitochondrial gene sequences and a compilation of conserved polymerase chain reaction primers. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am 87(6) :651-701．
Sitnikova T. .A.Rzhetsky and M.Nei.l995． Interior-branch and bootstrap tests of phylogenetic trees.Mol.Biol.Evol.12:319-333．
Sitnikova T.1996． Bootstrap method of interior-branch test for phylogenetic trees. Mol.Biol.Evol. 13:605-611．
Soller M., B. Padeh, M. Wysoki, and N. Ayalon. 1969． Cytogenetics of Saanen goats showing abnormal development of the reproductive tract associated with the dominant gene for polledness. Cytogenetics 8: 51-37．
Soltis D.E.,Soltis P.S.,Nickrent D.L. et al.1997． Angiosperm phylogeny inferred from 18S ribosomal DNA sequences Ann. Missouri Bot. Garden 84:1-49．
Sonja Meyer, Cunter Weiss and Arndt von Haeseler. 1999． Pattern of nucleotide substitution and rate heterogeneity in hypervariable regions I and II of human mtDNA. Genetics, 152:1103-1110．
Sourdis J., and C. Krimbas. 1987． Accuracy of phylogenetic trees estimated from DNA sequence data. Mol. Biol. Evol. 4: 159-166．
Sourdis J., and M. Nei. 1988． Relative efficiencies of the maximum parsimony and distance-matrix methods in obtaining the correct phylogenetic tree. Mol. Biol. Evol. 5:298-3 11．
Sudhir Kumar, Koichiro Tamura, Ingrid B. Jakobsen, and Masatoshi Nei .2001． MEGA2: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis software, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA.
Sueoka N.1962． On the genetic basis of variation and heterogeneity of DNA base composition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA48:582-592．
Suzuki S. and Stormont C.1961 .Immunogenetic letters.2:47-48．
Suzuki S. et al.1960． I Tierzucht Zuchtungsbiol.74:236-247．
Swofford D. L. and W. P. Maddison. 1987． Reconstructing ancestral character states under Wagner parsimony. Mathematical Biosciences 87:199-229．
Swofford D. L., G J. Olsen, P. J. Waddell, and D. M. Hillis. 1996． Phylogenetic inference. 407-514 in D. M. Hillis, C. Moritz, and B. K. Mable (ed.),Molecular Systematics, 2nd edition. (Sinauer Associates: Sunderland, Massachusetts).
Swofford D. L.and D.P.Begle.1993． PAUP:Phylogenetic analysis using parsimony,ver.3． 1 user's manual. Illionois Natural History Survey.Champaign, IL.
Swofford D. L. 1991． When are phytogeny estimates from morphological and molecular data incongruent? 295-333． in: M. M. Miyamoto and J. Cracraft (ed.), Phylogenetic Analysis of DNA Sequences (Oxford University Press: New York, N. Y.).
Swofford D. L. and G J. Olsen. 1990． Phytogeny reconstruction. 411-501． in D. M. Hillis and C. Moritz (ed.), Molecular Systematics (Sinauer Associates:Sunderland, Massachusetts).
Swofford D. L. and S. H. Berlocher. 1987． Inferring evolutionary trees from gene frequency data under the principle of maximum parsimony. Systematic Zoology 36:293-325．
Swofford D. L. and W. P. Maddison. 1992． Parsimony, character-state reconstructions, and evolutionary inferences. 186-223 in R. L. Mayden (ed.), Systematics, Historical Ecology, and North American Freshwater Fishes (Stanford University Press: Stanford).
Tajima F. 1996． The amount of DNA polymorphism maintained in a finite population when the neutral mutation rate varies among sites.Genetics143:1457-1465．
Tajima F. and Nei M.1984． Estimation of evolutionary distance between nucleotide sequences.Mol.Biol.Evol. 1:269-285．
Tajima F.1983． Evolutonary relationship of DNA sequences in finite population.Genetics105:437-640．
Tajima F.1989． Statistical method for testing the neutral mutation hypothesis by DNA polymorphism.Genetics123:585-589．
Tajima F.I 993． Measurement of DNA polymorphism.In:Mechanisms of Molecular Evolution. Introduction to Molecular Paleopopulation Biology,edited by Takahata N.and Clark A.G,Tokyo,Sunderland,MA:Japan Scientific Societies Press.Sinaure Associates,Inc.37-59．
Takada T, Kikkawa Y, Yonekawa H, Kawakami S, Amano T. 1997． Bezoar (Capra aegagrus) is a matriarchal candidate for ancestor of domestic goat (Capra hircus): evidence from the mitochondrial DNA diversity.Biochem Genet. 35(9-10) :315-26．
Tamura K.,and Nei M.1993． Estimation of the number of nucleotide substitutions in the control region of mitochondrial DNA in human and chimpanzees. Mol.Biol.Evol.10:512．
Tanaka-Ueno T, Matsui M, Chen S L et al. 1998． Phylogenetic relationships of brown frogs from Taiwan and Japan assessed by mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences(Rana:Ranidae).Zool. Sci. 15:283-288．
Tanaka-Ueno T, Matsui M, Sato T et al.1998． Phylogenetical relationships of brown frogs with 24 chromosomes from Far East Russia and Hokkaido assessed by mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences(Rana:Ranidae).Zool. Sci. 15:289-294．
Tananka T ,Matsui M, Takenaka O . 1996． Phylogenetic relationships of Japanese brown frogs (Rana:Ranidae) assessed by cytochrome b gene sequences. Bioch. Syst. Ecol24(4) :299-307．
Tananka T ,Matsui M,Takenaka O et al. 1994． Estimation of phylogenetic relationships among Japanese brown frogs from mitochondrial cytochrome b gene(amphibia:anura).Zoological Science 11:753-757．
Tautz D.1989． Hyper variability of simple sequence as a general source for polymorphic DNA makers. Nucleic Acids Research,17:6463-6471．
Thompson J. D., Gibson T.J., Plewniak F., Jeanmougin R, and Higgins D. G 1997． The Clustal X windows interface:flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools. Nucl. Acids Res 24:4867-4882．
Thompson,J. D., Higgins,D. G.,and Gibson,T.J.1994． Clustal W:Improying the sensitivity of progressive multiple alignment through sequence weighting. Nucl. Acids Res 22:4673-4680．
Threadgill D., and J. Womack. 1990． Genomic analysis of the major bovine milk protein genes. Nucleic Acids Res. 18:6935-6942．
Toelle V.D.et al.1986． Cytoplasmic effects in swine.J.Anim.Sci.63(suppl.):203．
Troy C.S., MacHugh D.E., Bailey J.R, Magee D.A., Loftus R.T., Cunningham P., Chamberlain A.T., Sykes B.C., Bradley D.G. 2001． Genetic evidence for Near-Eastern origins of European cattle Nature. 410(6832) :1088-91．
Upholt W.B. et al.1977． Mapping of mitochondrial DNA of individual sheep and goats:rapid evolution in the D-loop region.Cell,11:571-583．
Vaiman D., E. Pailhoux, L. Schibler, A. Oustry, S. Chaffaux,C. Cotinot, M. Fellous, and E.P. Cribiu. 1997． Genetic mapping of the polled/intersex locus (PIS) in goats.Theriogenology 47: 103-109．
Vaiman D., L. Schibler, A. Oustry-Vaiman, E. Pailhoux, T. Goldammer, M. Stevanovic, J.P. Furet, M. Schwerin, C. Cotinot, M. Fellous et al. 1999． High-resolution Human/Goat comparative map of the goat Polled/Intersex syndrome (PIS): The human homologue is contained in a human YAC from HSA3q23． Genomics 56: 31-39．
Vaiman D., L. Schibler, F. Bourgeois, A. Oustry, Y. Amigues, and E.P. Cribiu. 199b6． A genetic linkage map of the male goat genome. Genetics 144: 279-305．
Vaiman D., O. Koutita A. Oustry, J.M. Elsen, E. Manfredi, M. Fellous, and E.P. Cribiu. 1996a. Genetic mapping of the autosomal region involved in XX sex-reversal and horn development in goats. Mamm. Genome 7: 133-137．
Vigne J.D.,Carrere L.Saliege J.F.,Person A.,Bocherens H.,Guilaine J.&Briois F.2000． in Proc.4th Int. Symp. on Archzeozoology of Southwestern Asia and adjacent areos(Archaeological Research and Consultancy.Publication 32,Gronigne,The Netherlands),pp.A83-A106．
Vila C., Savolainen P., Maldonado J. E.,Amorim I. R., Rice J. E., Honeycutt R. L, Crandall K. A., Lundeberg J. & Wayne R. K. 1997． Multiple and ancient origins of the domestic Dog . Science 276, 1687-1689．
Vila C., Leonard J. A., Gotherstrom A., Marklund S., Sandberg K., Liden K., Wayne R. K. & Ellegren
H. 2001． Widespread origins of domestic horse lineages.Science 291: 474-477．
Vila C., Maldonado J.E., Wayne R.K. 1999． Phylogenetic relationships, evolution, and genetic diversity of the domestic dog.J Hered. 90(1) :71-77．
Vos P.,Hoghers R., Bleeker M.et al. 1995． AFLP:a new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nucleic Acids Research 23(21) :4407-4414．
Wakeley J. 1993． Substitution rate variation among sites in hyperva riable region 1 of human mitochondrial DNA. J. Mol. Evol. 37: 613-623．
Ward P., B. L. Frazier K. Dew-Jager and S. Paabo. 1991． Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerindian tribe. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 8720-8724．
Watanable T. et al. 1985． Polymorphism of mitochondrial DNA in pigs based on restriction enddonuclease cleavage pattern. Biochem. Gent. 23(11-12) : 105-113．
Watanable T. et al. 1989． Pig mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in native Philippine cattle based on restriction endonuclease cleavage patterns. Biochem. Gent. 27(7-8) :431-438．
Watanable T. et al.1986． Pig mitochondrial DNA:polymoriphism,restriction map orientation and sequence data. Biochem. Gent.24(5-6) ,385-395．
Watanable T.,Hayashi Y.,Semba R.,Ogaswara N. 1985． Bovine mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in restriction endonuclease cleavage patterns and the location of the polymorphic sites. Biochem. Gent.23(11-12) :945-957．
Watanobe T., Ishiguro N., Nakano M., Takamiya H.., Matsui A., Hongo H. 2002． Prehistoric Introduction of domestic pigs onto the Okinawa Islands: Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence.J Mol Evol. 55(2) :222-231．
Watanobe, T., Okumura, N., Ishiguro, N., Nakano, M., Matsui, A., Sahara, M. & Komatsu, M. 1999 .Genetic relationship and distribution of the Japanese wild boar (Sus scrqfa leucomystax) and Ryukyu wild boar (Sus scrqfa riukiuanus) analysed by mitochondrial DNA. Mol. Ecol. 8: 1509-1512．
Welsh J., McClelland M. 1990． Fingerprinting genome using PCR with arbitrary primers. Nucleic Acids Research, 18:7213-7218．
Williams J. G K. et al. 1990． DNA polymorphism amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic makers. Nucleic Acids.,18:6531-6535．
Wilson A. C., L. R. Maxson, and V. M. Sarich. 1974． Two types of molecular evolution. Evidence from studies of interspecific hybridization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 71: 2843-2847．
Wilson A. C., V. M. Sarich, and L. R. Maxson. 1974． The importance of gene rearrangement in evolution: evidence from studies on rates of chromosomal, protein, and anatomical evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 71:3028-3030．
Wilson E. O. et al .1988 .The current state of biological diversity. In Wilson E. O. and Francis M. Peter (eds.) ,Biodiversity. National Academy Press ,Washington D. C.
Wlson A. C., R. L. Cann, S. M. Carr, M. Geoge, U. B. Gyliensten, K. M. Helimbychowski, R. G Higuchi, S. R. Palumbi, E. M. Prager, R. D. Sage, and M. Stoneking.1985． Mitochondrial DNA and two perspectives on evolutionary genetics. Biol. J. Linnaean Sot. 26:375-400．
Wood N. J., Phua S.H.1996． Variation in the control sequence of the sheep mitochondrial genome. Anim. Genet. 27:25-33．
Wyman A.R. and White R.1980． Ahighly polymorphic locus in human DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 77:6754-6758．
Xu,X. and Arnason,U. 1994． The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the horse, Equus caballus: extensive heteroplasmy of the control region. Gene. 148 (2) : 357-362 .
Xu,X., Gullberg,A. and Arnason,U. 1996． The complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of the donkey and mtDNA comparisons among four closely related mammalian species-pairs.J, Mol. Evol. 43 (5) : 438-446 .
Xu,X., Janke,A. and Arnason,U. 1996． The complete mitochondrial DNA sequence of the greater Indian rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis, and the Phylogenetic relationship among Carnivora, Perissodactyla, and Artiodactyla (+ Cetacea). Mol. Biol. Evol. 13 (9) : 1167-1173．
Xue-Mei LD, Yun-Xin Fu, and Ya-Ping Zhang . 2002． Evolution of Mitochondrial Cytochrome b Pseudogene in Genus Nycticebus. Mol. Biol. Evol 19(12) :2337-2341．
Yahyaoui M.H., Coll A., Sanchez A., Folch J.M. 2001． Genetic polymorphism of the caprine kappa casein gene.J Dairy Res. 68(2) :209-16．
Yang Z. & Kumar S. 1996． Approximate methods for estimating the pattern of nucleotide substitution and the variation of substitution rates among sites. Mol. Biol. Evol. 13: 650-659．
Yang F. T. et al. 1990． A comparative study of karyotypes of muntjacs by chromosome painting. Chromosoma, 103:642-652．
Yang L.,Zhao S.H.,Li K.,Peng Z. Z.,Montgomery GW.1999． Determinationof genetic relationships among five indigenous Chinese goat breeds with six microsatellite markers.Anim. Gent.30:452-455．
Yoder A. D., Cartmill M, Ruvolo M et al. 1996． Ancient single origin for Malagasy primates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 93:5122-5126．
Yoder A.D,Vilgalys R., Ruvolo M.1996． Molecular evolutionary dynamics of cytochrome b in Strepsirrhine primates :the phylogenetic significance of third-position transversions. Mol. Biol. Evol. 13(10) :1339-1350．
Yu Y.Nie L.,He Z-Q., Wen J-K., Jian C-S. & Zhang Y-P. 1999． Mitochondrial DNA variation in cattle of South China: origin and introgression. Animal Genetics 30 (4) : 245-250．
Zeder, M. A. & Hesse, B. 2000． The Initial Domestication of goats (Capra hircus) in the Zagros mountains 10,000 years Ago. Science 287: 2254-2257．
Zeuner F.E.1963． A history of domesticated animals,Hutchinson,London.
Zhang Y P, Ryder O. A . 1994． Phylogenetic relationships of bears (the Ursidae ) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol. Phylogent. Evol. 3:351-359．
Zhang Y. P., Ryder O.A. 1994． Non-invasive giant panda paternity exclusion. Zoo Biolog,14:569-573．