牙菌斑的分子微生态结构分析以及乳酸杆菌抑制变异链球菌属形成生物膜的治疗作用
|
摘要
背景：口腔是人体最复杂的微生物系统之一，约有600多种细菌组成。其中250多种细菌可以通过体外培养进行分离和检测，而450种以上细菌只能通过非依赖于培养的分子方法进行检测。其中龋齿和牙周炎是最常见的口腔疾病，且二者均为多微生物疾病。这些多微生物存在于生物膜中，而生物膜是由早期的定居者像变形链球菌等形成的。所以与龋齿和牙菌斑相关的一些细菌的总体情况对于研究这类疾病的治疗是至关重要的。由于口腔内的一些细菌无法进行体外培养，所以传统的细菌培养方法无法描述口腔微生物的总体概况。随着研究细菌16SrRNA分子方法的出现，如PCR-变性梯度凝胶电泳(PCR-DGGE)，测序，基因文库等。其中PCR-DGGE有助于对不同疾病的细菌多样性进行分析。这一技术是非依赖于体外培养的指纹图谱方法，常应用于环境微生态系统中。由微生物形成的细菌膜是一个大障碍，因为它为内部细菌提供了庇护所。变异链球菌属口腔生物膜的早期定居者。变异链球菌属能分解蔗糖并产酸，从而降低了环境的pH，导致了龋齿的发生。在蔗糖存在的情况下，GtfB和LuxS基因与生物膜形成有关。所以任何一种能够直接减少链球菌数量的治疗方法对于保持口腔健康均是有作用的。目前，应用益生菌制剂不断增加，乳酸杆菌和双歧杆菌是使用最广泛的两种益生菌。尽管这些益生菌被广泛使用，但是应用于口腔疾病还处于起步阶段，尤其是龋齿、牙周病和口臭等疾病的益生菌治疗。对于口腔乳酸杆菌的研究已有数十年历史，它能够产生抑制多种细菌生长的细菌素，包括口腔链球菌。所以益生菌十分有助于口腔疾病的治疗。
目的：
通过PCR-DGGE方法确定牙菌斑/生物膜中微生物的分子特性。
确定乳酸杆菌对变异变异链球菌属生物膜形成的影响。
确定乳酸杆菌对变异链球菌活性的影响。
确定乳酸杆菌对生物膜形成有关基因的影响。
方法：
为了微生物特性的鉴定，从龋齿和牙周炎患者口腔中收集牙菌斑的样品，从样品中提取DNA，用含GC夹的引物进行PCR扩增，并进行变性梯度凝胶电泳。
S. mutans，L. bulgaricus，L. acidophilus，L. rhamnosus和L. salivarius通过结晶紫染色来检测生物膜形成能力，采用96孔板法反应24小时，48小时，72小时来测定。为了测定乳酸杆菌对变异链球菌生物膜形成的作用，以上反应以1：1的比例进行，并通过结晶紫染色的96孔板法和共聚焦显微镜进行分析。
通过PMA染色和实时定量PCR扩增来检测变异链球菌16S rRNA基因，以测定乳酸杆菌对变异链球菌活性的影响。
通过提取RNA，然后进行real time RT-PCR来检测与生物膜形成有关的基因GtfB和LuxS。
结果：
DGGE结果中的每一条带都说明在样品中存在有一种或多种细菌。可以清晰地观察到牙周炎组条带的数目（10.36±3.5）少于龋齿组条带的数目(12.73±3.2)和正常组条带的数目(17.06±4.34)，正常组和患病组p值是0.002和0.001。这三组聚类分析没有统计学意义。测序结果显示有23种细菌存在。在牙周炎组几乎都是革兰氏阴性菌，在龋齿组革兰氏阴性菌和阳性菌的数目几乎相同。
本研究中所应用的变异链球菌能很好的形成生物膜，它的形成能力在有蔗糖和延长时间的情况下会增强。其他的四种乳酸杆菌相对于变异链球菌来说生物膜的形成能力没有变异链球菌强。所有的这四种乳酸杆菌都减弱了变异链球菌生物膜的形成能力，但是L. acidophilus和L. salivarius减弱的程度比较大，几乎减少了一半的厚度。除了个别结果p值大于0.005，大部分的结果在统计学上都是有意义的（P≤0.005）。这两种细菌同样减少了变异链球菌的活菌数，分别从1.70x105减少到3.08x103和3.13x102，p值为0.002。
在有L. acidophilus和L. salivarius存在的生物膜中基因GtfB和LuxS的表达明显减少，GtfB的表达在有上述两种乳酸杆菌存在的条件下分别减少到80％和90％，LuxS的表达分别降至56％和83％，由于p值小于等于0.005，这个结果被证明是有统计学意义的。
结论：
口腔里生存着多种多样的微生物，它们彼此之间处于一种平衡状态。一旦这种平衡被打破，它就将导致疾病的发生。龋齿和牙周炎是最常见的口腔多微生物疾病。这需要深入研究治疗这些疾病的方法。PCR-DGGE是一种在一些环境中检测多种微生物的最有效的技术，所以我们使用这种技术。它的优点在于其可用肉眼观察，可以对感兴趣的条带进行切割，克隆和顺序分析来获得菌种信息。细菌多样性减少的疾病组可能是由于产酸菌的存在或者逃离于身体防御系统的细菌存在。
口腔内细菌膜的形成得到广泛关注，因为它为微生物提供了庇护所，并有助于抵制抗菌复合物。所以，任何抑制生物膜形成的治疗都是很重要的。由于抗生素耐药性的出现，利用乳酸杆菌和双歧杆菌等益生菌治疗得到广泛关注。我们检测了四种乳酸杆菌对于变异链球菌所形成的细菌膜的影响。它们均能减少生物膜，但通过细菌计数显示L. salivarius和L acidophilus能极大的减少生物膜的形成。这可能是由于乳酸菌产生的细菌素能杀死变形链球菌，它可能阻碍变形链球菌的粘附并抑制生物膜的形成。所以，益生菌治疗方法可能有作用并可以替代抗生素。我们需要在不同的方面进行更进一步的研究来确定这种现象。
Introduction:
Oral cavity is one of the most complex microbial habitats in the human body thatcomprises of more than600diverse arrays of bacterial species. More than250oralmicrobes have been isolated and characterized by the cultivation method but over450microbial species have been identified by the culture independent molecular methods.Among many oral diseases dental caries and periodontitis are common diseases. Bothdiseases are polymicrobial disease. Polymicrobial communities of bacteria are formedin the biofilm form by the early colonizer like Streptococcus mutans. So, the completepicture of microbial communities responsible for dental caries and periodontitis isimportant to depict to find proper treatment of disease. Conventional bacterial culturalmethod failed to depict complete picture as still few oral bacterial strains uncultivated.With the emergence of molecular methods targeting16S rRNA likes polymerase chainreaction based denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR DGGE), sequencing, clonelibrary etc. Among them PCR DGGE is one is useful for analyzing the bacterialdiversity profile in different disease condition. This technique is a fingerprintingapproach and used by environmental ecologists to survey entire bacterial communitieswithout cultivation. Biofilm formation by microorganisms is a big problem andprovides shelter and resistance to bacterium inside it. Streptococcus mutans is amongthe early colonizer of oral cavity and initiator of biofilm. S. mutans in the presence ofsucrose produces acid which lower the pH and initiate caries formation. GtfB and LuxSgene is responsible for biofilm formation in the presence of sucrose. So any form oftreatment directed to reduce S. mutans count is useful for maintaining oral health. Nowa day’s consumption of probiotics containing product is increasing. Lactobacilusspecies and Bifidobacterium species are the most widely used probiotics. Despite the wide spread use of probiotics, its use in oral disease still in its infancy and limited to themanagement of dental caries, periodontal disease and halitosis Lactobacilli have gaineda great interest in dental research for several decades. It can produce bacteriocins whichinhibits wide variety of bacterial species including oral streptococci. So probiotics canbe a good candidate for oral disease treatment
Objectives
Molecular characterization of microorganisms in dental plaque/biofilm byusing PCR DGGE.
Determine the Effect of Lactobacillus species on biofilm formation ofStreptococcus mutans.
Determine the Effect of Lactobacillus species on Streptococcus mutans viability.
Determine the Effect of Lactobacillus species on genes involved in biofilmformation.
Material and Method:
For microbial characterization dental plaque samples were collected from dentalcaries and periodontitis patients, DNA was extracted from plaque samples, PCR wasperformed using primer with GC clamp and run on denaturing gradient gelelectrophoresis.
Biofilm formation capability of S. mutans, L. bulgaricus, L. acidophilus, L.rhamnosus and L. salivarius was assessed using crystal violet based96well platemethod at24hrs,48hrs and72hrs. To detect the effect of Lactobacillus species on S.mutans biofilm formation, they are incubated in1:1ratio and analyzed by crystal violetbased96well plate method, confocal microscopy.
Effect of Lactobacillus species on viability of S. mutans is detected by PMAbased real time PCR by targeting S. mutans specific16S rRNA gene.
Effect of Lactobacillus species on biofilm formation genes. GtfB and LuxS geneswere selected. RNA was extracted, cDNA synthesized and real time PCR was done forselected gene.
Results:
Each band in DGGE profile showed the presence of single or more than onebacterial species in sample. It is clearly observed that number of bands detected inperiodontitis groups (10.36±3.5) were less than dental caries (12.73±3.2) and normalgroups (17.06±4.34) with P values0.002and0.001among disease and normal group.The three groups failed to form significant cluster. Sequencing results showed the presence of23genera. Mostly Gram negative bacteria in periodontitis group, whiledental caries group contain approximate equal numbers of Gram positive and negativebacteria.
S. mutans used in this study is a good biofilm former and its ability increased in thepresence of sucrose and with increasing time. All the four lactobacillus strain used arenot a good biofilm former as compared to S. mutans. All the lactobacillus strain reducedbiofilm formation by S. mutans. But L. acidophilus and L. salivarius reduced to a greatextent. These two strains reduce the depth of biofilm almost half. Most of the results arestatistically significant wit P value≤0.005except few have greater than0.005. Thesetwo strains also reduced the viable count of S. mutans from1.70x105to3.08x103and3.13x102respectively with P value0.002.
Gene expression of GtfB and LuxS genes involved in biofilm formation wasreduced in the presence of L. acidophilus and L. salivarius. The expression of GtfB inthe presence of both lactobacillus strains reduced to80%and90%respectively, whilethe expression of LuxS was reduced to56%and83%. Results were found statisticallysignificant with P value≤0.005.
Conclusion:
Oral cavity harbors diverse array of microorganisms which are present inequilibrium. Once the equilibrium is destroyed it leads to disease state. Dental cariesand periodontitis are the common polymicrobial oral cavity disease. This needs to bedissected to establish good remedies to fight with disease. PCR DGGE is one of theuseful techniques used to detect many bacteria in any environment so we used thistechnique. Advantage of it is visual detection of profile; bands of interest can be cut,cloned and sequenced to get phylogenetic identity. Less diversity diseased group mightbe due to the presence of only acid producing bacteria or bacteria which survives hostdefense.
Biofilm formation in the oral cavity is a big concern as it provides microbe’sshelter and more resistance to antimicrobial compounds. So any remedies to reducebiofilm formation might be important. Due to emergence of antibiotic resistancebacteriotherapy is becoming famous in the light of probiotics lactobacillus andbifidobacterium species. We also detect the effect of four lactobacillus strains onbiofilm formation of S. mutans. All of them reduce biofilm but L. salivarius and Lacidophilus reduced the biofilm greatly as well as bacterial count. This action might bedue to the presence of bacteriocins responsible to kill S. mutans, it might also interfere with the adherence of S. mutans and restrict biofilm formation. so probiotic approachmight be useful and as an alternate to antibiotics. Still further research is needed indifferent aspect to assure this phenomenon.
目的：
通过PCR-DGGE方法确定牙菌斑/生物膜中微生物的分子特性。
确定乳酸杆菌对变异变异链球菌属生物膜形成的影响。
确定乳酸杆菌对变异链球菌活性的影响。
确定乳酸杆菌对生物膜形成有关基因的影响。
方法：
为了微生物特性的鉴定，从龋齿和牙周炎患者口腔中收集牙菌斑的样品，从样品中提取DNA，用含GC夹的引物进行PCR扩增，并进行变性梯度凝胶电泳。
S. mutans，L. bulgaricus，L. acidophilus，L. rhamnosus和L. salivarius通过结晶紫染色来检测生物膜形成能力，采用96孔板法反应24小时，48小时，72小时来测定。为了测定乳酸杆菌对变异链球菌生物膜形成的作用，以上反应以1：1的比例进行，并通过结晶紫染色的96孔板法和共聚焦显微镜进行分析。
通过PMA染色和实时定量PCR扩增来检测变异链球菌16S rRNA基因，以测定乳酸杆菌对变异链球菌活性的影响。
通过提取RNA，然后进行real time RT-PCR来检测与生物膜形成有关的基因GtfB和LuxS。
结果：
DGGE结果中的每一条带都说明在样品中存在有一种或多种细菌。可以清晰地观察到牙周炎组条带的数目（10.36±3.5）少于龋齿组条带的数目(12.73±3.2)和正常组条带的数目(17.06±4.34)，正常组和患病组p值是0.002和0.001。这三组聚类分析没有统计学意义。测序结果显示有23种细菌存在。在牙周炎组几乎都是革兰氏阴性菌，在龋齿组革兰氏阴性菌和阳性菌的数目几乎相同。
本研究中所应用的变异链球菌能很好的形成生物膜，它的形成能力在有蔗糖和延长时间的情况下会增强。其他的四种乳酸杆菌相对于变异链球菌来说生物膜的形成能力没有变异链球菌强。所有的这四种乳酸杆菌都减弱了变异链球菌生物膜的形成能力，但是L. acidophilus和L. salivarius减弱的程度比较大，几乎减少了一半的厚度。除了个别结果p值大于0.005，大部分的结果在统计学上都是有意义的（P≤0.005）。这两种细菌同样减少了变异链球菌的活菌数，分别从1.70x105减少到3.08x103和3.13x102，p值为0.002。
在有L. acidophilus和L. salivarius存在的生物膜中基因GtfB和LuxS的表达明显减少，GtfB的表达在有上述两种乳酸杆菌存在的条件下分别减少到80％和90％，LuxS的表达分别降至56％和83％，由于p值小于等于0.005，这个结果被证明是有统计学意义的。
结论：
口腔里生存着多种多样的微生物，它们彼此之间处于一种平衡状态。一旦这种平衡被打破，它就将导致疾病的发生。龋齿和牙周炎是最常见的口腔多微生物疾病。这需要深入研究治疗这些疾病的方法。PCR-DGGE是一种在一些环境中检测多种微生物的最有效的技术，所以我们使用这种技术。它的优点在于其可用肉眼观察，可以对感兴趣的条带进行切割，克隆和顺序分析来获得菌种信息。细菌多样性减少的疾病组可能是由于产酸菌的存在或者逃离于身体防御系统的细菌存在。
口腔内细菌膜的形成得到广泛关注，因为它为微生物提供了庇护所，并有助于抵制抗菌复合物。所以，任何抑制生物膜形成的治疗都是很重要的。由于抗生素耐药性的出现，利用乳酸杆菌和双歧杆菌等益生菌治疗得到广泛关注。我们检测了四种乳酸杆菌对于变异链球菌所形成的细菌膜的影响。它们均能减少生物膜，但通过细菌计数显示L. salivarius和L acidophilus能极大的减少生物膜的形成。这可能是由于乳酸菌产生的细菌素能杀死变形链球菌，它可能阻碍变形链球菌的粘附并抑制生物膜的形成。所以，益生菌治疗方法可能有作用并可以替代抗生素。我们需要在不同的方面进行更进一步的研究来确定这种现象。
Introduction:
Oral cavity is one of the most complex microbial habitats in the human body thatcomprises of more than600diverse arrays of bacterial species. More than250oralmicrobes have been isolated and characterized by the cultivation method but over450microbial species have been identified by the culture independent molecular methods.Among many oral diseases dental caries and periodontitis are common diseases. Bothdiseases are polymicrobial disease. Polymicrobial communities of bacteria are formedin the biofilm form by the early colonizer like Streptococcus mutans. So, the completepicture of microbial communities responsible for dental caries and periodontitis isimportant to depict to find proper treatment of disease. Conventional bacterial culturalmethod failed to depict complete picture as still few oral bacterial strains uncultivated.With the emergence of molecular methods targeting16S rRNA likes polymerase chainreaction based denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR DGGE), sequencing, clonelibrary etc. Among them PCR DGGE is one is useful for analyzing the bacterialdiversity profile in different disease condition. This technique is a fingerprintingapproach and used by environmental ecologists to survey entire bacterial communitieswithout cultivation. Biofilm formation by microorganisms is a big problem andprovides shelter and resistance to bacterium inside it. Streptococcus mutans is amongthe early colonizer of oral cavity and initiator of biofilm. S. mutans in the presence ofsucrose produces acid which lower the pH and initiate caries formation. GtfB and LuxSgene is responsible for biofilm formation in the presence of sucrose. So any form oftreatment directed to reduce S. mutans count is useful for maintaining oral health. Nowa day’s consumption of probiotics containing product is increasing. Lactobacilusspecies and Bifidobacterium species are the most widely used probiotics. Despite the wide spread use of probiotics, its use in oral disease still in its infancy and limited to themanagement of dental caries, periodontal disease and halitosis Lactobacilli have gaineda great interest in dental research for several decades. It can produce bacteriocins whichinhibits wide variety of bacterial species including oral streptococci. So probiotics canbe a good candidate for oral disease treatment
Objectives
Molecular characterization of microorganisms in dental plaque/biofilm byusing PCR DGGE.
Determine the Effect of Lactobacillus species on biofilm formation ofStreptococcus mutans.
Determine the Effect of Lactobacillus species on Streptococcus mutans viability.
Determine the Effect of Lactobacillus species on genes involved in biofilmformation.
Material and Method:
For microbial characterization dental plaque samples were collected from dentalcaries and periodontitis patients, DNA was extracted from plaque samples, PCR wasperformed using primer with GC clamp and run on denaturing gradient gelelectrophoresis.
Biofilm formation capability of S. mutans, L. bulgaricus, L. acidophilus, L.rhamnosus and L. salivarius was assessed using crystal violet based96well platemethod at24hrs,48hrs and72hrs. To detect the effect of Lactobacillus species on S.mutans biofilm formation, they are incubated in1:1ratio and analyzed by crystal violetbased96well plate method, confocal microscopy.
Effect of Lactobacillus species on viability of S. mutans is detected by PMAbased real time PCR by targeting S. mutans specific16S rRNA gene.
Effect of Lactobacillus species on biofilm formation genes. GtfB and LuxS geneswere selected. RNA was extracted, cDNA synthesized and real time PCR was done forselected gene.
Results:
Each band in DGGE profile showed the presence of single or more than onebacterial species in sample. It is clearly observed that number of bands detected inperiodontitis groups (10.36±3.5) were less than dental caries (12.73±3.2) and normalgroups (17.06±4.34) with P values0.002and0.001among disease and normal group.The three groups failed to form significant cluster. Sequencing results showed the presence of23genera. Mostly Gram negative bacteria in periodontitis group, whiledental caries group contain approximate equal numbers of Gram positive and negativebacteria.
S. mutans used in this study is a good biofilm former and its ability increased in thepresence of sucrose and with increasing time. All the four lactobacillus strain used arenot a good biofilm former as compared to S. mutans. All the lactobacillus strain reducedbiofilm formation by S. mutans. But L. acidophilus and L. salivarius reduced to a greatextent. These two strains reduce the depth of biofilm almost half. Most of the results arestatistically significant wit P value≤0.005except few have greater than0.005. Thesetwo strains also reduced the viable count of S. mutans from1.70x105to3.08x103and3.13x102respectively with P value0.002.
Gene expression of GtfB and LuxS genes involved in biofilm formation wasreduced in the presence of L. acidophilus and L. salivarius. The expression of GtfB inthe presence of both lactobacillus strains reduced to80%and90%respectively, whilethe expression of LuxS was reduced to56%and83%. Results were found statisticallysignificant with P value≤0.005.
Conclusion:
Oral cavity harbors diverse array of microorganisms which are present inequilibrium. Once the equilibrium is destroyed it leads to disease state. Dental cariesand periodontitis are the common polymicrobial oral cavity disease. This needs to bedissected to establish good remedies to fight with disease. PCR DGGE is one of theuseful techniques used to detect many bacteria in any environment so we used thistechnique. Advantage of it is visual detection of profile; bands of interest can be cut,cloned and sequenced to get phylogenetic identity. Less diversity diseased group mightbe due to the presence of only acid producing bacteria or bacteria which survives hostdefense.
Biofilm formation in the oral cavity is a big concern as it provides microbe’sshelter and more resistance to antimicrobial compounds. So any remedies to reducebiofilm formation might be important. Due to emergence of antibiotic resistancebacteriotherapy is becoming famous in the light of probiotics lactobacillus andbifidobacterium species. We also detect the effect of four lactobacillus strains onbiofilm formation of S. mutans. All of them reduce biofilm but L. salivarius and Lacidophilus reduced the biofilm greatly as well as bacterial count. This action might bedue to the presence of bacteriocins responsible to kill S. mutans, it might also interfere with the adherence of S. mutans and restrict biofilm formation. so probiotic approachmight be useful and as an alternate to antibiotics. Still further research is needed indifferent aspect to assure this phenomenon.
引文
1. Gill SR, Pop M, Deboy RT, Eckburg PB, Turnbaugh PJ, Samuel BS, Gordon JI, Relman DA,Fraser-Liggett CM, Nelson KE (2006). Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gutmicrobiome. Science,312:1355–1359.
2. Kazor CE, Mitchell PM, Lee AM, Stokes LN, Loesche WJ, Dewhirst FE, Paster BJ (2003).Diversity of bacterial populations on the tongue dorsa of patients with halitosis and healthypatients. J. Clin. Microbiol.,41(2):558-563.
3. Aas JA, Griffen AL, Dardis SR, Lee AM, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE, Leys EJ, Paster BJ (2008).Bacteria of dental caries in primary and permanent teeth in children and young adults. J. Clin.Microbiol.,46:1407–1417.
4. Paster BJ, Olsen I, Aas JA, Dewhirst FE (2006). The breadth of bacterial diversity in the humanperiodontal pocket and other oral sites. Periodontol.2000,42:80–87.
5. Beck JD, Eke P, Heiss G, Madianos P, Couper D, Lin D, Moss K, Elter J, Offenbacher S(2005a). Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease: a reappraisal of the exposure.Circulation,112:19–24.
6. Beck JD, Eke P, Lin D, Madianos P, Couper D, Moss K, Elter J, Heiss G, Offenbacher S(2005b). Associations between IgG antibody to oral organisms and carotid intima-medialthickness in community-dwelling adults. Atherosclerosis,183:342–348.
7. Offenbacher S, Boggess KA, Murtha AP, Jared HL, Lieff S, McKaig RG, Mauriello SM, MossKL, Beck JD (2006). Progressive periodontal disease and risk of very preterm delivery. Obstet.Gynecol.,107:29–36.
8. Paju S, Scannapieco FA (2007). Oral biofilms, periodontitis, and pulmonary infections. Oral.Dis.,13:508–512.
9. Ruby J, Goldner M (2007). Nature of symbiosis in oral disease. J. Dent Res86:8–11
10. Islam B, Khan S, Khan A.(2007). Dental Caries: From Infection to Prevention. Med SciMonit.13(11): RA196-203.
11. van Houte J (1994). Role of micro-organisms in caries etiology. J. Dent. Res.,73:672–681.
12. Theilade, E.(1986). The non-specific theory in microbial etiology of inflammatory periodontaldiseases. J Clin Periodontol.13,905-911.
13. Socransky, S. S., Manganiello, A. D., Propas, D., Oram, V.&van Houte, J.(1977).Bacteriological studies of developing supragingival dental plaque. J Periodontal Res12,90-106.
14. Loesche, W. J.(1976). Chemotherapy of dental plaque infections. Oral Sci Rev9,65-107.
15. Marsh, P. D.(2003). Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology149,279-294.
16. Marsh PD (1999). Microbiologic aspects of dental plaque and dental caries. Dent. Clin. NorthAm.,43:599–614.
17. Sbordone L, Bortolaia C (2003). Oral microbial biofilms and plaque related diseases: microbialcommunities and their role in the shift from oral health to disease. Clin. Oral Investig.,7:181–188.
18. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS (1994). Microbial etiological agents of destructive periodontaldiseases. Periodontol.2000,5:78-111.
19. Houle MA, Grenier D (2003). Maladies paradontales: Connaisances actuelles. CurrentConcepts in periodontal diseases. Medicine et maladies infectieuses,33(7):331-40.
20. Zongxin Ling, Jianming Kong, Peng Jia, Chaochun Wei, Yuezhu Wang, Zhiwen Pan, WujingHuang, Lanjuan Li, Hui Chen, Charlie Xiang (2010). Analysis of oral microbiota in childrenwith dental caries by PCR-DGGE and Barcoded Pyrosequencing. Microb Ecol,60:677-690.
21. Hill JE, Goh SH, Money DM, Doyle M, Li A, Crosby WL, Links M, Leung A, Chan D,Hemmingsen SM (2005). Characterization of vaginal microflora of healthy, nonpregnantwomen by chaperonin-60sequence-based methods. Am J Obstet Gynecol193:682–692
22. Schellenberg J, Links MG, Hill JE, Dumonceaux TJ, Peters GA, Tyler S, Ball TB, Severini A,Plummer FA (2009). Pyrosequencing of the chaperonin-60universal target as a tool fordetermining microbial community composition. Appl Environ Microbiol75:2889–2898
23. Zaura E, Keijser BJ, Huse SM, Crielaard W (2009) Defining the healthy “core microbiome” oforal microbial communities. BMC Microbiol9:259
24. Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, Moeschberger ML, Kenyon SG, Galvin JL, Boches SK,Dewhirst FE, Griffen AL (2002) Molecular analysis of bacterial species associated withchildhood caries. J Clin Microbiol40:1001–1009
25. Peterson J, Garges S, Giovanni M, McInnes P, Wang L, Schloss JA, Bonazzi V, McEwen JE,Wetterstrand KA, Deal C, Baker CC, Di Francesco V, Howcroft TK, Karp RW, Lunsford RD,Wellington CR, Belachew T, Wright M, Giblin C, David H, Mills M, Salomon R, Mullins C,Akolkar B, Begg L, Davis C, Grandison L, Humble M, Khalsa J, Little AR, Peavy H, Pontzer C,Portnoy M, Sayre MH, Starke-Reed P, Zakhari S, Read J, Watson B, Guyer M (2009) The NIHhuman microbiome project. Genome Res19:2317–2323.
26. Ledder RG, Gilbert P, Huws SA, Aarons L, Ashley MP, Hull PS, McBain AJ (2007). Molecularanalysis of the subgingival microbiota in health and disease. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,73:516–523.
27. Li Y, Ge Y, Saxena D, Caufield PW (2007). Genetic profiling of the oral microbiota associatedwith severe early-childhood caries. J. Clin. Microbiol.,45:81–87.
28. Li Y, Saxena D, Barnes VM, Trivedi HM, Ge Y, Xu T (2006). Polymerase chain reaction-baseddenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis in the evaluation of oral microbiota. Oral Microbiol.Immunol.,21:333–339.
29. Liu DL, Zhou YB, Li CL, Li YP, Jiang YT, Huang ZW, Liang JP, Shu R (2010). Denaturinggradient gel electrophoresis analysis of subgingival bacterial communities under mechanicaldebridement with different primers. Microbiol. Immunol.,54:702–706.
30. Machado de Oliveira JC, Gama TG, Siqueira JF Jr, R as IN, Peixoto RS, Rosado AS (2007).On the use of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis approach for bacterial identification inendodontic infections. Clin. Oral Investig.,11:127–132.
31. Ferris, M. J., G. Muyzer, and D. M. Ward.1996. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresisprofiles of16S rRNA-defined populations inhabiting a hot spring microbial mat community.Appl. Environ. Microbiol.62:340–346.
32. Muyzer G, de Waal EC, Uitterlinden AG (1993). Profiling of complex microbial populations bydenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplified genescoding for16S rRNA. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,59:695–700.
33. Nubel, U., F. Garcia-Pichel, M. Kuhl, and G. Muyzer.1999. Quantifying microbial diversity:morphotypes,16S rRNA genes, and carotenoids of oxygenic phototrophs in microbial mats.Appl. Environ. Microbiol.65:422–430.
34. Millar, M. R., C. J. Linton, A. Cade, D. Glancy, M. Hall, and H. Jalal.1996. Application of16SrRNA gene PCR to study bowel flora of preterm infants with and without necrotizingenterocolitis. J. Clin. Microbiol.34:2506–2510.
35. Simpson, J. M., V. J. McCracken, B. A. White, H. R. Gaskins, and R. I. Mackie.1999.Application of denaturant gradient gel electrophoresis for the analysis of the porcinegastrointestinal microbiota. J. Microbiol. Methods36:167–179
36. Zoetendal, E. G., A. D. Akkermans, and W. M. De Vos.1998. Temperature gradient gelelectrophoresis analysis of16S rRNA from human fecal samples reveals stable and host-specific communities of active bacteria. Appl. Environ Microbiol.64:3854–3859.
37. Cole, J. R., B. Chai, R. J. Farris, Q. Wang, S. A. Kulam, D. M. McGarrell, et al.2005. TheRibosomal Database Project (RDP-II): sequences and tools for high-throughput rRNA analysis.Nucleic Acids Res.33:D294–D296.
38. World Health Organization (1997). Oral health surveys: basic methods,4th edn. WHO, Geneva.
39. Lang NP, Joss A, Tonetti MS (1996). Monitoring disease supportive periodontal treatment bybleeding on probing. Periodontol.2000,12:44-48.
40. Silva EP, Russo CAM (2000). Techniques and statistical data analysis in molecular populationgenetics. Hydrobiologia,420:119–135.
41. Achtman, M.&Wagner, M. Microbial diversity and the genetic nature of microbial species.Nature Rev. Microbiol.6,431–440(2008).
42. Huber, J. A. et al. Effect of PCR amplicon size on assessments of clone library microbialdiversity and community structure. Environ. Microbiol.11,1292–1302(2009).
43. Lozupone, C. A.&Knight, R. Species divergence and the measurement of microbial diversity.FEMS Microbiol Rev.32,557–578(2008).
44. Wei J, YunTao J, ChaoLun L, JingPing L (2011). Investigation of supragingival PlaqueMicrobiota in Different Caries Status of Chinese Preschool Children by Denaturing GradientGel Electrophoresis. Microb. Ecol.,61:342–352.
45. Fujimoto C, Maeda H, Kokeguchi S, Takashiba S, Nishimura F, Arai H, Fukui K, Murayama Y(2003). Application of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) to the analysis ofmicrobial communities of subgingival plaque. J. Periodontal. Res.,38:440–445.
46. Siqueira JF Jr, R as IN, Debelian GJ, Carmo FL, Paiva SS, Alves FR, Rosado AS (2008).Profiling of root canal bacterial communities associated with chronic apical periodontitis fromBrazilian and Norwegian subjects. J. Endod.,34:1457–1461.
47. van Houte J, Lopman J, Kent R (1996). The final pH of bacteria comprising the predominantflora on sound and carious human root and enamel surfaces. J. Dent. Res.,75:1008–1014.
48. Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, Moeschberger ML, Kenyon SG, Galvin JL, Boches SK,Dewhirst FE, Griffen AL (2002). Molecular analysis of bacterial species associated withchildhood caries. J. Clin. Microbiol.,40:1001–1009.
49. Zijnge V, Harmsen HJM, van der Rest ME, Degener JE, Welling GW (2003). Denaturinggradient gel electrophoresis analysis to study bacterial community structure in pockets ofperiodontitis patients. Oral. Microbiol. Immunol.,18:59-65.
50. Frisken KW, Higgins T, and Palmer JM (1990). The incidence of periodontopathicmicroorganisms in young children. Oral Microbiol. Immunol.,5:43–45.
51. Tanner ACR, Milgrom PM, Kent R, Mokeem SA, Page RC, Liao SI, Riedy CA, Bruss JB(2002). Similarity of the oral microbiota of pre-school children with that of their caregivers in apopulation-based study. Oral Microbiol. Immunol.,17:379–387.
52. Ximenez-Fyvie LA, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS.(2000). Comparison of the microbiota ofsupra-and subgingival plaque in health andperiodontitis. J Clin Periodontol.27:648–57.
53. Tanner A, Maiden MF, Macuch PJ, et al.(1998). Microbiota of health, gingivitis, and initialperiodontitis. J Clin Periodontol.25:85–98.
54. Tanner A, Kent R, Maiden MF, et al.(1996). Clinical, microbiological and immunologicalprofile of healthy, gingivitis and putative active periodontal subjects. J Periodontal Res.31:195–204.
55. Ramberg P, Sekino S, Uzel NG, et al.(2003). Bacterial colonization during de novo plaqueformation. J Clin Periodontol.30:990–95.
56. Muyzer G, Smalla K (1998). Application of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)and temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) in microbial ecology. AntonieLeeuwenhoek,73:127–141.
57. Hayes VM, Wu Y, Osinga J, Mulder IM, van der Vlies P, Elfferich P, et al.(1999).Improvements in gel composition and electrophoretic conditions for broad-range mutationanalysis by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Nucleic Acids Res27:e29.
58. Munson MA, Banerjee A, Watson TF, Wade WG (2004). Molecular analysis of the microfloraassociated with dental caries. J. Clin. Microbiol.,42:3023–3029.
1. Loesche WJ.(1996) Microbiology of Dental Decay and Periodontal Disease.
2. Tanzer JM, Livingston J, Thompson AM.(2001) The microbiology of primary dental caries inhumans. J Dent Educ.65,1028-37.
3. Meiers JC, Wirthlin MR, Shklair IL.(1982) A microbiological analysis of human early cariousand non-carious fissures. J Dent Res.61,460-4.
4. Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, et al.(2002) Molecular analysis of bacterial species associatedwith childhood caries. J Clin Microbiol.40,1001-9.
5. Mukasa H, Slade HD.(1973) Mechanism of adherence of Streptococcus mutans to smoothsurfaces. I. Roles of insoluble dextran-levan synthetase enzymes and cell wall polysaccharideantigen in plaque formation. Infect Immun.8,555-62.
6. Wood SR, Kirkham J, Marsh PD, Shore RC, Nattress B, Robinson C.(2000) Architecture ofintact natural human plaque biofilms studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy. J Dent Res.79,21-7.
7. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2002) Dental biofilms: difficult therapeutic targets. Periodontol2000.28,12-55.
8. Reese S, Guggenheim B.(2007) A novel TEM contrasting technique for extracellularpolysaccharides in in vitro biofilms. Microsc Res Tech.70,816-22.
9. Bos R, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ.(1999) Physico-chemistry of initial microbial adhesiveinteractions--its mechanisms and methods for study. FEMS Microbiol Rev.23,179-230.
10. Busscher HJ, van der Mei HC.(1997) Physico-chemical interactions in initial microbialadhesion and relevance for biofilm formation. Adv Dent Res.11,24-32.
11. Zaura-Arite E, van Marle J, ten Cate JM.(2001) Conofocal microscopy study of undisturbedand chlorhexidine-treated dental biofilm. J Dent Res.80,1436-40.
12. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE.(2005) Defining the normal bacterial floraof the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol.43,5721-32.
13. Jenkinson HF, Lamont RJ.(2005) Oral microbial communities in sickness and in health. TrendsMicrobiol.13,589-95.
14. Marsh PD.(2003) Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology.149,279-94.
15. Marsh PD.(2006) Dental plaque as a biofilm and a microbial community-implications forhealth and disease. BMC Oral Health.6Suppl1, S14.
16. Beighton D.(2005) The complex oral microflora of high-risk individuals and groups and itsrole in the caries process. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.33,248-55.
17. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2005) Periodontal microbial ecology. Periodontol2000.38,135-87.
18. Marsh PD, Percival RS.(2006) The oral microflora--friend or foe? Can we decide? Int Dent J.56,233-9.
19. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS, Patel MR, Song X.(2008) Microbial complexes in supragingivalplaque. Oral Microbiol Immunol.23,196-205.
20. Kuramitsu HK, He X, Lux R, Anderson MH, Shi W.(2007) Interspecies interactions withinoral microbial communities. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.71,653-70.
21. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS, Egland PG, Foster JS, Palmer RJ, Jr.(2002)Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.66,486-505, table of contents.
22. Burne RA, Marquis RE.(2000) Alkali production by oral bacteria and protection against dentalcaries. FEMS Microbiol Lett.193,1-6.
23. Overman PR.(2000) Biofilm: a new view of plaque. J Contemp Dent Pract.1,18-29.
24. Rosan B, Lamont RJ.(2000) Dental plaque formation. Microbes Infect.2,1599-607.
25. ten Cate JM.(2006) Biofilms, a new approach to the microbiology of dental plaque.Odontology.94,1-9.
26. Sissons CH, Anderson SA, Wong L, Coleman MJ, White DC.(2007) Microbiota of plaquemicrocosm biofilms: effect of three times daily sucrose pulses in different simulated oralenvironments. Caries Res.41,413-22.
27. Chung J, Ha ES, Park HR, Kim S.(2004) Isolation and characterization of Lactobacillusspecies inhibiting the formation of Streptococcus mutans biofilm. Oral Microbiol Immunol.19,214-6.
28. Guarner F, Perdigon G, Corthier G, Salminen S, Koletzko B, Morelli L.(2005) Should yoghurtcultures be considered probiotic? Br J Nutr.93,783-6.
29. Caglar E, Sandalli N, Twetman S, Kavaloglu S, Ergeneli S, Selvi S.(2005) Effect of yogurtwith Bifidobacterium DN-173010on salivary mutans streptococci and lactobacilli in youngadults. Acta Odontol Scand.63,317-20.
30. Meurman JH.(2005) Probiotics: do they have a role in oral medicine and dentistry? Eur J OralSci.113,188-96.
31. Meurman JH, Stamatova I.(2007) Probiotics: contributions to oral health. Oral Dis.13,443-51.
32. Ahrne S, Nobaek S, Jeppsson B, Adlerberth I, Wold AE, Molin G.(1998) The normalLactobacillus flora of healthy human rectal and oral mucosa. J Appl Microbiol.85,88-94.
33. Maukonen J, Matto J, Suihko ML, Saarela M.(2008) Intra-individual diversity and similarity ofsalivary and faecal microbiota. J Med Microbiol.57,1560-8.
34. Haukioja A, Soderling E, Tenovuo J.(2008) Acid production from sugars and sugar alcohols byprobiotic lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in vitro. Caries Res.42,449-53.
35. Hatakka K, Saxelin M.(2008) Probiotics in intestinal and non-intestinal infectious diseases--clinical evidence. Curr Pharm Des.14,1351-67.
36. Nase L, Hatakka K, Savilahti E, et al.(2001) Effect of long-term consumption of a probioticbacterium, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, in milk on dental caries and caries risk in children.Caries Res.35,412-20.
37. Stecksen-Blicks C, Sjostrom I, Twetman S.(2009) Effect of long-term consumption of milksupplemented with probiotic lactobacilli and fluoride on dental caries and general health inpreschool children: a cluster-randomized study. Caries Res.43,374-81.
38. Stepanovic S, Vukovic D, Dakic I, Savic B, Svabic-Vlahovic M.(2000) A modified microtiter-plate test for quantification of staphylococcal biofilm formation. J Microbiol Methods.40,175-9.
39. Hamanaka T, Higashiyama K, Fujikawa S, Park EY.(2001) Mycelial pellet intrastructure andvisualization of mycelia and intracellular lipid in a culture of Mortierella alpina. Appl MicrobiolBiotechnol.56,233-8.
40. Nocker A, Sossa-Fernandez P, Burr MD, Camper AK.(2007) Use of propidium monoazide forlive/dead distinction in microbial ecology. Appl Environ Microbiol.73,5111-7.
41. Wen ZT, Yates D, Ahn SJ, Burne RA. Biofilm formation and virulence expression byStreptococcus mutans are altered when grown in dual-species model. BMC Microbiol.10,111.
42. Kreth J, Zhang Y, Herzberg MC.(2008) Streptococcal antagonism in oral biofilms:Streptococcus sanguinis and Streptococcus gordonii interference with Streptococcus mutans. JBacteriol.190,4632-40.
43. Narayan SS, Jalgaonkar S, Shahani S, Kulkarni VN. Probiotics: current trends in the treatmentof diarrhoea. Hong Kong Med J.16,213-8.
44. Parvez S, Malik KA, Ah Kang S, Kim HY.(2006) Probiotics and their fermented food productsare beneficial for health. J Appl Microbiol.100,1171-85.
45. Gueimonde M, Salminen S.(2006) New methods for selecting and evaluating probiotics. DigLiver Dis.38Suppl2, S242-7.
46. Bonifait L, Chandad F, Grenier D.(2009) Probiotics for oral health: myth or reality? J CanDent Assoc.75,585-90.
47. Meurman JH, Antila H, Korhonen A, Salminen S.(1995) Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosusstrain GG (ATCC53103) on the growth of Streptococcus sobrinus in vitro. Eur J Oral Sci.103,253-8.
48. Ishihara K, Miyakawa H, Hasegawa A, Takazoe I, Kawai Y.(1985) Growth inhibition ofStreptococcus mutans by cellular extracts of human intestinal lactic acid bacteria. Infect Immun.49,692-4.
49. Hamada S, Slade HD.(1980) Biology, immunology, and cariogenicity of Streptococcus mutans.Microbiol Rev.44,331-84.
50. Burne RA, Chen YY, Penders JE.(1997) Analysis of gene expression in Streptococcus mutansin biofilms in vitro. Adv Dent Res.11,100-9.
51. Hudson MC, Curtiss R,3rd.(1990) Regulation of expression of Streptococcus mutans genesimportant to virulence. Infect Immun.58,464-70.
52. Yamashita Y, Bowen WH, Burne RA, Kuramitsu HK.(1993) Role of the Streptococcus mutansgtf genes in caries induction in the specific-pathogen-free rat model. Infect Immun.61,3811-7.
53. Tahmourespour A, Kermanshahi RK. The effect of a probiotic strain (Lactobacillus acidophilus)on the plaque formation of oral Streptococci. Bosn J Basic Med Sci.11,37-40.
54. Free RH, Busscher HJ, Elving GJ, van der Mei HC, van Weissenbruch R, Albers FW.(2001)Biofilm formation on voice prostheses: in vitro influence of probiotics. Ann Otol RhinolLaryngol.110,946-51.
55. Schwandt LQ, Van Weissenbruch R, Stokroos I, Van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ, Albers FW.(2004) Prevention of biofilm formation by dairy products and N-acetylcysteine on voiceprostheses in an artificial throat. Acta Otolaryngol.124,726-31.
56. Luo JF, Lin WT, Guo Y. Method to detect only viable cells in microbial ecology. ApplMicrobiol Biotechnol.86,377-84.
57. Nocker A, Camper AK.(2006) Selective removal of DNA from dead cells of mixed bacterialcommunities by use of ethidium monoazide. Appl Environ Microbiol.72,1997-2004.
58. Bakker DP, Postmus BR, Busscher HJ, van der Mei HC.(2004) Bacterial strains isolated fromdifferent niches can exhibit different patterns of adhesion to substrata. Appl Environ Microbiol.70,3758-60.
59. Wen ZT, Baker HV, Burne RA.(2006) Influence of BrpA on critical virulence attributes ofStreptococcus mutans. J Bacteriol.188,2983-92.
60. Loo CY, Corliss DA, Ganeshkumar N.(2000) Streptococcus gordonii biofilm formation:identification of genes that code for biofilm phenotypes. J Bacteriol.182,1374-82.
61. Zeng L, Wen ZT, Burne RA.(2006) A novel signal transduction system and feedback loopregulate fructan hydrolase gene expression in Streptococcus mutans. Mol Microbiol.62,187-200.
62. Phan TN, Reidmiller JS, Marquis RE.(2000) Sensitization of Actinomyces naeslundii andStreptococcus sanguis in biofilms and suspensions to acid damage by fluoride and other weakacids. Arch Microbiol.174,248-55.
63. Ahola AJ, Yli-Knuuttila H, Suomalainen T, et al.(2002) Short-term consumption of probiotic-containing cheese and its effect on dental caries risk factors. Arch Oral Biol.47,799-804.
64. Hatakka K, Ahola AJ, Yli-Knuuttila H, et al.(2007) Probiotics reduce the prevalence of oralcandida in the elderly--a randomized controlled trial. J Dent Res.86,125-30.
65. Nikawa H, Makihira S, Fukushima H, et al.(2004) Lactobacillus reuteri in bovine milkfermented decreases the oral carriage of mutans streptococci. Int J Food Microbiol.95,219-23.
66. Caglar E, Cildir SK, Ergeneli S, Sandalli N, Twetman S.(2006) Salivary mutans streptococciand lactobacilli levels after ingestion of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC55730by straws or tablets. Acta Odontol Scand.64,314-8.
67. Montalto M, Vastola M, Marigo L, et al.(2004) Probiotic treatment increases salivary counts oflactobacilli: a double-blind, randomized, controlled study. Digestion.69,53-6.
1. Wood SR, Kirkham J, Marsh PD, Shore RC, Nattress B, Robinson C.(2000) Architecture ofintact natural human plaque biofilms studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy. J Dent Res.79,21-7.
2. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2002) Dental biofilms: difficult therapeutic targets. Periodontol2000.28,12-55.
3. Reese S, Guggenheim B.(2007) A novel TEM contrasting technique for extracellularpolysaccharides in in vitro biofilms. Microsc Res Tech.70,816-22.
4. Bos R, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ.(1999) Physico-chemistry of initial microbial adhesiveinteractions--its mechanisms and methods for study. FEMS Microbiol Rev.23,179-230.
5. Busscher HJ, van der Mei HC.(1997) Physico-chemical interactions in initial microbialadhesion and relevance for biofilm formation. Adv Dent Res.11,24-32.
6. Zaura-Arite E, van Marle J, ten Cate JM.(2001) Conofocal microscopy study of undisturbedand chlorhexidine-treated dental biofilm. J Dent Res.80,1436-40.
7. Marsh PD.(2006) Dental plaque as a biofilm and a microbial community-implications forhealth and disease. BMC Oral Health.6Suppl1, S14.
8. Beighton D.(2005) The complex oral microflora of high-risk individuals and groups and itsrole in the caries process. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.33,248-55.
9. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2005) Periodontal microbial ecology. Periodontol2000.38,135-87.
10. Marsh PD, Percival RS.(2006) The oral microflora--friend or foe? Can we decide? Int Dent J.56,233-9.
11. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS, Patel MR, Song X.(2008) Microbial complexes in supragingivalplaque. Oral Microbiol Immunol.23,196-205.
12. Marsh PD.(2003) Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology.149,279-94.
13. Jenkinson HF, Lamont RJ.(2005) Oral microbial communities in sickness and in health. TrendsMicrobiol.13,589-95.
14. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE.(2005) Defining the normal bacterial floraof the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol.43,5721-32.
15. Kuramitsu HK, He X, Lux R, Anderson MH, Shi W.(2007) Interspecies interactions withinoral microbial communities. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.71,653-70.
16. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS, Egland PG, Foster JS, Palmer RJ, Jr.(2002)Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.66,486-505, table of contents.
17. Loesche WJ.(1986) Role of Streptococcus mutans in human dental decay. Microbiol Rev.50,353-80.
18. Aoki H, Shiroza T, Hayakawa M, Sato S, Kuramitsu HK.(1986) Cloning of a Streptococcusmutans glucosyltransferase gene coding for insoluble glucan synthesis. Infect Immun.53,587-94.
19. Hanada N, Kuramitsu HK.(1988) Isolation and characterization of the Streptococcus mutansgtfC gene, coding for synthesis of both soluble and insoluble glucans. Infect Immun.56,1999-2005.
20. Watnick P, Kolter R.(2000) Biofilm, city of microbes. J Bacteriol.182,2675-9.
21. Li YH, Tang N, Aspiras MB, et al.(2002) A quorum-sensing signaling system essential forgenetic competence in Streptococcus mutans is involved in biofilm formation. J Bacteriol.184,2699-708.
22. Merritt J, Qi F, Goodman SD, Anderson MH, Shi W.(2003) Mutation of luxS affects biofilmformation in Streptococcus mutans. Infect Immun.71,1972-9.
23. McNab R, Ford SK, El-Sabaeny A, Barbieri B, Cook GS, Lamont RJ.(2003) LuxS-basedsignaling in Streptococcus gordonii: autoinducer2controls carbohydrate metabolism andbiofilm formation with Porphyromonas gingivalis. J Bacteriol.185,274-84.
24. Xavier KB, Bassler BL.(2003) LuxS quorum sensing: more than just a numbers game. CurrOpin Microbiol.6,191-7.
25. Wen ZT, Burne RA.(2004) LuxS-mediated signaling in Streptococcus mutans is involved inregulation of acid and oxidative stress tolerance and biofilm formation. J Bacteriol.186,2682-91.
26. Wen ZT, Yates D, Ahn SJ, Burne RA. Biofilm formation and virulence expression byStreptococcus mutans are altered when grown in dual-species model. BMC Microbiol.10,111.
27. Bowden GH.(1999) Controlled environment model for accumulation of biofilms of oralbacteria. Methods Enzymol.310,216-24.
28. Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP.(1999) Bacterial biofilms: a common cause ofpersistent infections. Science.284,1318-22.
29. Quivey RG, Jr., Kuhnert WL, Hahn K.(2000) Adaptation of oral streptococci to low pH. AdvMicrob Physiol.42,239-74.
30. Lemos JA, Abranches J, Burne RA.(2005) Responses of cariogenic streptococci toenvironmental stresses. Curr Issues Mol Biol.7,95-107.
31. Lemos JA, Burne RA.(2008) A model of efficiency: stress tolerance by Streptococcus mutans.Microbiology.154,3247-55.
32. Schilling KM, Bowen WH.(1992) Glucans synthesized in situ in experimental salivary pelliclefunction as specific binding sites for Streptococcus mutans. Infect Immun.60,284-95.
33. Burne RA, Chen YY, Penders JE.(1997) Analysis of gene expression in Streptococcus mutansin biofilms in vitro. Adv Dent Res.11,100-9.
34. Hudson MC, Curtiss R,3rd.(1990) Regulation of expression of Streptococcus mutans genesimportant to virulence. Infect Immun.58,464-70.
35. Kuramitsu HK.(1993) Virulence factors of mutans streptococci: role of molecular genetics.Crit Rev Oral Biol Med.4,159-76.
36. Yamashita Y, Bowen WH, Burne RA, Kuramitsu HK.(1993) Role of the Streptococcus mutansgtf genes in caries induction in the specific-pathogen-free rat model. Infect Immun.61,3811-7.
37. Burne RA, Ahn SJ, Wen ZT, et al.(2009) Opportunities for disrupting cariogenic biofilms. AdvDent Res.21,17-20.
38. Hardie KR, Heurlier K.(2008) Establishing bacterial communities by 'word of mouth': LuxSand autoinducer2in biofilm development. Nat Rev Microbiol.6,635-43.
39. Maeda K, Tribble GD, Tucker CM, et al.(2008) A Porphyromonas gingivalis tyrosinephosphatase is a multifunctional regulator of virulence attributes. Mol Microbiol.69,1153-64.
40. Fuqua C, Greenberg EP.(2002) Listening in on bacteria: acyl-homoserine lactone signalling.Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol.3,685-95.
41. Whitehead NA, Barnard AM, Slater H, Simpson NJ, Salmond GP.(2001) Quorum-sensing inGram-negative bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev.25,365-404.
42. Federle MJ, Bassler BL.(2003) Interspecies communication in bacteria. J Clin Invest.112,1291-9.
43. Winzer K, Hardie KR, Williams P.(2003) LuxS and autoinducer-2: their contribution toquorum sensing and metabolism in bacteria. Adv Appl Microbiol.53,291-396.
44. Merritt J, Kreth J, Shi W, Qi F.(2005) LuxS controls bacteriocin production in Streptococcusmutans through a novel regulatory component. Mol Microbiol.57,960-9.
45. Bassler BL, Losick R.(2006) Bacterially speaking. Cell.125,237-46.
46. Henke JM, Bassler BL.(2004) Three parallel quorum-sensing systems regulate gene expressionin Vibrio harveyi. J Bacteriol.186,6902-14.
47. Sela S, Frank S, Belausov E, Pinto R.(2006) A Mutation in the luxS gene influences Listeriamonocytogenes biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol.72,5653-8.
48. Lemos JA, Brown TA, Jr., Burne RA.(2004) Effects of RelA on key virulence properties ofplanktonic and biofilm populations of Streptococcus mutans. Infect Immun.72,1431-40.
49. Yoshida A, Ansai T, Takehara T, Kuramitsu HK.(2005) LuxS-based signaling affectsStreptococcus mutans biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol.71,2372-80.
1. Howard K. and Richard P.(2000). Oral Bacterial Ecology: The Molecular Basis. Horizonscientific press, Norwich, United Kingdom.
2. Philip Marsh, Michael V. Martin, Michael A. O. Lewis (2009). Oral Microbiology, ChurchillLivingstone, Edinburgh United Kingdom.
3. Konopka A (2006). Microbial ecology: searching for principles. Microbe1:175–179.
4. Raes J, Bork P (2008). Molecular eco-systems biology: towards an understandingof communityfunction. Nat Rev Microbiol6:693–699.
5. Paster BJ, Boches SK, Galvin JL, Ericson RE, Lau CN, Levanos VA, et al.(2001). Bacterialdiversity in human subgingival plaque. J Bacteriol.183:3770–3783.
6. Paster BJ, Olsen I, Aas JA, Dewhirst FE (2006). The breadth of bacterial diversity in the humanperiodontal pocket and other oral sites. Periodontol200042:80–87.
7. Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, Moeschberger ML, Kenyon SG, Galvin JL, et al.(2002).Molecular analysis of bacterial species associated with childhood caries. J Clin Microbiol40:1001–1009.
8. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE (2005). Defining the normal bacterial floraof the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol43:5721–5732.
9. Aas JA, Griffen AL, Dardis SR, Lee AM, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE, et al.(2008). Bacteria of dentalcaries in primary and permanent teeth in children and young adults. J Clin Microbiol46:1407–
1417.
10. Preza D, Olsen I, Aas JA, Willumsen T, Grinde B, Paster BJ (2008). Bacterial profiles of rootcaries in elderly patients. J Clin Microbiol46:2015–2021.
11. Dethlefsen L, McFall-Ngai M, Relman DA (2007). An ecological and evolutionary perspectiveon human-microbe mutualism and disease. Nature449:811–818.
12. Keijser BJ, Zaura E, Huse SM, van der Vossen JM, Schuren FH, Montijn RC, et al.(2008).Pyrosequencing analysis of the oral microflora of healthy adults. J Dent Res87:1016–1020.
13. Marsh, P.D.(2004). Dental plaque as a microbial biofilm. Caries Res.38,204–221
14. Chhour, K.L. et al.(2005). Molecular analysis of microbial diversity in advanced caries. J. Clin.Microbiol.43,843–849
15. Nadkarni, M.A. et al.(2004). Carious dentine provides a habitat for a complex array of novelPrevotella-like bacteria. J. Clin. Microbiol.42,5238–5244.
16. Zambon, J.J. and Kasprzak, S.A.(1995). The microbiology and histopathology of human rootcaries. Am. J. Dent.8,323–328
17. Brook, I.(2003). Microbiology and management of endodontic infections in children. J. Clin.Pediatr. Dent.28,13–17
18. Kroes, I. et al.(1999). Bacterial diversity within the human subgingival crevice. Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U. S. A.96,14547–14552
19. Kumar, P.S. et al.(2003). New bacterial species associated with chronic periodontitis. J. Dent.Res.82,338–344
20. Nyvad, B. and Kilian, M.(1987). Microbiology of the early colonization of human enamel androot surfaces in vivo. Scand. J. Dent. Res.95,369–380.
21. Palmer, R.J., Jr. et al.(2003). Coaggregation-mediated interactions of streptococci andactinomyces detected in initial human dental plaque. J. Bacteriol.185,3400–3409
22. Li, J. et al.(2004). Identification of early microbial colonizers in human dental biofilm. J. Appl.Microbiol.97,1311–1318.
23. Caufield, P.W. et al.(2000). Natural history of Streptococcus sanguinis in the oral cavity ofinfants: evidence for a discrete window of infectivity. Infect. Immun.68,4018–4023.
24. Jenkinson HF. and Richard J. Lamont (2005). Oral microbial communities in sickness and inhealth. TRENDS in Microbiology Vol.13No.12.
25. Cash HL, Whitham CV, Behrendt CL, Hooper LV (2006). Symbiotic bacteria direct expressionof an intestinal bactericidal lectin. Science.313:1126–1130.
26. Ley RE, Peterson DA, Gordon JI (2006). Ecological and evolutionary forces shaping microbialdiversity in the human intestine. Cell.124:837–848.
27. Ley RE, Turnbaugh PJ, Klein S, Gordon JI (2006). Microbial ecology: human gut microbesassociated with obesity. Nature.444:1022–1023.
28. Mazmanian SK, Liu CH, Tzianabos AO, Kasper DL (2005). An immunomodulatory moleculeof symbiotic bacteria directs maturationof the host immune system. Cell.122:107–118.
29. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI (2006). An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature444:1027–1031.
30. Ruby J, Goldner M (2007). Nature of symbiosis in oral disease. J Dent Res86:8–11.
31. Lockhart PB, Durack DT (1999). Oral microflora as a cause of endocarditis and other distantsite infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am.13:833–850.
32. Paju S, Scannapieco FA (2007). Oral biofilms, periodontitis, and pulmonary infections. Oral Dis.13:508–512.
33. Boggess KA, Beck JD, Murtha AP, Moss K, Offenbacher S (2006). Maternal periodontaldisease in early pregnancy and risk for a small-for-gestational-age infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol.194:1316–1322.
34. Offenbacher S, Boggess KA, Murtha AP, Jared HL, Lieff S, McKaig RG, Mauriello SM, MossKL, Beck JD (2006). Progressive periodontal disease and risk of very preterm delivery. ObstetGynecol.107:29–36.
35. Beck JD, Eke P, Heiss G, Madianos P, Couper D, Lin D, Moss K, Elter J, Offenbacher S(2005a). Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease: a reappraisal of the exposure.Circulation.112:19–24.
36. Beck JD, Eke P, Lin D, Madianos P, Couper D, Moss K, Elter J, Heiss G, Offenbacher S(2005b). Associations between IgG antibody to oral organisms and carotid intima-medialthickness in community-dwelling adults. Atherosclerosis.183:342–348.
37. Petersen, P. E., Bourgeois, D., Ogawa, H., Estupinan-Day, S.&Ndiaye, C.(2005). The globalburden of oral diseases and risks to oral health. Bull World Health Organ.83,661-669.
38. Bratthall, D.(2005). Estimation of global DMFT for12-year-olds in2004. Int Dent J.55,370-372.
39. Y. ZHENG (2009). A Cross-sectional Study on Caries among Elementary Schoolchildren inDalian.9th World Congress on Preventive Dentistry, Phuket, Thiland.
40. Albandar, J. M.(2002). Global risk factors and risk indicators for periodontal diseases.Periodontol2000.29,177-206.
41. Cheng Guang-yan LIU Lu, Zhang Xue-li, Cheng Rui-bo, Zhao Xiu-lan, Zhang Ying (2010).Dalian Development Zone15-year-old student of dental caries and periodontal status surveyanalysis. Practical Chinese dental journal.
42. Jenkins, W. M.&Papapanou, P. N.(2001). Epidemiology of periodontal disease in children andadolescents. Periodontol200026,16-32.
43. Tanner, A. C., Milgrom, P. M., Kent, R., Jr., Mokeem, S. A., Page, R. C., Riedy, C. A.,Weinstein, P.&Bruss, J.(2002). The microbiota of young children from tooth and tonguesamples. J Dent Res.81,53-57.
44. Pitts NB.(2004). Are we ready to move from operative to non-operative/preventive treatment ofdental caries in clinical practice? Caries Res.38:294–304.
45. Featherstone JD.(2000). The science and practice of caries prevention. J Am Dent Assoc.131:887–99.
46. Fejerskov O, Kidd EAM, eds. Dental caries: the disease and its clinical management.Copenhagen, Denmark. Blackwell Monksgaard,2003.
47. Kidd EA, Giedrys-Leeper E, Simons D.(2000). Take two dentists: a tale of root caries. DentUpdate.27:222–30.
48. Marsh P, Martin MV. Oral Microbiology.4th edn. Oxford: Wright,1999.
49. Fejerskov O.(1997). Concepts of dental caries and their consequences for understanding thedisease. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.25:5–12.
50. Kidd EA, Fejerskov O.(2004). What constitutes dental caries? Histopathology of cariousenamel and dentin related to the action of cariogenic biofilms. J Dent Res.83: C35–38.
51. Pitts NB.(2004). Modern concepts of caries measurement. J Dent Res.83: C43–47.
52. Fejerskov O.(2004). Changing paradigms in concepts on dental caries: consequences for oralhealth care. Caries Res.38:182–91.
53. Scheie A, Peterson F.(2004). The biofilm concept: consequences for future prophylaxis of oraldiseases? Crit Rev Oral Biol Med.15:4–12.
54. Featherstone JDB.(2004). The continuum of dental caries—evidence for a dynamic diseaseprocess. J Dent Res.83: C39–42.
55. Caufi eld PW, Griff en AL.(2000). Dental caries. An infectious and transmissible disease.Pediatr Clin North Am.47:1001–19.
56. Seow WK.(1998). Biological mechanisms of early childhood caries. Community Dent OralEpidemiol.26(suppl1):8–27.
57. Featherstone JD, Adair SM, Anderson MH, et al.(2003). Caries management by risk assessment:consensus statement, April2002. J Calif Dent Assoc.31:257–69.
58. Krol DM.(2003). Dental caries, oral health, and pediatricians. Curr Probl Pediatr AdolescHealth Care.33:253–70.
59. Winn DM.(2001). Tobacco use and oral disease. J Dent Educ.65:306–12.
60. Touger-Decker R, van Loveren C.(2003). Sugars and dental caries. Am J Clin Nutr.78: S881–92.
61. Berkowitz RJ.(2003). Acquisition and transmission of mutans streptococci. J Calif Dent Assoc.31:135–38.
62. Armitage GC.(2004). Periodontal diagnoses and classification of periodontal diseases.Periodontol2000.34:9–21.
63. Jordan RC.(2004). Diagnosis of periodontal manifestations of systemic diseases. Periodontol2000.34:217–29.
64. Loe H, Anerud A, Boysen H, et al.(1986). Natural history of periodontal disease in man. Rapid,moderate and no loss of attachment in Sri Lankan laborers14to46years of age. J ClinPeriodontol.13:431–45.
65. Loe H, Anerud A, Boysen H, et al.(1978). The natural history of periodontal disease in man.The rate of periodontal destruction before40years of age. J Periodontol.49:607–20.
66. Ximenez-Fyvie LA, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS.(2000). Comparison of the microbiota ofsupra-and subgingival plaque in health andperiodontitis. J Clin Periodontol.27:648–57.
67. Tanner A, Maiden MF, Macuch PJ, et al.(1998). Microbiota of health, gingivitis, and initialperiodontitis. J Clin Periodontol.25:85–98.
68. Tanner A, Kent R, Maiden MF, et al.(1996). Clinical, microbiological and immunologicalprofile of healthy, gingivitis and putative active periodontal subjects. J Periodontal Res.31:195–204.
69. Ramberg P, Sekino S, Uzel NG, et al.(2003). Bacterial colonization during de novo plaqueformation. J Clin Periodontol.30:990–95.
70. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2005). Microbiology of periodontal disease. Periodontol2000.38:9-12.
71. Lang NP, Cumming BR, Loe H.(1973). Toothbrushing frequency as it relates to plaquedevelopment and gingival health. J Periodontol.44:396–405.
72. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(1994). Evidence of bacterial etiology: a historical perspective.Periodontol2000.5:7–25.
73. Newman MG, Socransky SS, Savitt ED, et al.(1976). Studies of the microbiology ofperiodontosis. J Periodontol.47:373–79.
74. Mandell RL, Socransky SS.(1981). A selective medium for Actinobacillusactinomycetemcomitans and the incidence of the organism in juvenile periodontitis. JPeriodontol.52:593–98.
75. Kubar A, Saygun I, Ozdemir A, et al.(2005). Real-time polymerase chain reactionquantification of human cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus in periodontal pockets and theadjacent gingiva ofperiodontitis lesions. J Periodontal Res.40:97–104.
76. Michalowicz BS, Ronderos M, Camara-Silva R, et al.(2000). Human herpesviruses andPorphyromonas gingivalis are associated with juvenile periodontitis. J Periodontol.71:981–88.
77. Slots J.(2004). Herpesviruses, the missing link between gingivitis and periodontitis? J Int AcadPeriodontol.6:113–19.
78. Robinson PG.(2002). The significance and management of periodontal lesions in HIV infection.Oral Dis.8(suppl2):91–97.
79. Haffajee AD, Bogren A, Hasturk H, et al.(2004). Subgingival microbiota of chronicperiodontitis subjects from different geographic locations. J Clin Periodontol.31:996–1002.
80. Van Dyke TE, Sheilesh D.(2005). Risk factors for periodontitis. J Int Acad Periodontol.7:3–7.
81. Michalowicz BS, Aeppli D, Virag JG, et al.(1991). Periodontal findings in adult twins. JPeriodontol.62:293–99.
82. Michalowicz BS, Aeppli DP, Kuba RK, et al.(1991). A twin study of genetic variation inproportional radiographic alveolar bone height. J Dent Res.70:1431–35.
83. Michalowicz BS, Diehl SR, Gunsolley JC, et al.(2000). Evidence of a substantial genetic basisfor risk of adult periodontitis. J Periodontol.71:1699–707.
84. Corey LA, Nance WE, Hofstede P, et al.(1993). Self-reported periodontal disease in a Virginiatwin population. J Periodontol.64:1205–08.
85. Bergstrom J.(2004). Tobacco smoking and chronic destructive periodontal disease. Odontology.92:1–8.
86. Taylor GW.(2001). Bidirectional interrelationships between diabetes and periodontal diseases:an epidemiologic perspective. Ann Periodontol.6:99–112.
87. Soskoln WA, Klinger A.(2001). The relationship between periodontal diseases and diabetes: anoverview. Ann Periodontol.6:91–98.
88. Theilade, E.(1986). The non-specific theory in microbial etiology of inflammatory periodontaldiseases. J Clin Periodontol.13,905-911.
89. Socransky, S. S., Manganiello, A. D., Propas, D., Oram, V.&van Houte, J.(1977).Bacteriological studies of developing supragingival dental plaque. J Periodontal Res12,90-106.
90. Loesche, W. J.(1976). Chemotherapy of dental plaque infections. Oral Sci Rev9,65-107.
91. Marsh, P. D.(2003). Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology149,279-294.
92. Costello EK, Lauber CL, Hamady M, Fierer N, Gordon JI, Knight R (2009). Bacterialcommunity variation in human body habitats across space and time. Science.326(5960):1694-
1697.
93. Lazarevic V, Whiteson K, Huse S, Hernandez D, Farinelli L, Osteras M, Schrenzel J, Francois P(2009). Metagenomic study of the oral microbiota by Illumina high-throughput sequencing. JMicrobiol Methods.79(3):266-271.
94. Zaura E, Keijser BJ, Huse SM, Crielaard W (2009): Defining the healthy “core microbiome” oforal microbial communities. BMC Microbiol.9:259.
95. Dewhirst FE, Chen T, Izard J, Paster BJ, Tanner AC, Yu WH, Lakshmanan A, Wade WG(2010). The human oral microbiome. J. Bacteriol.192(19):5002-5017.
96. Marsh PD (1994). Microbial ecology of dental plaque and its significance in health and disease.Adv Dent Res.8(2):263-271.
97. Kuramitsu HK, He XS, Lux R, Anderson MH, Shi WY (2007). Interspecies interactions withinoral microbial communities. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.71(4):653-670.
98. Ledder RG, Gilbert P, Huws SA, Aarons L, Ashley MP, Hull PS, McBain AJ (2007). Molecularanalysis of the subgingival microbiota in health and disease. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,73:516–523.
99. Li Y, Ge Y, Saxena D, Caufield PW (2007). Genetic profiling of the oral microbiota associatedwith severe early-childhood caries. J. Clin. Microbiol.,45:81–87.
100. Li Y, Saxena D, Barnes VM, Trivedi HM, Ge Y, Xu T (2006). Polymerase chain reaction-baseddenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis in the evaluation of oral microbiota. Oral Microbiol.Immunol.,21:333–339.
101. McAuliffe L, Ellis RJ, Lawes JR, Ayling RD, Nicholas RA.(2005).16S rDNA PCR anddenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis; a single generic test for detecting and differentiatingMycoplasma species. J Med Microbiol.54(Pt8):731-9.
102. Walter J, Tannock GW, Tilsala-Timisjarvi A, Rodtong S, Loach DM, Munro K, Alatossava T.(2000). Detection and identification of gastrointestinal Lactobacillus species by usingdenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and species-specific PCR primers. Appl EnvironMicrobiol.66(1):297-303.
103. Creighton, Thomas C.(1999). Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, Volumes1-4. John Wiley&Sons.
104. Muyzer G, de Waal EC, Uitterlinden AG.(1993). Profiling of complex microbial populationsby denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplifiedgenes coding for16S rRNA. Appl Environ Microbiol.59(3):695-700.
105. Muyzer Gerard and Smalla Kornelia.(1998). Application of denaturing gradient gelelectrophoresis (DGGE) and temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) in microbialecology. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.73:127–141.
106. Sheffield VC, Cox DR, Lerman LS, Myers RM.(1989). Attachment of a40-base-pair G+C-rich sequence (GC-clamp) to genomic DNA fragments by the polymerase chain reaction resultsin improved detection of single-base changes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.86(1):232-6.
107. Nakatsu Cindy H., Torsvik Vigdis and vre s Lise.(1996). Soil Community analysis usingDGGE of16S rDNA Polymerase Chain Reaction products. Soil Science Society of AmericaJournal64:1382-1388.
108. Muyzer G, Teske A, Wirsen CO, Jannasch HW.(1995). Phylogenetic relationships ofThiomicrospira species and their identification in deep-sea hydrothermal vent samples bydenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of16S rDNA fragments. Arch Microbiol.164(3):165-72.
109. Liu DL, Zhou YB, Li CL, Li YP, Jiang YT, Huang ZW, Liang JP, Shu R (2010). Denaturinggradient gel electrophoresis analysis of subgingival bacterial communities under mechanicaldebridement with different primers. Microbiol. Immunol.,54:702–706.
110. Wei J, YunTao J, ChaoLun L, JingPing L (2011). Investigation of supragingival PlaqueMicrobiota in Different Caries Status of Chinese Preschool Children by Denaturing GradientGel Electrophoresis. Microb. Ecol.,61:342–352.
111. Zijnge V, Harmsen HJM, van der Rest ME, Degener JE, Welling GW (2003). Denaturinggradient gel electrophoresis analysis to study bacterial community structure in pockets ofperiodontitis patients. Oral. Microbiol. Immunol.,18:59-65.
112. Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors)(2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGrawHill.ISBN0-8385-8529-9.
113. Loesche WJ (1996). Microbiology of Dental Decay and Periodontal Disease. In Baron S etal.. Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN0-9631172-1-1.
114. Clarke, J. Kilian (1924). On the Bacterial Factor in the tiology of Dental Caries. BritishJournal of Experimental Pathology5:141–7. PMC2047899.
115. Tanzer, J. M., J. Livingston, et al.(2001)."The Microbiology of Primary Dental Caries inHumans. Journal of Dental Education65(10):1028-1037.
116. Meiers, J. C., M. R. Wirthlin, et al.(1982). A Microbiological Analysis of Human EarlyCarious and Non-carious Fissures." Journal of Dental Research61(3):460-464.
117. Loesche, W. J.(1986). Role of Streptococcus mutans in Human Dental Decay. MicrobiologicalReviews50(4):353-380.
118. Napimoga, M. H., R. U. Kamiya, et al.(2004). Genotypic diversity and virulence traitsof Streptococcus mutans in caries-free and caries-active individuals. Journal of MedicalMicrobiology53:697-703.
119. Hamilton, I. R. and E. J. S. Martin (1982)."Evidence for the Involvement of Proton MotiveForce in the Transport of Glucose by a Mutant of Streptococcus mutans Starin DR0001Defective in Glucose-Phosphoenolpyruvate Phosphotransferase Activity. Infection andImmunity36(2):567-575.
120. Berkowitz, R. J.(2003). Causes, Treatment and Prevention of Early Childhood Caries: AMicrobiologic Perspective. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association69(5):304-307.
121. Loveren, C. V., J. F. Buijs, et al.(2000). Similarity of Bacteriocin Activity Profiles of Mutansstreptococci within the Family When the Children Acquire the Strains After the age of5. CariesResearch34(6):481-5.
122. Li, Y., P. W. Caufield, et al.(2005). Mode of Delivery and Other Maternal Factors Influencethe Acquisition of Streptococcus mutans in Infants. Journal of Dental Research84(9):806-811.
123. Burt, B. A. and S. Pai (2001). Sugar Consumption and Caries Risk: A Systematic Review.Journal of Dental Education65(10):1017-1023.
124. Mayhall, J. T., A. A. Dahlberg, et al.(1970). Dental Caries in the Eskimos of Wainwright,Alaska. Journal of Dental Research49(4):886.
125. Toverud, G.(1957). The Influence of War and Post-War Conditions on the Teeth of NorwegianSchool Children. The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly35(2):127-196.
126. Guarner F, Perdigon G, Coerthier G, Salminen S, Koletzko B, Morelli L (2005). Shouldyoghurt cultures be considered probiotic? Br J Nutr93:783–786.
127. de Vrese M, Schrezenmeir J.(2008). Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics. Adv Biochem EngBiotechnol.111:1-66.
128. Saxelin M, Tynkkynen S, Mattila-Sandholm T, de Vos WM.(2005). Probiotic and otherfunctional microbes: from markets to mechanisms. Curr Opin Biotechnol.16:204-211.
129. Silva M, Jacobus NV, Deneke C, Gorbach SL (1987). Antimicrobial substance from a humanlactobacillus strain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother31:1231–1233.
130. Lewis SJ, Freedman AR (1998). The use of biotherapeutic agents in the prevention andtreatment of gastrointestinal disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther12:807–822.
131. Isolauri E, Sutas Y, Kankaanpaa P, Arvilommi H, Salminen S (2001). Probiotics: effects onimmunity. Am J Clin Nutr73(Suppl.2): S444–S450.
132. Busscher HJ, van Hoogmoed CG, Geertsema-Doornbusch GI, van der Kuijl-Booij M, van derMei HC.(1997). Streptococcus thermophilus and its biosurfactants inhibit adhesion by Candidaspp. on silicone rubber. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.63:3810-3817.
133. Rodrigues L, van der Mei H, Teixeira JA, Oliveira R.(2004). Biosurfactant from Lactococcuslactis53inhibits microbial adhesion on silicone rubber. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol..66:306-311.
134. Schwandt LQ, van Weissenbruch R, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ, Albers FW.(2005). Effectof dairy products on the lifetime of Provox2voice prostheses in vitro and in vivo. Head Neck.27:471-477.
135. Busscher HJ, Mulder AF, van der Mei CH (1999). In vitro adhesion to enamel and in vivocolonization of tooth surfaces by lactobacilli from a bio-yogurt. Caries Res33:403–404.
136. Ahrne S, Nobaek S, Jeppsson B, Adlerberth I, Wold AE, Molin G.(1998). The normalLactobacillus flora of healthy human rectal and oral mucosa. J. Appl. Microbiol.85:88-94.
137. Maukonen J, M tto J, Suihko ML, Saarela M.(2008). Intra-individual diversity and similarityof salivary and faecal microbiota. J. Med. Microbiol.57(Pt12):1560-1568.
138. Colloca ME, Ahumada MC, Lopez ME, Nader-Macias ME.(2000). Surface properties oflactobacilli isolated from healthy subjects. Oral Dis..6:227-233.
139. Simark-Mattsson C, Emilson CG, H kansson EG, Jacobsson C, Roos K, Holm S.(2007).Lactobacillus-mediated interference of mutans streptococci in caries-free vs. caries-activesubjects. Eur. J. Oral Sci.115:308-314.
140. Crociani F, Biavati B, Alessandrini A, Chiarini C, Scardovi V (1996). Bifidobacteriuminopinatum sp. nov. and Bifidobacterium denticolens sp. nov., two new species isolated fromhuman dental caries. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol.46:564-571.
141. Beighton D, Gilbert SC, Clark D, Mantzourani M, Al-Haboubi M, Ali F, et al.(2008). Isolationand identification of bifidobacteriaceae from human saliva. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.74:6457-6460.
142. Gueimonde M, Laitinen K, Salminen S, Isolauri E.(2007). Breast milk: a source ofbifidobacteria for infant gut development and maturation? Neonatology.92:64-66.
143. Abrahamsson TR, Sinkiewicz G, Jakobsson T, Fredrikson M, Bjorksten B.(2009). Probioticlactobacilli in breast milk and infant stool in relation to oral intake during the first year of life. J.Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr.49:349-354.
144. Caufield PW, Li Y, Dasanayake A, Saxena D.(2007). Diversity of lactobacilli in the oralcavities of young women with dental caries. Caries Res.41:2-8.
145. Kekkonen RA, Lummela N, Karjalainen H, Latvala S, Tynkkynen S, Jarvenpaa S, et al (2008).Probiotic intervention has strain-specific anti-inflammatory effects in healthy adults. World J.Gastroenterol.14:2029-2036.
146. Paineau D, Carcano D, Leyer G, Darquy S, Alyanakian MA, Simoneau G, et al.(2008). Effectsof seven potential probiotic strains on specific immune responses in healthy adults: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol.53:107-113.
147. Meurman JH, Antila H, Salminen S (1994). Recovery of Lactobacillus strain GG (ATCC53103)from saliva of healthy volunteers after consumption of yoghurt prepared with the bacterium.Microb Ecol Health Dis7:295–298.
148. Na¨ se L, Hatakka K, Savilahti E et al (2001). Effect of longterm consumption of a probioticbacterium, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, in milk on dental caries and caries risk children.Caries Res35:412–420.
149. Ahola AJ, Yli-Knuuttila H, Suomalainen T et al (2002). Shortterm consumption of probiotic-containing cheese and its effect on dental caries risk factors. Arch Oral Biol47:799–804.
150. Caglar E, Cilder SK, Ergeneli S, Sandalli N, Twetman S (2006). Salivary mutans streptococciand lactobacilli levels after ingestion of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC55739by straws or tablets. Acta Odontol Scand64:314–318.
151. Krasse P, Carlsson B, Dahl C, Paulsson A, Nilsson A, Sinkiewicz G (2006). Decreased gumbleeding and reduced gingivitis by the probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri. Swed Dent J30:55–60.
152. Ko ll-Klais P, Ma¨ ndar R, Leibur E, Marcotte H, Hammarstro¨m L, Mikelsaar M (2006). Orallactobacilli in chronic periodontitis: species composition and antimicrobial activity. IADRCongress, Dublin,13–16September (Abstract0081).
153. Kang M-S, Kim B-G, Lee H-C, Oh J-S (2006). Inhibitory effect of Weissella cibaria isolates onthe production of volatile sulphur compounds. J Clin Periodontol33:226–232.
154. Hall-Stoodley L, Costerton JW, Stoodley P (2004)."Bacterial biofilms: from the naturalenvironment to infectious diseases". Nature Reviews. Microbiology2(2):95–108.doi:10.1038/nrmicro821. PMID15040259.
155. Lear, G; Lewis, GD (2012). Microbial Biofilms: Current Research and Applications. CaisterAcademic Press. ISBN978-1-904455-96-7.
156. Karatan E, Watnick P (J2009)."Signals, regulatory networks, and materials that build and breakbacterial biofilms" Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews73(2):310–47.doi:10.1128/MMBR.00041-08. PMC2698413. PMID19487730.
157. Hoffman LR, D'Argenio DA, MacCoss MJ, Zhang Z, Jones RA, Miller SI (2005)."Aminoglycoside antibiotics induce bacterial biofilm formation". Nature436(7054):1171–5.doi:10.1038/nature03912. PMID16121184.
158. An D, Parsek MR (June2007)."The promise and peril of transcriptional profiling in biofilmcommunities". Current Opinion in Microbiology10(3):292–6. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2007.05.011.PMID17573234.
159. Wood SR, Kirkham J, Marsh PD, Shore RC, Nattress B, et al.(2000) Architecture Of IntactNatural Human Plaque Biofilms Studied By Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy. J Dent Res79:21–27.
160. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD (2002) Dental Biofilms: Difficult Therapeutic Targets. Periodontol200028:12–55.
161. Reese S, Guggenheim B (2007) A Novel TEM Contrasting Technique For ExtracellularPolysaccharides In In Vitro Biofilms. Microsc Res Tech70:816–822.
162. Bos R, Van Der Mei HC, Busscher HJ (1999) Physico-Chemistry Of Initial Microbial AdhesiveInteractions–Its Mechanisms And Methods For Study. FEMS Microbiol Rev23:179–230.
163. Busscher HJ, Van Der Mei HC (1997) Physico-Chemical Interactions In Initial MicrobialAdhesion And Relevance For BiofilmFormation. Adv Dent Res11:24–32.
164. Zaura-Arite E, Van Marle J, Ten Cate JM (2001) Conofocal Microscopy Study Of UndisturbedAnd Chlorhexidine-Treated Dental Biofilm. J Dent Res80:1436–1440.
165. Bowden GHW (2000). The microbial ecology of dental caries. Microbial Ecol Health Dis12(3):138–148.
166. Marsh PD (2006). Dental plaque as a biofilm and a microbial community—implications forhealth and disease. BMC Oral Health6(Suppl1):14.
167. Beighton D (2005). The complex oral microflora of high-risk individuals and groups and itsrole in the caries process. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol33:248–255.
168. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD (2005). Periodontal microbial ecology. Periodontol200038:135–187.
169. Marsh PD, Percival RS (2006). The oral microflora—friend or foe? Can we decide? Int Dent J56(4Suppl1):233–239.
170. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS, Patel MR, Song X (2008). Microbial complexes in supragingivalplaque. Oral Microbiol Immunol23:196–205.
171. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS, Egland PG, Foster JS, Palmer RJ Jr.(2002).Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol. Biol. Rev.66(3):486-505. table ofcontents
172. Burne RA, Marquis RE (2000). Alkali production by oral bacteria and protection against dentalcaries. FEMS Microbiol Lett193:1–6.
173. Overman PR (2000). Biofilm: a new view of plaque. J Contemp Dent Pract1:18–29.
174. Rosan B, Lamont RJ (2000). Dental plaque formation. Microbes Infect2:1599–1607.
175. Marsh PD (2005). Dental plaque: biological significance of a biofilm community life-style. JClin Periodontol32(Suppl6):7–15.
176. ten Cate JM (2006). Biofilms, a new approach to the microbiology of dental plaque.Odontology94:1–9.
177. Sissons CH, Anderson SA, Wong L, Coleman MJ, White DC (2007). Microbiota of plaquemicrocosm biofilms: effect of three times daily sucrose pulses in different simulated oralenvironments. Caries Res41:413–422.
178. Rogers A H (2008). Molecular Oral Microbiology. Caister Academic Press. pp.65–108. ISBN978-1-904455-24-0.
179. Mihai A, Balotescu-Chifiriuc C, Laz r V, St nescu R, Burliba□a M, Ispas DC (2010)."Microbial biofilms in dental medicine in reference to implanto-prostethic rehabilitation".Revista de Chirurgie Oro-Maxilo-Facial□i Implantologie1(1):9–13.
180. Marsh PD (1991). The significance of maintaining the stability of the natural microflora of themouth. Br Dent J171:174–177.
181. Palmer, R. J. Jr, Kazmerzak, K., Hansen, M. C.&Kolenbrander, P. E.(2001). Mutualismversus independence: strategies of mixed-species oral biofilms in vitro using saliva as the solenutrient source. Infect. Immun.69,5794–5804.
182. Paddick, J. S., Brailsford, S. R., Kidd, E. A. M.&Beighton, D.(2005). Phenotypic andgenotypic selection of microbiota surviving under dental restorations. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.71,2467–2472.
183. Wickstrom, C.&Svensater, G.(2008). Salivary gel-forming mucin MUC5B-a nutrient fordental plaque bacteria. Oral Microbiol. Immunol.23,177–182.
184. Kolenbrander PE, Palmer RJ Jr, Rickard AH, Jakubovics NS, Chalmers NI, Diaz PI (2006).Bacterial interactions and successions during plaque development. Periodontol200042:47–79.
185. Kreth J, Zhang Y, Herzberg MC (2008). Streptococcal antagonism in oral biofilms:Streptococcus sanguinis and Streptococcus gordonii interference with Streptococcus mutans. J.Bacteriol.190(13):4632-4640.
186. Rickard AH, Palmer RJ Jr, Blehert DS, Campagna SR, Semmelhack MF, Egland PG, BasslerBL, Kolenbrander PE (2006). Autoinducer2: a concentrationdependent signal for mutualisticbacterial biofilm growth. Mol. Microbiol.60(6):1446-1456.
187. Bowen WH, Schilling K, Giertsen E, Pearson S, Lee SF, Bleiweis A, Beeman D (1991). Roleof a cell surface-associated protein in adherence and dental caries. Infect. Immun.59(12):4604-4609.
188. Burne RA (1998). Oral streptococci products of their environment. J. Dent. Res.77(3):445-452.
189. Banas JA, Vickerman MM (2003). Glucan-binding proteins of the oral streptococci. Crit. Rev.Oral Biol. Med.14(2):89-99.
190. Banas JA (2004). Virulence properties of Streptococcus mutans. Front Biosci.9:1267-1277.
191. Tsumori H, Kuramitsu H (1997). The role of the Streptococcus mutans glucosyltransferases inthe sucrose-dependent attachment to smooth surfaces: essential role of the GtfC enzyme. OralMicrobiol. Immunol.12(5):274-280.
192. Li YH, Hanna MN, Svensater G, Ellen RP, Cvitkovitch DG (2001). Cell density modulates acidadaptation in Streptococcus mutans: implications for survival in biofilms. J Bacteriol,183(23):6875-6884.
193. Li YH, Lau PC, Tang N, Svensater G, Ellen RP, Cvitkovitch DG (2002). Novel Two-Component Regulatory System Involved in Biofilm Formation and Acid Resistance inStreptococcus mutans. J. Bacteriol.,184(22):6333-6342.
194. Li YH, Tang N, Aspiras MB, Lau PC, Lee JH, Ellen RP, Cvitkovitch DG (2002). A quorum-sensing signaling system essential for genetic competence in Streptococcus mutans is involvedin biofilm formation. J. Bacteriol.,184(10):2699-2708.
195. Wen ZT, Burne RA (2004). LuxS-mediated signaling in Streptococcus mutans is involved inregulation of acid and oxidative stress tolerance and biofilm formation. J. Bacteriol.186(9):2682-2691.
196. Qi F, Merritt J, Lux R, Shi W (2004). Inactivation of the ciaH Gene in Streptococcus mutansdiminishes mutacin production and competence development, alters sucrose-dependent biofilmformation, and reduces stress tolerance. Infect. Immun.,72(8):4895-4899.
197. Ahn SJ, Wen ZT, Burne RA (2006). Multilevel control of competence development and stresstolerance in Streptococcus mutans UA159. Infect. Immun.,74(3):1631-1642.
198. Suntharalingam P, Senadheera MD, Mair RW, Levesque CM, Cvitkovitch DG (2009). TheLiaFSR system regulates the cell envelope stress response in Streptococcus mutans. J. Bacteriol.191(9):2973-2984.
199. Merritt J, Qi F, Goodman SD, Anderson MH, Shi W (2003). Mutation of luxS Affects BiofilmFormation in Streptococcus mutans. Infect. Immun.71(4):1972-1979.
200. Yoshida A, Ansai T, Takehara T, Kuramitsu HK (2005). LuxS-based signaling affectsStreptococcus mutans biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol.71(5):2372-2380.
201. Bassler BL (2002). Small talk. Cell-to-cell communication in bacteria. Cell.109(4):421-424.
202. Wen ZT, Burne RA(2002). Functional genomics approach to identifying genes required forbiofilm development by Streptococcus mutans. Appl Environ Microbiol.68(3):1196-1203.
203. Wen ZT, Baker HV, Burne RA (2006). Influence of BrpA on critical virulence attributes ofStreptococcus mutans. J Bacteriol.188(8):2983-2992.
2. Kazor CE, Mitchell PM, Lee AM, Stokes LN, Loesche WJ, Dewhirst FE, Paster BJ (2003).Diversity of bacterial populations on the tongue dorsa of patients with halitosis and healthypatients. J. Clin. Microbiol.,41(2):558-563.
3. Aas JA, Griffen AL, Dardis SR, Lee AM, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE, Leys EJ, Paster BJ (2008).Bacteria of dental caries in primary and permanent teeth in children and young adults. J. Clin.Microbiol.,46:1407–1417.
4. Paster BJ, Olsen I, Aas JA, Dewhirst FE (2006). The breadth of bacterial diversity in the humanperiodontal pocket and other oral sites. Periodontol.2000,42:80–87.
5. Beck JD, Eke P, Heiss G, Madianos P, Couper D, Lin D, Moss K, Elter J, Offenbacher S(2005a). Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease: a reappraisal of the exposure.Circulation,112:19–24.
6. Beck JD, Eke P, Lin D, Madianos P, Couper D, Moss K, Elter J, Heiss G, Offenbacher S(2005b). Associations between IgG antibody to oral organisms and carotid intima-medialthickness in community-dwelling adults. Atherosclerosis,183:342–348.
7. Offenbacher S, Boggess KA, Murtha AP, Jared HL, Lieff S, McKaig RG, Mauriello SM, MossKL, Beck JD (2006). Progressive periodontal disease and risk of very preterm delivery. Obstet.Gynecol.,107:29–36.
8. Paju S, Scannapieco FA (2007). Oral biofilms, periodontitis, and pulmonary infections. Oral.Dis.,13:508–512.
9. Ruby J, Goldner M (2007). Nature of symbiosis in oral disease. J. Dent Res86:8–11
10. Islam B, Khan S, Khan A.(2007). Dental Caries: From Infection to Prevention. Med SciMonit.13(11): RA196-203.
11. van Houte J (1994). Role of micro-organisms in caries etiology. J. Dent. Res.,73:672–681.
12. Theilade, E.(1986). The non-specific theory in microbial etiology of inflammatory periodontaldiseases. J Clin Periodontol.13,905-911.
13. Socransky, S. S., Manganiello, A. D., Propas, D., Oram, V.&van Houte, J.(1977).Bacteriological studies of developing supragingival dental plaque. J Periodontal Res12,90-106.
14. Loesche, W. J.(1976). Chemotherapy of dental plaque infections. Oral Sci Rev9,65-107.
15. Marsh, P. D.(2003). Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology149,279-294.
16. Marsh PD (1999). Microbiologic aspects of dental plaque and dental caries. Dent. Clin. NorthAm.,43:599–614.
17. Sbordone L, Bortolaia C (2003). Oral microbial biofilms and plaque related diseases: microbialcommunities and their role in the shift from oral health to disease. Clin. Oral Investig.,7:181–188.
18. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS (1994). Microbial etiological agents of destructive periodontaldiseases. Periodontol.2000,5:78-111.
19. Houle MA, Grenier D (2003). Maladies paradontales: Connaisances actuelles. CurrentConcepts in periodontal diseases. Medicine et maladies infectieuses,33(7):331-40.
20. Zongxin Ling, Jianming Kong, Peng Jia, Chaochun Wei, Yuezhu Wang, Zhiwen Pan, WujingHuang, Lanjuan Li, Hui Chen, Charlie Xiang (2010). Analysis of oral microbiota in childrenwith dental caries by PCR-DGGE and Barcoded Pyrosequencing. Microb Ecol,60:677-690.
21. Hill JE, Goh SH, Money DM, Doyle M, Li A, Crosby WL, Links M, Leung A, Chan D,Hemmingsen SM (2005). Characterization of vaginal microflora of healthy, nonpregnantwomen by chaperonin-60sequence-based methods. Am J Obstet Gynecol193:682–692
22. Schellenberg J, Links MG, Hill JE, Dumonceaux TJ, Peters GA, Tyler S, Ball TB, Severini A,Plummer FA (2009). Pyrosequencing of the chaperonin-60universal target as a tool fordetermining microbial community composition. Appl Environ Microbiol75:2889–2898
23. Zaura E, Keijser BJ, Huse SM, Crielaard W (2009) Defining the healthy “core microbiome” oforal microbial communities. BMC Microbiol9:259
24. Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, Moeschberger ML, Kenyon SG, Galvin JL, Boches SK,Dewhirst FE, Griffen AL (2002) Molecular analysis of bacterial species associated withchildhood caries. J Clin Microbiol40:1001–1009
25. Peterson J, Garges S, Giovanni M, McInnes P, Wang L, Schloss JA, Bonazzi V, McEwen JE,Wetterstrand KA, Deal C, Baker CC, Di Francesco V, Howcroft TK, Karp RW, Lunsford RD,Wellington CR, Belachew T, Wright M, Giblin C, David H, Mills M, Salomon R, Mullins C,Akolkar B, Begg L, Davis C, Grandison L, Humble M, Khalsa J, Little AR, Peavy H, Pontzer C,Portnoy M, Sayre MH, Starke-Reed P, Zakhari S, Read J, Watson B, Guyer M (2009) The NIHhuman microbiome project. Genome Res19:2317–2323.
26. Ledder RG, Gilbert P, Huws SA, Aarons L, Ashley MP, Hull PS, McBain AJ (2007). Molecularanalysis of the subgingival microbiota in health and disease. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,73:516–523.
27. Li Y, Ge Y, Saxena D, Caufield PW (2007). Genetic profiling of the oral microbiota associatedwith severe early-childhood caries. J. Clin. Microbiol.,45:81–87.
28. Li Y, Saxena D, Barnes VM, Trivedi HM, Ge Y, Xu T (2006). Polymerase chain reaction-baseddenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis in the evaluation of oral microbiota. Oral Microbiol.Immunol.,21:333–339.
29. Liu DL, Zhou YB, Li CL, Li YP, Jiang YT, Huang ZW, Liang JP, Shu R (2010). Denaturinggradient gel electrophoresis analysis of subgingival bacterial communities under mechanicaldebridement with different primers. Microbiol. Immunol.,54:702–706.
30. Machado de Oliveira JC, Gama TG, Siqueira JF Jr, R as IN, Peixoto RS, Rosado AS (2007).On the use of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis approach for bacterial identification inendodontic infections. Clin. Oral Investig.,11:127–132.
31. Ferris, M. J., G. Muyzer, and D. M. Ward.1996. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresisprofiles of16S rRNA-defined populations inhabiting a hot spring microbial mat community.Appl. Environ. Microbiol.62:340–346.
32. Muyzer G, de Waal EC, Uitterlinden AG (1993). Profiling of complex microbial populations bydenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplified genescoding for16S rRNA. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,59:695–700.
33. Nubel, U., F. Garcia-Pichel, M. Kuhl, and G. Muyzer.1999. Quantifying microbial diversity:morphotypes,16S rRNA genes, and carotenoids of oxygenic phototrophs in microbial mats.Appl. Environ. Microbiol.65:422–430.
34. Millar, M. R., C. J. Linton, A. Cade, D. Glancy, M. Hall, and H. Jalal.1996. Application of16SrRNA gene PCR to study bowel flora of preterm infants with and without necrotizingenterocolitis. J. Clin. Microbiol.34:2506–2510.
35. Simpson, J. M., V. J. McCracken, B. A. White, H. R. Gaskins, and R. I. Mackie.1999.Application of denaturant gradient gel electrophoresis for the analysis of the porcinegastrointestinal microbiota. J. Microbiol. Methods36:167–179
36. Zoetendal, E. G., A. D. Akkermans, and W. M. De Vos.1998. Temperature gradient gelelectrophoresis analysis of16S rRNA from human fecal samples reveals stable and host-specific communities of active bacteria. Appl. Environ Microbiol.64:3854–3859.
37. Cole, J. R., B. Chai, R. J. Farris, Q. Wang, S. A. Kulam, D. M. McGarrell, et al.2005. TheRibosomal Database Project (RDP-II): sequences and tools for high-throughput rRNA analysis.Nucleic Acids Res.33:D294–D296.
38. World Health Organization (1997). Oral health surveys: basic methods,4th edn. WHO, Geneva.
39. Lang NP, Joss A, Tonetti MS (1996). Monitoring disease supportive periodontal treatment bybleeding on probing. Periodontol.2000,12:44-48.
40. Silva EP, Russo CAM (2000). Techniques and statistical data analysis in molecular populationgenetics. Hydrobiologia,420:119–135.
41. Achtman, M.&Wagner, M. Microbial diversity and the genetic nature of microbial species.Nature Rev. Microbiol.6,431–440(2008).
42. Huber, J. A. et al. Effect of PCR amplicon size on assessments of clone library microbialdiversity and community structure. Environ. Microbiol.11,1292–1302(2009).
43. Lozupone, C. A.&Knight, R. Species divergence and the measurement of microbial diversity.FEMS Microbiol Rev.32,557–578(2008).
44. Wei J, YunTao J, ChaoLun L, JingPing L (2011). Investigation of supragingival PlaqueMicrobiota in Different Caries Status of Chinese Preschool Children by Denaturing GradientGel Electrophoresis. Microb. Ecol.,61:342–352.
45. Fujimoto C, Maeda H, Kokeguchi S, Takashiba S, Nishimura F, Arai H, Fukui K, Murayama Y(2003). Application of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) to the analysis ofmicrobial communities of subgingival plaque. J. Periodontal. Res.,38:440–445.
46. Siqueira JF Jr, R as IN, Debelian GJ, Carmo FL, Paiva SS, Alves FR, Rosado AS (2008).Profiling of root canal bacterial communities associated with chronic apical periodontitis fromBrazilian and Norwegian subjects. J. Endod.,34:1457–1461.
47. van Houte J, Lopman J, Kent R (1996). The final pH of bacteria comprising the predominantflora on sound and carious human root and enamel surfaces. J. Dent. Res.,75:1008–1014.
48. Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, Moeschberger ML, Kenyon SG, Galvin JL, Boches SK,Dewhirst FE, Griffen AL (2002). Molecular analysis of bacterial species associated withchildhood caries. J. Clin. Microbiol.,40:1001–1009.
49. Zijnge V, Harmsen HJM, van der Rest ME, Degener JE, Welling GW (2003). Denaturinggradient gel electrophoresis analysis to study bacterial community structure in pockets ofperiodontitis patients. Oral. Microbiol. Immunol.,18:59-65.
50. Frisken KW, Higgins T, and Palmer JM (1990). The incidence of periodontopathicmicroorganisms in young children. Oral Microbiol. Immunol.,5:43–45.
51. Tanner ACR, Milgrom PM, Kent R, Mokeem SA, Page RC, Liao SI, Riedy CA, Bruss JB(2002). Similarity of the oral microbiota of pre-school children with that of their caregivers in apopulation-based study. Oral Microbiol. Immunol.,17:379–387.
52. Ximenez-Fyvie LA, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS.(2000). Comparison of the microbiota ofsupra-and subgingival plaque in health andperiodontitis. J Clin Periodontol.27:648–57.
53. Tanner A, Maiden MF, Macuch PJ, et al.(1998). Microbiota of health, gingivitis, and initialperiodontitis. J Clin Periodontol.25:85–98.
54. Tanner A, Kent R, Maiden MF, et al.(1996). Clinical, microbiological and immunologicalprofile of healthy, gingivitis and putative active periodontal subjects. J Periodontal Res.31:195–204.
55. Ramberg P, Sekino S, Uzel NG, et al.(2003). Bacterial colonization during de novo plaqueformation. J Clin Periodontol.30:990–95.
56. Muyzer G, Smalla K (1998). Application of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE)and temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) in microbial ecology. AntonieLeeuwenhoek,73:127–141.
57. Hayes VM, Wu Y, Osinga J, Mulder IM, van der Vlies P, Elfferich P, et al.(1999).Improvements in gel composition and electrophoretic conditions for broad-range mutationanalysis by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. Nucleic Acids Res27:e29.
58. Munson MA, Banerjee A, Watson TF, Wade WG (2004). Molecular analysis of the microfloraassociated with dental caries. J. Clin. Microbiol.,42:3023–3029.
1. Loesche WJ.(1996) Microbiology of Dental Decay and Periodontal Disease.
2. Tanzer JM, Livingston J, Thompson AM.(2001) The microbiology of primary dental caries inhumans. J Dent Educ.65,1028-37.
3. Meiers JC, Wirthlin MR, Shklair IL.(1982) A microbiological analysis of human early cariousand non-carious fissures. J Dent Res.61,460-4.
4. Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, et al.(2002) Molecular analysis of bacterial species associatedwith childhood caries. J Clin Microbiol.40,1001-9.
5. Mukasa H, Slade HD.(1973) Mechanism of adherence of Streptococcus mutans to smoothsurfaces. I. Roles of insoluble dextran-levan synthetase enzymes and cell wall polysaccharideantigen in plaque formation. Infect Immun.8,555-62.
6. Wood SR, Kirkham J, Marsh PD, Shore RC, Nattress B, Robinson C.(2000) Architecture ofintact natural human plaque biofilms studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy. J Dent Res.79,21-7.
7. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2002) Dental biofilms: difficult therapeutic targets. Periodontol2000.28,12-55.
8. Reese S, Guggenheim B.(2007) A novel TEM contrasting technique for extracellularpolysaccharides in in vitro biofilms. Microsc Res Tech.70,816-22.
9. Bos R, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ.(1999) Physico-chemistry of initial microbial adhesiveinteractions--its mechanisms and methods for study. FEMS Microbiol Rev.23,179-230.
10. Busscher HJ, van der Mei HC.(1997) Physico-chemical interactions in initial microbialadhesion and relevance for biofilm formation. Adv Dent Res.11,24-32.
11. Zaura-Arite E, van Marle J, ten Cate JM.(2001) Conofocal microscopy study of undisturbedand chlorhexidine-treated dental biofilm. J Dent Res.80,1436-40.
12. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE.(2005) Defining the normal bacterial floraof the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol.43,5721-32.
13. Jenkinson HF, Lamont RJ.(2005) Oral microbial communities in sickness and in health. TrendsMicrobiol.13,589-95.
14. Marsh PD.(2003) Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology.149,279-94.
15. Marsh PD.(2006) Dental plaque as a biofilm and a microbial community-implications forhealth and disease. BMC Oral Health.6Suppl1, S14.
16. Beighton D.(2005) The complex oral microflora of high-risk individuals and groups and itsrole in the caries process. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.33,248-55.
17. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2005) Periodontal microbial ecology. Periodontol2000.38,135-87.
18. Marsh PD, Percival RS.(2006) The oral microflora--friend or foe? Can we decide? Int Dent J.56,233-9.
19. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS, Patel MR, Song X.(2008) Microbial complexes in supragingivalplaque. Oral Microbiol Immunol.23,196-205.
20. Kuramitsu HK, He X, Lux R, Anderson MH, Shi W.(2007) Interspecies interactions withinoral microbial communities. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.71,653-70.
21. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS, Egland PG, Foster JS, Palmer RJ, Jr.(2002)Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.66,486-505, table of contents.
22. Burne RA, Marquis RE.(2000) Alkali production by oral bacteria and protection against dentalcaries. FEMS Microbiol Lett.193,1-6.
23. Overman PR.(2000) Biofilm: a new view of plaque. J Contemp Dent Pract.1,18-29.
24. Rosan B, Lamont RJ.(2000) Dental plaque formation. Microbes Infect.2,1599-607.
25. ten Cate JM.(2006) Biofilms, a new approach to the microbiology of dental plaque.Odontology.94,1-9.
26. Sissons CH, Anderson SA, Wong L, Coleman MJ, White DC.(2007) Microbiota of plaquemicrocosm biofilms: effect of three times daily sucrose pulses in different simulated oralenvironments. Caries Res.41,413-22.
27. Chung J, Ha ES, Park HR, Kim S.(2004) Isolation and characterization of Lactobacillusspecies inhibiting the formation of Streptococcus mutans biofilm. Oral Microbiol Immunol.19,214-6.
28. Guarner F, Perdigon G, Corthier G, Salminen S, Koletzko B, Morelli L.(2005) Should yoghurtcultures be considered probiotic? Br J Nutr.93,783-6.
29. Caglar E, Sandalli N, Twetman S, Kavaloglu S, Ergeneli S, Selvi S.(2005) Effect of yogurtwith Bifidobacterium DN-173010on salivary mutans streptococci and lactobacilli in youngadults. Acta Odontol Scand.63,317-20.
30. Meurman JH.(2005) Probiotics: do they have a role in oral medicine and dentistry? Eur J OralSci.113,188-96.
31. Meurman JH, Stamatova I.(2007) Probiotics: contributions to oral health. Oral Dis.13,443-51.
32. Ahrne S, Nobaek S, Jeppsson B, Adlerberth I, Wold AE, Molin G.(1998) The normalLactobacillus flora of healthy human rectal and oral mucosa. J Appl Microbiol.85,88-94.
33. Maukonen J, Matto J, Suihko ML, Saarela M.(2008) Intra-individual diversity and similarity ofsalivary and faecal microbiota. J Med Microbiol.57,1560-8.
34. Haukioja A, Soderling E, Tenovuo J.(2008) Acid production from sugars and sugar alcohols byprobiotic lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in vitro. Caries Res.42,449-53.
35. Hatakka K, Saxelin M.(2008) Probiotics in intestinal and non-intestinal infectious diseases--clinical evidence. Curr Pharm Des.14,1351-67.
36. Nase L, Hatakka K, Savilahti E, et al.(2001) Effect of long-term consumption of a probioticbacterium, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, in milk on dental caries and caries risk in children.Caries Res.35,412-20.
37. Stecksen-Blicks C, Sjostrom I, Twetman S.(2009) Effect of long-term consumption of milksupplemented with probiotic lactobacilli and fluoride on dental caries and general health inpreschool children: a cluster-randomized study. Caries Res.43,374-81.
38. Stepanovic S, Vukovic D, Dakic I, Savic B, Svabic-Vlahovic M.(2000) A modified microtiter-plate test for quantification of staphylococcal biofilm formation. J Microbiol Methods.40,175-9.
39. Hamanaka T, Higashiyama K, Fujikawa S, Park EY.(2001) Mycelial pellet intrastructure andvisualization of mycelia and intracellular lipid in a culture of Mortierella alpina. Appl MicrobiolBiotechnol.56,233-8.
40. Nocker A, Sossa-Fernandez P, Burr MD, Camper AK.(2007) Use of propidium monoazide forlive/dead distinction in microbial ecology. Appl Environ Microbiol.73,5111-7.
41. Wen ZT, Yates D, Ahn SJ, Burne RA. Biofilm formation and virulence expression byStreptococcus mutans are altered when grown in dual-species model. BMC Microbiol.10,111.
42. Kreth J, Zhang Y, Herzberg MC.(2008) Streptococcal antagonism in oral biofilms:Streptococcus sanguinis and Streptococcus gordonii interference with Streptococcus mutans. JBacteriol.190,4632-40.
43. Narayan SS, Jalgaonkar S, Shahani S, Kulkarni VN. Probiotics: current trends in the treatmentof diarrhoea. Hong Kong Med J.16,213-8.
44. Parvez S, Malik KA, Ah Kang S, Kim HY.(2006) Probiotics and their fermented food productsare beneficial for health. J Appl Microbiol.100,1171-85.
45. Gueimonde M, Salminen S.(2006) New methods for selecting and evaluating probiotics. DigLiver Dis.38Suppl2, S242-7.
46. Bonifait L, Chandad F, Grenier D.(2009) Probiotics for oral health: myth or reality? J CanDent Assoc.75,585-90.
47. Meurman JH, Antila H, Korhonen A, Salminen S.(1995) Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosusstrain GG (ATCC53103) on the growth of Streptococcus sobrinus in vitro. Eur J Oral Sci.103,253-8.
48. Ishihara K, Miyakawa H, Hasegawa A, Takazoe I, Kawai Y.(1985) Growth inhibition ofStreptococcus mutans by cellular extracts of human intestinal lactic acid bacteria. Infect Immun.49,692-4.
49. Hamada S, Slade HD.(1980) Biology, immunology, and cariogenicity of Streptococcus mutans.Microbiol Rev.44,331-84.
50. Burne RA, Chen YY, Penders JE.(1997) Analysis of gene expression in Streptococcus mutansin biofilms in vitro. Adv Dent Res.11,100-9.
51. Hudson MC, Curtiss R,3rd.(1990) Regulation of expression of Streptococcus mutans genesimportant to virulence. Infect Immun.58,464-70.
52. Yamashita Y, Bowen WH, Burne RA, Kuramitsu HK.(1993) Role of the Streptococcus mutansgtf genes in caries induction in the specific-pathogen-free rat model. Infect Immun.61,3811-7.
53. Tahmourespour A, Kermanshahi RK. The effect of a probiotic strain (Lactobacillus acidophilus)on the plaque formation of oral Streptococci. Bosn J Basic Med Sci.11,37-40.
54. Free RH, Busscher HJ, Elving GJ, van der Mei HC, van Weissenbruch R, Albers FW.(2001)Biofilm formation on voice prostheses: in vitro influence of probiotics. Ann Otol RhinolLaryngol.110,946-51.
55. Schwandt LQ, Van Weissenbruch R, Stokroos I, Van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ, Albers FW.(2004) Prevention of biofilm formation by dairy products and N-acetylcysteine on voiceprostheses in an artificial throat. Acta Otolaryngol.124,726-31.
56. Luo JF, Lin WT, Guo Y. Method to detect only viable cells in microbial ecology. ApplMicrobiol Biotechnol.86,377-84.
57. Nocker A, Camper AK.(2006) Selective removal of DNA from dead cells of mixed bacterialcommunities by use of ethidium monoazide. Appl Environ Microbiol.72,1997-2004.
58. Bakker DP, Postmus BR, Busscher HJ, van der Mei HC.(2004) Bacterial strains isolated fromdifferent niches can exhibit different patterns of adhesion to substrata. Appl Environ Microbiol.70,3758-60.
59. Wen ZT, Baker HV, Burne RA.(2006) Influence of BrpA on critical virulence attributes ofStreptococcus mutans. J Bacteriol.188,2983-92.
60. Loo CY, Corliss DA, Ganeshkumar N.(2000) Streptococcus gordonii biofilm formation:identification of genes that code for biofilm phenotypes. J Bacteriol.182,1374-82.
61. Zeng L, Wen ZT, Burne RA.(2006) A novel signal transduction system and feedback loopregulate fructan hydrolase gene expression in Streptococcus mutans. Mol Microbiol.62,187-200.
62. Phan TN, Reidmiller JS, Marquis RE.(2000) Sensitization of Actinomyces naeslundii andStreptococcus sanguis in biofilms and suspensions to acid damage by fluoride and other weakacids. Arch Microbiol.174,248-55.
63. Ahola AJ, Yli-Knuuttila H, Suomalainen T, et al.(2002) Short-term consumption of probiotic-containing cheese and its effect on dental caries risk factors. Arch Oral Biol.47,799-804.
64. Hatakka K, Ahola AJ, Yli-Knuuttila H, et al.(2007) Probiotics reduce the prevalence of oralcandida in the elderly--a randomized controlled trial. J Dent Res.86,125-30.
65. Nikawa H, Makihira S, Fukushima H, et al.(2004) Lactobacillus reuteri in bovine milkfermented decreases the oral carriage of mutans streptococci. Int J Food Microbiol.95,219-23.
66. Caglar E, Cildir SK, Ergeneli S, Sandalli N, Twetman S.(2006) Salivary mutans streptococciand lactobacilli levels after ingestion of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC55730by straws or tablets. Acta Odontol Scand.64,314-8.
67. Montalto M, Vastola M, Marigo L, et al.(2004) Probiotic treatment increases salivary counts oflactobacilli: a double-blind, randomized, controlled study. Digestion.69,53-6.
1. Wood SR, Kirkham J, Marsh PD, Shore RC, Nattress B, Robinson C.(2000) Architecture ofintact natural human plaque biofilms studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy. J Dent Res.79,21-7.
2. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2002) Dental biofilms: difficult therapeutic targets. Periodontol2000.28,12-55.
3. Reese S, Guggenheim B.(2007) A novel TEM contrasting technique for extracellularpolysaccharides in in vitro biofilms. Microsc Res Tech.70,816-22.
4. Bos R, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ.(1999) Physico-chemistry of initial microbial adhesiveinteractions--its mechanisms and methods for study. FEMS Microbiol Rev.23,179-230.
5. Busscher HJ, van der Mei HC.(1997) Physico-chemical interactions in initial microbialadhesion and relevance for biofilm formation. Adv Dent Res.11,24-32.
6. Zaura-Arite E, van Marle J, ten Cate JM.(2001) Conofocal microscopy study of undisturbedand chlorhexidine-treated dental biofilm. J Dent Res.80,1436-40.
7. Marsh PD.(2006) Dental plaque as a biofilm and a microbial community-implications forhealth and disease. BMC Oral Health.6Suppl1, S14.
8. Beighton D.(2005) The complex oral microflora of high-risk individuals and groups and itsrole in the caries process. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.33,248-55.
9. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2005) Periodontal microbial ecology. Periodontol2000.38,135-87.
10. Marsh PD, Percival RS.(2006) The oral microflora--friend or foe? Can we decide? Int Dent J.56,233-9.
11. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS, Patel MR, Song X.(2008) Microbial complexes in supragingivalplaque. Oral Microbiol Immunol.23,196-205.
12. Marsh PD.(2003) Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology.149,279-94.
13. Jenkinson HF, Lamont RJ.(2005) Oral microbial communities in sickness and in health. TrendsMicrobiol.13,589-95.
14. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE.(2005) Defining the normal bacterial floraof the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol.43,5721-32.
15. Kuramitsu HK, He X, Lux R, Anderson MH, Shi W.(2007) Interspecies interactions withinoral microbial communities. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.71,653-70.
16. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS, Egland PG, Foster JS, Palmer RJ, Jr.(2002)Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.66,486-505, table of contents.
17. Loesche WJ.(1986) Role of Streptococcus mutans in human dental decay. Microbiol Rev.50,353-80.
18. Aoki H, Shiroza T, Hayakawa M, Sato S, Kuramitsu HK.(1986) Cloning of a Streptococcusmutans glucosyltransferase gene coding for insoluble glucan synthesis. Infect Immun.53,587-94.
19. Hanada N, Kuramitsu HK.(1988) Isolation and characterization of the Streptococcus mutansgtfC gene, coding for synthesis of both soluble and insoluble glucans. Infect Immun.56,1999-2005.
20. Watnick P, Kolter R.(2000) Biofilm, city of microbes. J Bacteriol.182,2675-9.
21. Li YH, Tang N, Aspiras MB, et al.(2002) A quorum-sensing signaling system essential forgenetic competence in Streptococcus mutans is involved in biofilm formation. J Bacteriol.184,2699-708.
22. Merritt J, Qi F, Goodman SD, Anderson MH, Shi W.(2003) Mutation of luxS affects biofilmformation in Streptococcus mutans. Infect Immun.71,1972-9.
23. McNab R, Ford SK, El-Sabaeny A, Barbieri B, Cook GS, Lamont RJ.(2003) LuxS-basedsignaling in Streptococcus gordonii: autoinducer2controls carbohydrate metabolism andbiofilm formation with Porphyromonas gingivalis. J Bacteriol.185,274-84.
24. Xavier KB, Bassler BL.(2003) LuxS quorum sensing: more than just a numbers game. CurrOpin Microbiol.6,191-7.
25. Wen ZT, Burne RA.(2004) LuxS-mediated signaling in Streptococcus mutans is involved inregulation of acid and oxidative stress tolerance and biofilm formation. J Bacteriol.186,2682-91.
26. Wen ZT, Yates D, Ahn SJ, Burne RA. Biofilm formation and virulence expression byStreptococcus mutans are altered when grown in dual-species model. BMC Microbiol.10,111.
27. Bowden GH.(1999) Controlled environment model for accumulation of biofilms of oralbacteria. Methods Enzymol.310,216-24.
28. Costerton JW, Stewart PS, Greenberg EP.(1999) Bacterial biofilms: a common cause ofpersistent infections. Science.284,1318-22.
29. Quivey RG, Jr., Kuhnert WL, Hahn K.(2000) Adaptation of oral streptococci to low pH. AdvMicrob Physiol.42,239-74.
30. Lemos JA, Abranches J, Burne RA.(2005) Responses of cariogenic streptococci toenvironmental stresses. Curr Issues Mol Biol.7,95-107.
31. Lemos JA, Burne RA.(2008) A model of efficiency: stress tolerance by Streptococcus mutans.Microbiology.154,3247-55.
32. Schilling KM, Bowen WH.(1992) Glucans synthesized in situ in experimental salivary pelliclefunction as specific binding sites for Streptococcus mutans. Infect Immun.60,284-95.
33. Burne RA, Chen YY, Penders JE.(1997) Analysis of gene expression in Streptococcus mutansin biofilms in vitro. Adv Dent Res.11,100-9.
34. Hudson MC, Curtiss R,3rd.(1990) Regulation of expression of Streptococcus mutans genesimportant to virulence. Infect Immun.58,464-70.
35. Kuramitsu HK.(1993) Virulence factors of mutans streptococci: role of molecular genetics.Crit Rev Oral Biol Med.4,159-76.
36. Yamashita Y, Bowen WH, Burne RA, Kuramitsu HK.(1993) Role of the Streptococcus mutansgtf genes in caries induction in the specific-pathogen-free rat model. Infect Immun.61,3811-7.
37. Burne RA, Ahn SJ, Wen ZT, et al.(2009) Opportunities for disrupting cariogenic biofilms. AdvDent Res.21,17-20.
38. Hardie KR, Heurlier K.(2008) Establishing bacterial communities by 'word of mouth': LuxSand autoinducer2in biofilm development. Nat Rev Microbiol.6,635-43.
39. Maeda K, Tribble GD, Tucker CM, et al.(2008) A Porphyromonas gingivalis tyrosinephosphatase is a multifunctional regulator of virulence attributes. Mol Microbiol.69,1153-64.
40. Fuqua C, Greenberg EP.(2002) Listening in on bacteria: acyl-homoserine lactone signalling.Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol.3,685-95.
41. Whitehead NA, Barnard AM, Slater H, Simpson NJ, Salmond GP.(2001) Quorum-sensing inGram-negative bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev.25,365-404.
42. Federle MJ, Bassler BL.(2003) Interspecies communication in bacteria. J Clin Invest.112,1291-9.
43. Winzer K, Hardie KR, Williams P.(2003) LuxS and autoinducer-2: their contribution toquorum sensing and metabolism in bacteria. Adv Appl Microbiol.53,291-396.
44. Merritt J, Kreth J, Shi W, Qi F.(2005) LuxS controls bacteriocin production in Streptococcusmutans through a novel regulatory component. Mol Microbiol.57,960-9.
45. Bassler BL, Losick R.(2006) Bacterially speaking. Cell.125,237-46.
46. Henke JM, Bassler BL.(2004) Three parallel quorum-sensing systems regulate gene expressionin Vibrio harveyi. J Bacteriol.186,6902-14.
47. Sela S, Frank S, Belausov E, Pinto R.(2006) A Mutation in the luxS gene influences Listeriamonocytogenes biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol.72,5653-8.
48. Lemos JA, Brown TA, Jr., Burne RA.(2004) Effects of RelA on key virulence properties ofplanktonic and biofilm populations of Streptococcus mutans. Infect Immun.72,1431-40.
49. Yoshida A, Ansai T, Takehara T, Kuramitsu HK.(2005) LuxS-based signaling affectsStreptococcus mutans biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol.71,2372-80.
1. Howard K. and Richard P.(2000). Oral Bacterial Ecology: The Molecular Basis. Horizonscientific press, Norwich, United Kingdom.
2. Philip Marsh, Michael V. Martin, Michael A. O. Lewis (2009). Oral Microbiology, ChurchillLivingstone, Edinburgh United Kingdom.
3. Konopka A (2006). Microbial ecology: searching for principles. Microbe1:175–179.
4. Raes J, Bork P (2008). Molecular eco-systems biology: towards an understandingof communityfunction. Nat Rev Microbiol6:693–699.
5. Paster BJ, Boches SK, Galvin JL, Ericson RE, Lau CN, Levanos VA, et al.(2001). Bacterialdiversity in human subgingival plaque. J Bacteriol.183:3770–3783.
6. Paster BJ, Olsen I, Aas JA, Dewhirst FE (2006). The breadth of bacterial diversity in the humanperiodontal pocket and other oral sites. Periodontol200042:80–87.
7. Becker MR, Paster BJ, Leys EJ, Moeschberger ML, Kenyon SG, Galvin JL, et al.(2002).Molecular analysis of bacterial species associated with childhood caries. J Clin Microbiol40:1001–1009.
8. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE (2005). Defining the normal bacterial floraof the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol43:5721–5732.
9. Aas JA, Griffen AL, Dardis SR, Lee AM, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE, et al.(2008). Bacteria of dentalcaries in primary and permanent teeth in children and young adults. J Clin Microbiol46:1407–
1417.
10. Preza D, Olsen I, Aas JA, Willumsen T, Grinde B, Paster BJ (2008). Bacterial profiles of rootcaries in elderly patients. J Clin Microbiol46:2015–2021.
11. Dethlefsen L, McFall-Ngai M, Relman DA (2007). An ecological and evolutionary perspectiveon human-microbe mutualism and disease. Nature449:811–818.
12. Keijser BJ, Zaura E, Huse SM, van der Vossen JM, Schuren FH, Montijn RC, et al.(2008).Pyrosequencing analysis of the oral microflora of healthy adults. J Dent Res87:1016–1020.
13. Marsh, P.D.(2004). Dental plaque as a microbial biofilm. Caries Res.38,204–221
14. Chhour, K.L. et al.(2005). Molecular analysis of microbial diversity in advanced caries. J. Clin.Microbiol.43,843–849
15. Nadkarni, M.A. et al.(2004). Carious dentine provides a habitat for a complex array of novelPrevotella-like bacteria. J. Clin. Microbiol.42,5238–5244.
16. Zambon, J.J. and Kasprzak, S.A.(1995). The microbiology and histopathology of human rootcaries. Am. J. Dent.8,323–328
17. Brook, I.(2003). Microbiology and management of endodontic infections in children. J. Clin.Pediatr. Dent.28,13–17
18. Kroes, I. et al.(1999). Bacterial diversity within the human subgingival crevice. Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U. S. A.96,14547–14552
19. Kumar, P.S. et al.(2003). New bacterial species associated with chronic periodontitis. J. Dent.Res.82,338–344
20. Nyvad, B. and Kilian, M.(1987). Microbiology of the early colonization of human enamel androot surfaces in vivo. Scand. J. Dent. Res.95,369–380.
21. Palmer, R.J., Jr. et al.(2003). Coaggregation-mediated interactions of streptococci andactinomyces detected in initial human dental plaque. J. Bacteriol.185,3400–3409
22. Li, J. et al.(2004). Identification of early microbial colonizers in human dental biofilm. J. Appl.Microbiol.97,1311–1318.
23. Caufield, P.W. et al.(2000). Natural history of Streptococcus sanguinis in the oral cavity ofinfants: evidence for a discrete window of infectivity. Infect. Immun.68,4018–4023.
24. Jenkinson HF. and Richard J. Lamont (2005). Oral microbial communities in sickness and inhealth. TRENDS in Microbiology Vol.13No.12.
25. Cash HL, Whitham CV, Behrendt CL, Hooper LV (2006). Symbiotic bacteria direct expressionof an intestinal bactericidal lectin. Science.313:1126–1130.
26. Ley RE, Peterson DA, Gordon JI (2006). Ecological and evolutionary forces shaping microbialdiversity in the human intestine. Cell.124:837–848.
27. Ley RE, Turnbaugh PJ, Klein S, Gordon JI (2006). Microbial ecology: human gut microbesassociated with obesity. Nature.444:1022–1023.
28. Mazmanian SK, Liu CH, Tzianabos AO, Kasper DL (2005). An immunomodulatory moleculeof symbiotic bacteria directs maturationof the host immune system. Cell.122:107–118.
29. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, Magrini V, Mardis ER, Gordon JI (2006). An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature444:1027–1031.
30. Ruby J, Goldner M (2007). Nature of symbiosis in oral disease. J Dent Res86:8–11.
31. Lockhart PB, Durack DT (1999). Oral microflora as a cause of endocarditis and other distantsite infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am.13:833–850.
32. Paju S, Scannapieco FA (2007). Oral biofilms, periodontitis, and pulmonary infections. Oral Dis.13:508–512.
33. Boggess KA, Beck JD, Murtha AP, Moss K, Offenbacher S (2006). Maternal periodontaldisease in early pregnancy and risk for a small-for-gestational-age infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol.194:1316–1322.
34. Offenbacher S, Boggess KA, Murtha AP, Jared HL, Lieff S, McKaig RG, Mauriello SM, MossKL, Beck JD (2006). Progressive periodontal disease and risk of very preterm delivery. ObstetGynecol.107:29–36.
35. Beck JD, Eke P, Heiss G, Madianos P, Couper D, Lin D, Moss K, Elter J, Offenbacher S(2005a). Periodontal disease and coronary heart disease: a reappraisal of the exposure.Circulation.112:19–24.
36. Beck JD, Eke P, Lin D, Madianos P, Couper D, Moss K, Elter J, Heiss G, Offenbacher S(2005b). Associations between IgG antibody to oral organisms and carotid intima-medialthickness in community-dwelling adults. Atherosclerosis.183:342–348.
37. Petersen, P. E., Bourgeois, D., Ogawa, H., Estupinan-Day, S.&Ndiaye, C.(2005). The globalburden of oral diseases and risks to oral health. Bull World Health Organ.83,661-669.
38. Bratthall, D.(2005). Estimation of global DMFT for12-year-olds in2004. Int Dent J.55,370-372.
39. Y. ZHENG (2009). A Cross-sectional Study on Caries among Elementary Schoolchildren inDalian.9th World Congress on Preventive Dentistry, Phuket, Thiland.
40. Albandar, J. M.(2002). Global risk factors and risk indicators for periodontal diseases.Periodontol2000.29,177-206.
41. Cheng Guang-yan LIU Lu, Zhang Xue-li, Cheng Rui-bo, Zhao Xiu-lan, Zhang Ying (2010).Dalian Development Zone15-year-old student of dental caries and periodontal status surveyanalysis. Practical Chinese dental journal.
42. Jenkins, W. M.&Papapanou, P. N.(2001). Epidemiology of periodontal disease in children andadolescents. Periodontol200026,16-32.
43. Tanner, A. C., Milgrom, P. M., Kent, R., Jr., Mokeem, S. A., Page, R. C., Riedy, C. A.,Weinstein, P.&Bruss, J.(2002). The microbiota of young children from tooth and tonguesamples. J Dent Res.81,53-57.
44. Pitts NB.(2004). Are we ready to move from operative to non-operative/preventive treatment ofdental caries in clinical practice? Caries Res.38:294–304.
45. Featherstone JD.(2000). The science and practice of caries prevention. J Am Dent Assoc.131:887–99.
46. Fejerskov O, Kidd EAM, eds. Dental caries: the disease and its clinical management.Copenhagen, Denmark. Blackwell Monksgaard,2003.
47. Kidd EA, Giedrys-Leeper E, Simons D.(2000). Take two dentists: a tale of root caries. DentUpdate.27:222–30.
48. Marsh P, Martin MV. Oral Microbiology.4th edn. Oxford: Wright,1999.
49. Fejerskov O.(1997). Concepts of dental caries and their consequences for understanding thedisease. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.25:5–12.
50. Kidd EA, Fejerskov O.(2004). What constitutes dental caries? Histopathology of cariousenamel and dentin related to the action of cariogenic biofilms. J Dent Res.83: C35–38.
51. Pitts NB.(2004). Modern concepts of caries measurement. J Dent Res.83: C43–47.
52. Fejerskov O.(2004). Changing paradigms in concepts on dental caries: consequences for oralhealth care. Caries Res.38:182–91.
53. Scheie A, Peterson F.(2004). The biofilm concept: consequences for future prophylaxis of oraldiseases? Crit Rev Oral Biol Med.15:4–12.
54. Featherstone JDB.(2004). The continuum of dental caries—evidence for a dynamic diseaseprocess. J Dent Res.83: C39–42.
55. Caufi eld PW, Griff en AL.(2000). Dental caries. An infectious and transmissible disease.Pediatr Clin North Am.47:1001–19.
56. Seow WK.(1998). Biological mechanisms of early childhood caries. Community Dent OralEpidemiol.26(suppl1):8–27.
57. Featherstone JD, Adair SM, Anderson MH, et al.(2003). Caries management by risk assessment:consensus statement, April2002. J Calif Dent Assoc.31:257–69.
58. Krol DM.(2003). Dental caries, oral health, and pediatricians. Curr Probl Pediatr AdolescHealth Care.33:253–70.
59. Winn DM.(2001). Tobacco use and oral disease. J Dent Educ.65:306–12.
60. Touger-Decker R, van Loveren C.(2003). Sugars and dental caries. Am J Clin Nutr.78: S881–92.
61. Berkowitz RJ.(2003). Acquisition and transmission of mutans streptococci. J Calif Dent Assoc.31:135–38.
62. Armitage GC.(2004). Periodontal diagnoses and classification of periodontal diseases.Periodontol2000.34:9–21.
63. Jordan RC.(2004). Diagnosis of periodontal manifestations of systemic diseases. Periodontol2000.34:217–29.
64. Loe H, Anerud A, Boysen H, et al.(1986). Natural history of periodontal disease in man. Rapid,moderate and no loss of attachment in Sri Lankan laborers14to46years of age. J ClinPeriodontol.13:431–45.
65. Loe H, Anerud A, Boysen H, et al.(1978). The natural history of periodontal disease in man.The rate of periodontal destruction before40years of age. J Periodontol.49:607–20.
66. Ximenez-Fyvie LA, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS.(2000). Comparison of the microbiota ofsupra-and subgingival plaque in health andperiodontitis. J Clin Periodontol.27:648–57.
67. Tanner A, Maiden MF, Macuch PJ, et al.(1998). Microbiota of health, gingivitis, and initialperiodontitis. J Clin Periodontol.25:85–98.
68. Tanner A, Kent R, Maiden MF, et al.(1996). Clinical, microbiological and immunologicalprofile of healthy, gingivitis and putative active periodontal subjects. J Periodontal Res.31:195–204.
69. Ramberg P, Sekino S, Uzel NG, et al.(2003). Bacterial colonization during de novo plaqueformation. J Clin Periodontol.30:990–95.
70. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(2005). Microbiology of periodontal disease. Periodontol2000.38:9-12.
71. Lang NP, Cumming BR, Loe H.(1973). Toothbrushing frequency as it relates to plaquedevelopment and gingival health. J Periodontol.44:396–405.
72. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD.(1994). Evidence of bacterial etiology: a historical perspective.Periodontol2000.5:7–25.
73. Newman MG, Socransky SS, Savitt ED, et al.(1976). Studies of the microbiology ofperiodontosis. J Periodontol.47:373–79.
74. Mandell RL, Socransky SS.(1981). A selective medium for Actinobacillusactinomycetemcomitans and the incidence of the organism in juvenile periodontitis. JPeriodontol.52:593–98.
75. Kubar A, Saygun I, Ozdemir A, et al.(2005). Real-time polymerase chain reactionquantification of human cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus in periodontal pockets and theadjacent gingiva ofperiodontitis lesions. J Periodontal Res.40:97–104.
76. Michalowicz BS, Ronderos M, Camara-Silva R, et al.(2000). Human herpesviruses andPorphyromonas gingivalis are associated with juvenile periodontitis. J Periodontol.71:981–88.
77. Slots J.(2004). Herpesviruses, the missing link between gingivitis and periodontitis? J Int AcadPeriodontol.6:113–19.
78. Robinson PG.(2002). The significance and management of periodontal lesions in HIV infection.Oral Dis.8(suppl2):91–97.
79. Haffajee AD, Bogren A, Hasturk H, et al.(2004). Subgingival microbiota of chronicperiodontitis subjects from different geographic locations. J Clin Periodontol.31:996–1002.
80. Van Dyke TE, Sheilesh D.(2005). Risk factors for periodontitis. J Int Acad Periodontol.7:3–7.
81. Michalowicz BS, Aeppli D, Virag JG, et al.(1991). Periodontal findings in adult twins. JPeriodontol.62:293–99.
82. Michalowicz BS, Aeppli DP, Kuba RK, et al.(1991). A twin study of genetic variation inproportional radiographic alveolar bone height. J Dent Res.70:1431–35.
83. Michalowicz BS, Diehl SR, Gunsolley JC, et al.(2000). Evidence of a substantial genetic basisfor risk of adult periodontitis. J Periodontol.71:1699–707.
84. Corey LA, Nance WE, Hofstede P, et al.(1993). Self-reported periodontal disease in a Virginiatwin population. J Periodontol.64:1205–08.
85. Bergstrom J.(2004). Tobacco smoking and chronic destructive periodontal disease. Odontology.92:1–8.
86. Taylor GW.(2001). Bidirectional interrelationships between diabetes and periodontal diseases:an epidemiologic perspective. Ann Periodontol.6:99–112.
87. Soskoln WA, Klinger A.(2001). The relationship between periodontal diseases and diabetes: anoverview. Ann Periodontol.6:91–98.
88. Theilade, E.(1986). The non-specific theory in microbial etiology of inflammatory periodontaldiseases. J Clin Periodontol.13,905-911.
89. Socransky, S. S., Manganiello, A. D., Propas, D., Oram, V.&van Houte, J.(1977).Bacteriological studies of developing supragingival dental plaque. J Periodontal Res12,90-106.
90. Loesche, W. J.(1976). Chemotherapy of dental plaque infections. Oral Sci Rev9,65-107.
91. Marsh, P. D.(2003). Are dental diseases examples of ecological catastrophes? Microbiology149,279-294.
92. Costello EK, Lauber CL, Hamady M, Fierer N, Gordon JI, Knight R (2009). Bacterialcommunity variation in human body habitats across space and time. Science.326(5960):1694-
1697.
93. Lazarevic V, Whiteson K, Huse S, Hernandez D, Farinelli L, Osteras M, Schrenzel J, Francois P(2009). Metagenomic study of the oral microbiota by Illumina high-throughput sequencing. JMicrobiol Methods.79(3):266-271.
94. Zaura E, Keijser BJ, Huse SM, Crielaard W (2009): Defining the healthy “core microbiome” oforal microbial communities. BMC Microbiol.9:259.
95. Dewhirst FE, Chen T, Izard J, Paster BJ, Tanner AC, Yu WH, Lakshmanan A, Wade WG(2010). The human oral microbiome. J. Bacteriol.192(19):5002-5017.
96. Marsh PD (1994). Microbial ecology of dental plaque and its significance in health and disease.Adv Dent Res.8(2):263-271.
97. Kuramitsu HK, He XS, Lux R, Anderson MH, Shi WY (2007). Interspecies interactions withinoral microbial communities. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev.71(4):653-670.
98. Ledder RG, Gilbert P, Huws SA, Aarons L, Ashley MP, Hull PS, McBain AJ (2007). Molecularanalysis of the subgingival microbiota in health and disease. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.,73:516–523.
99. Li Y, Ge Y, Saxena D, Caufield PW (2007). Genetic profiling of the oral microbiota associatedwith severe early-childhood caries. J. Clin. Microbiol.,45:81–87.
100. Li Y, Saxena D, Barnes VM, Trivedi HM, Ge Y, Xu T (2006). Polymerase chain reaction-baseddenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis in the evaluation of oral microbiota. Oral Microbiol.Immunol.,21:333–339.
101. McAuliffe L, Ellis RJ, Lawes JR, Ayling RD, Nicholas RA.(2005).16S rDNA PCR anddenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis; a single generic test for detecting and differentiatingMycoplasma species. J Med Microbiol.54(Pt8):731-9.
102. Walter J, Tannock GW, Tilsala-Timisjarvi A, Rodtong S, Loach DM, Munro K, Alatossava T.(2000). Detection and identification of gastrointestinal Lactobacillus species by usingdenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and species-specific PCR primers. Appl EnvironMicrobiol.66(1):297-303.
103. Creighton, Thomas C.(1999). Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology, Volumes1-4. John Wiley&Sons.
104. Muyzer G, de Waal EC, Uitterlinden AG.(1993). Profiling of complex microbial populationsby denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis analysis of polymerase chain reaction-amplifiedgenes coding for16S rRNA. Appl Environ Microbiol.59(3):695-700.
105. Muyzer Gerard and Smalla Kornelia.(1998). Application of denaturing gradient gelelectrophoresis (DGGE) and temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) in microbialecology. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek.73:127–141.
106. Sheffield VC, Cox DR, Lerman LS, Myers RM.(1989). Attachment of a40-base-pair G+C-rich sequence (GC-clamp) to genomic DNA fragments by the polymerase chain reaction resultsin improved detection of single-base changes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.86(1):232-6.
107. Nakatsu Cindy H., Torsvik Vigdis and vre s Lise.(1996). Soil Community analysis usingDGGE of16S rDNA Polymerase Chain Reaction products. Soil Science Society of AmericaJournal64:1382-1388.
108. Muyzer G, Teske A, Wirsen CO, Jannasch HW.(1995). Phylogenetic relationships ofThiomicrospira species and their identification in deep-sea hydrothermal vent samples bydenaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of16S rDNA fragments. Arch Microbiol.164(3):165-72.
109. Liu DL, Zhou YB, Li CL, Li YP, Jiang YT, Huang ZW, Liang JP, Shu R (2010). Denaturinggradient gel electrophoresis analysis of subgingival bacterial communities under mechanicaldebridement with different primers. Microbiol. Immunol.,54:702–706.
110. Wei J, YunTao J, ChaoLun L, JingPing L (2011). Investigation of supragingival PlaqueMicrobiota in Different Caries Status of Chinese Preschool Children by Denaturing GradientGel Electrophoresis. Microb. Ecol.,61:342–352.
111. Zijnge V, Harmsen HJM, van der Rest ME, Degener JE, Welling GW (2003). Denaturinggradient gel electrophoresis analysis to study bacterial community structure in pockets ofperiodontitis patients. Oral. Microbiol. Immunol.,18:59-65.
112. Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors)(2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGrawHill.ISBN0-8385-8529-9.
113. Loesche WJ (1996). Microbiology of Dental Decay and Periodontal Disease. In Baron S etal.. Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN0-9631172-1-1.
114. Clarke, J. Kilian (1924). On the Bacterial Factor in the tiology of Dental Caries. BritishJournal of Experimental Pathology5:141–7. PMC2047899.
115. Tanzer, J. M., J. Livingston, et al.(2001)."The Microbiology of Primary Dental Caries inHumans. Journal of Dental Education65(10):1028-1037.
116. Meiers, J. C., M. R. Wirthlin, et al.(1982). A Microbiological Analysis of Human EarlyCarious and Non-carious Fissures." Journal of Dental Research61(3):460-464.
117. Loesche, W. J.(1986). Role of Streptococcus mutans in Human Dental Decay. MicrobiologicalReviews50(4):353-380.
118. Napimoga, M. H., R. U. Kamiya, et al.(2004). Genotypic diversity and virulence traitsof Streptococcus mutans in caries-free and caries-active individuals. Journal of MedicalMicrobiology53:697-703.
119. Hamilton, I. R. and E. J. S. Martin (1982)."Evidence for the Involvement of Proton MotiveForce in the Transport of Glucose by a Mutant of Streptococcus mutans Starin DR0001Defective in Glucose-Phosphoenolpyruvate Phosphotransferase Activity. Infection andImmunity36(2):567-575.
120. Berkowitz, R. J.(2003). Causes, Treatment and Prevention of Early Childhood Caries: AMicrobiologic Perspective. Journal of the Canadian Dental Association69(5):304-307.
121. Loveren, C. V., J. F. Buijs, et al.(2000). Similarity of Bacteriocin Activity Profiles of Mutansstreptococci within the Family When the Children Acquire the Strains After the age of5. CariesResearch34(6):481-5.
122. Li, Y., P. W. Caufield, et al.(2005). Mode of Delivery and Other Maternal Factors Influencethe Acquisition of Streptococcus mutans in Infants. Journal of Dental Research84(9):806-811.
123. Burt, B. A. and S. Pai (2001). Sugar Consumption and Caries Risk: A Systematic Review.Journal of Dental Education65(10):1017-1023.
124. Mayhall, J. T., A. A. Dahlberg, et al.(1970). Dental Caries in the Eskimos of Wainwright,Alaska. Journal of Dental Research49(4):886.
125. Toverud, G.(1957). The Influence of War and Post-War Conditions on the Teeth of NorwegianSchool Children. The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly35(2):127-196.
126. Guarner F, Perdigon G, Coerthier G, Salminen S, Koletzko B, Morelli L (2005). Shouldyoghurt cultures be considered probiotic? Br J Nutr93:783–786.
127. de Vrese M, Schrezenmeir J.(2008). Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics. Adv Biochem EngBiotechnol.111:1-66.
128. Saxelin M, Tynkkynen S, Mattila-Sandholm T, de Vos WM.(2005). Probiotic and otherfunctional microbes: from markets to mechanisms. Curr Opin Biotechnol.16:204-211.
129. Silva M, Jacobus NV, Deneke C, Gorbach SL (1987). Antimicrobial substance from a humanlactobacillus strain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother31:1231–1233.
130. Lewis SJ, Freedman AR (1998). The use of biotherapeutic agents in the prevention andtreatment of gastrointestinal disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther12:807–822.
131. Isolauri E, Sutas Y, Kankaanpaa P, Arvilommi H, Salminen S (2001). Probiotics: effects onimmunity. Am J Clin Nutr73(Suppl.2): S444–S450.
132. Busscher HJ, van Hoogmoed CG, Geertsema-Doornbusch GI, van der Kuijl-Booij M, van derMei HC.(1997). Streptococcus thermophilus and its biosurfactants inhibit adhesion by Candidaspp. on silicone rubber. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.63:3810-3817.
133. Rodrigues L, van der Mei H, Teixeira JA, Oliveira R.(2004). Biosurfactant from Lactococcuslactis53inhibits microbial adhesion on silicone rubber. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol..66:306-311.
134. Schwandt LQ, van Weissenbruch R, van der Mei HC, Busscher HJ, Albers FW.(2005). Effectof dairy products on the lifetime of Provox2voice prostheses in vitro and in vivo. Head Neck.27:471-477.
135. Busscher HJ, Mulder AF, van der Mei CH (1999). In vitro adhesion to enamel and in vivocolonization of tooth surfaces by lactobacilli from a bio-yogurt. Caries Res33:403–404.
136. Ahrne S, Nobaek S, Jeppsson B, Adlerberth I, Wold AE, Molin G.(1998). The normalLactobacillus flora of healthy human rectal and oral mucosa. J. Appl. Microbiol.85:88-94.
137. Maukonen J, M tto J, Suihko ML, Saarela M.(2008). Intra-individual diversity and similarityof salivary and faecal microbiota. J. Med. Microbiol.57(Pt12):1560-1568.
138. Colloca ME, Ahumada MC, Lopez ME, Nader-Macias ME.(2000). Surface properties oflactobacilli isolated from healthy subjects. Oral Dis..6:227-233.
139. Simark-Mattsson C, Emilson CG, H kansson EG, Jacobsson C, Roos K, Holm S.(2007).Lactobacillus-mediated interference of mutans streptococci in caries-free vs. caries-activesubjects. Eur. J. Oral Sci.115:308-314.
140. Crociani F, Biavati B, Alessandrini A, Chiarini C, Scardovi V (1996). Bifidobacteriuminopinatum sp. nov. and Bifidobacterium denticolens sp. nov., two new species isolated fromhuman dental caries. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol.46:564-571.
141. Beighton D, Gilbert SC, Clark D, Mantzourani M, Al-Haboubi M, Ali F, et al.(2008). Isolationand identification of bifidobacteriaceae from human saliva. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.74:6457-6460.
142. Gueimonde M, Laitinen K, Salminen S, Isolauri E.(2007). Breast milk: a source ofbifidobacteria for infant gut development and maturation? Neonatology.92:64-66.
143. Abrahamsson TR, Sinkiewicz G, Jakobsson T, Fredrikson M, Bjorksten B.(2009). Probioticlactobacilli in breast milk and infant stool in relation to oral intake during the first year of life. J.Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr.49:349-354.
144. Caufield PW, Li Y, Dasanayake A, Saxena D.(2007). Diversity of lactobacilli in the oralcavities of young women with dental caries. Caries Res.41:2-8.
145. Kekkonen RA, Lummela N, Karjalainen H, Latvala S, Tynkkynen S, Jarvenpaa S, et al (2008).Probiotic intervention has strain-specific anti-inflammatory effects in healthy adults. World J.Gastroenterol.14:2029-2036.
146. Paineau D, Carcano D, Leyer G, Darquy S, Alyanakian MA, Simoneau G, et al.(2008). Effectsof seven potential probiotic strains on specific immune responses in healthy adults: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol.53:107-113.
147. Meurman JH, Antila H, Salminen S (1994). Recovery of Lactobacillus strain GG (ATCC53103)from saliva of healthy volunteers after consumption of yoghurt prepared with the bacterium.Microb Ecol Health Dis7:295–298.
148. Na¨ se L, Hatakka K, Savilahti E et al (2001). Effect of longterm consumption of a probioticbacterium, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, in milk on dental caries and caries risk children.Caries Res35:412–420.
149. Ahola AJ, Yli-Knuuttila H, Suomalainen T et al (2002). Shortterm consumption of probiotic-containing cheese and its effect on dental caries risk factors. Arch Oral Biol47:799–804.
150. Caglar E, Cilder SK, Ergeneli S, Sandalli N, Twetman S (2006). Salivary mutans streptococciand lactobacilli levels after ingestion of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC55739by straws or tablets. Acta Odontol Scand64:314–318.
151. Krasse P, Carlsson B, Dahl C, Paulsson A, Nilsson A, Sinkiewicz G (2006). Decreased gumbleeding and reduced gingivitis by the probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri. Swed Dent J30:55–60.
152. Ko ll-Klais P, Ma¨ ndar R, Leibur E, Marcotte H, Hammarstro¨m L, Mikelsaar M (2006). Orallactobacilli in chronic periodontitis: species composition and antimicrobial activity. IADRCongress, Dublin,13–16September (Abstract0081).
153. Kang M-S, Kim B-G, Lee H-C, Oh J-S (2006). Inhibitory effect of Weissella cibaria isolates onthe production of volatile sulphur compounds. J Clin Periodontol33:226–232.
154. Hall-Stoodley L, Costerton JW, Stoodley P (2004)."Bacterial biofilms: from the naturalenvironment to infectious diseases". Nature Reviews. Microbiology2(2):95–108.doi:10.1038/nrmicro821. PMID15040259.
155. Lear, G; Lewis, GD (2012). Microbial Biofilms: Current Research and Applications. CaisterAcademic Press. ISBN978-1-904455-96-7.
156. Karatan E, Watnick P (J2009)."Signals, regulatory networks, and materials that build and breakbacterial biofilms" Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews73(2):310–47.doi:10.1128/MMBR.00041-08. PMC2698413. PMID19487730.
157. Hoffman LR, D'Argenio DA, MacCoss MJ, Zhang Z, Jones RA, Miller SI (2005)."Aminoglycoside antibiotics induce bacterial biofilm formation". Nature436(7054):1171–5.doi:10.1038/nature03912. PMID16121184.
158. An D, Parsek MR (June2007)."The promise and peril of transcriptional profiling in biofilmcommunities". Current Opinion in Microbiology10(3):292–6. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2007.05.011.PMID17573234.
159. Wood SR, Kirkham J, Marsh PD, Shore RC, Nattress B, et al.(2000) Architecture Of IntactNatural Human Plaque Biofilms Studied By Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy. J Dent Res79:21–27.
160. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD (2002) Dental Biofilms: Difficult Therapeutic Targets. Periodontol200028:12–55.
161. Reese S, Guggenheim B (2007) A Novel TEM Contrasting Technique For ExtracellularPolysaccharides In In Vitro Biofilms. Microsc Res Tech70:816–822.
162. Bos R, Van Der Mei HC, Busscher HJ (1999) Physico-Chemistry Of Initial Microbial AdhesiveInteractions–Its Mechanisms And Methods For Study. FEMS Microbiol Rev23:179–230.
163. Busscher HJ, Van Der Mei HC (1997) Physico-Chemical Interactions In Initial MicrobialAdhesion And Relevance For BiofilmFormation. Adv Dent Res11:24–32.
164. Zaura-Arite E, Van Marle J, Ten Cate JM (2001) Conofocal Microscopy Study Of UndisturbedAnd Chlorhexidine-Treated Dental Biofilm. J Dent Res80:1436–1440.
165. Bowden GHW (2000). The microbial ecology of dental caries. Microbial Ecol Health Dis12(3):138–148.
166. Marsh PD (2006). Dental plaque as a biofilm and a microbial community—implications forhealth and disease. BMC Oral Health6(Suppl1):14.
167. Beighton D (2005). The complex oral microflora of high-risk individuals and groups and itsrole in the caries process. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol33:248–255.
168. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD (2005). Periodontal microbial ecology. Periodontol200038:135–187.
169. Marsh PD, Percival RS (2006). The oral microflora—friend or foe? Can we decide? Int Dent J56(4Suppl1):233–239.
170. Haffajee AD, Socransky SS, Patel MR, Song X (2008). Microbial complexes in supragingivalplaque. Oral Microbiol Immunol23:196–205.
171. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Blehert DS, Egland PG, Foster JS, Palmer RJ Jr.(2002).Communication among oral bacteria. Microbiol Mol. Biol. Rev.66(3):486-505. table ofcontents
172. Burne RA, Marquis RE (2000). Alkali production by oral bacteria and protection against dentalcaries. FEMS Microbiol Lett193:1–6.
173. Overman PR (2000). Biofilm: a new view of plaque. J Contemp Dent Pract1:18–29.
174. Rosan B, Lamont RJ (2000). Dental plaque formation. Microbes Infect2:1599–1607.
175. Marsh PD (2005). Dental plaque: biological significance of a biofilm community life-style. JClin Periodontol32(Suppl6):7–15.
176. ten Cate JM (2006). Biofilms, a new approach to the microbiology of dental plaque.Odontology94:1–9.
177. Sissons CH, Anderson SA, Wong L, Coleman MJ, White DC (2007). Microbiota of plaquemicrocosm biofilms: effect of three times daily sucrose pulses in different simulated oralenvironments. Caries Res41:413–422.
178. Rogers A H (2008). Molecular Oral Microbiology. Caister Academic Press. pp.65–108. ISBN978-1-904455-24-0.
179. Mihai A, Balotescu-Chifiriuc C, Laz r V, St nescu R, Burliba□a M, Ispas DC (2010)."Microbial biofilms in dental medicine in reference to implanto-prostethic rehabilitation".Revista de Chirurgie Oro-Maxilo-Facial□i Implantologie1(1):9–13.
180. Marsh PD (1991). The significance of maintaining the stability of the natural microflora of themouth. Br Dent J171:174–177.
181. Palmer, R. J. Jr, Kazmerzak, K., Hansen, M. C.&Kolenbrander, P. E.(2001). Mutualismversus independence: strategies of mixed-species oral biofilms in vitro using saliva as the solenutrient source. Infect. Immun.69,5794–5804.
182. Paddick, J. S., Brailsford, S. R., Kidd, E. A. M.&Beighton, D.(2005). Phenotypic andgenotypic selection of microbiota surviving under dental restorations. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.71,2467–2472.
183. Wickstrom, C.&Svensater, G.(2008). Salivary gel-forming mucin MUC5B-a nutrient fordental plaque bacteria. Oral Microbiol. Immunol.23,177–182.
184. Kolenbrander PE, Palmer RJ Jr, Rickard AH, Jakubovics NS, Chalmers NI, Diaz PI (2006).Bacterial interactions and successions during plaque development. Periodontol200042:47–79.
185. Kreth J, Zhang Y, Herzberg MC (2008). Streptococcal antagonism in oral biofilms:Streptococcus sanguinis and Streptococcus gordonii interference with Streptococcus mutans. J.Bacteriol.190(13):4632-4640.
186. Rickard AH, Palmer RJ Jr, Blehert DS, Campagna SR, Semmelhack MF, Egland PG, BasslerBL, Kolenbrander PE (2006). Autoinducer2: a concentrationdependent signal for mutualisticbacterial biofilm growth. Mol. Microbiol.60(6):1446-1456.
187. Bowen WH, Schilling K, Giertsen E, Pearson S, Lee SF, Bleiweis A, Beeman D (1991). Roleof a cell surface-associated protein in adherence and dental caries. Infect. Immun.59(12):4604-4609.
188. Burne RA (1998). Oral streptococci products of their environment. J. Dent. Res.77(3):445-452.
189. Banas JA, Vickerman MM (2003). Glucan-binding proteins of the oral streptococci. Crit. Rev.Oral Biol. Med.14(2):89-99.
190. Banas JA (2004). Virulence properties of Streptococcus mutans. Front Biosci.9:1267-1277.
191. Tsumori H, Kuramitsu H (1997). The role of the Streptococcus mutans glucosyltransferases inthe sucrose-dependent attachment to smooth surfaces: essential role of the GtfC enzyme. OralMicrobiol. Immunol.12(5):274-280.
192. Li YH, Hanna MN, Svensater G, Ellen RP, Cvitkovitch DG (2001). Cell density modulates acidadaptation in Streptococcus mutans: implications for survival in biofilms. J Bacteriol,183(23):6875-6884.
193. Li YH, Lau PC, Tang N, Svensater G, Ellen RP, Cvitkovitch DG (2002). Novel Two-Component Regulatory System Involved in Biofilm Formation and Acid Resistance inStreptococcus mutans. J. Bacteriol.,184(22):6333-6342.
194. Li YH, Tang N, Aspiras MB, Lau PC, Lee JH, Ellen RP, Cvitkovitch DG (2002). A quorum-sensing signaling system essential for genetic competence in Streptococcus mutans is involvedin biofilm formation. J. Bacteriol.,184(10):2699-2708.
195. Wen ZT, Burne RA (2004). LuxS-mediated signaling in Streptococcus mutans is involved inregulation of acid and oxidative stress tolerance and biofilm formation. J. Bacteriol.186(9):2682-2691.
196. Qi F, Merritt J, Lux R, Shi W (2004). Inactivation of the ciaH Gene in Streptococcus mutansdiminishes mutacin production and competence development, alters sucrose-dependent biofilmformation, and reduces stress tolerance. Infect. Immun.,72(8):4895-4899.
197. Ahn SJ, Wen ZT, Burne RA (2006). Multilevel control of competence development and stresstolerance in Streptococcus mutans UA159. Infect. Immun.,74(3):1631-1642.
198. Suntharalingam P, Senadheera MD, Mair RW, Levesque CM, Cvitkovitch DG (2009). TheLiaFSR system regulates the cell envelope stress response in Streptococcus mutans. J. Bacteriol.191(9):2973-2984.
199. Merritt J, Qi F, Goodman SD, Anderson MH, Shi W (2003). Mutation of luxS Affects BiofilmFormation in Streptococcus mutans. Infect. Immun.71(4):1972-1979.
200. Yoshida A, Ansai T, Takehara T, Kuramitsu HK (2005). LuxS-based signaling affectsStreptococcus mutans biofilm formation. Appl Environ Microbiol.71(5):2372-2380.
201. Bassler BL (2002). Small talk. Cell-to-cell communication in bacteria. Cell.109(4):421-424.
202. Wen ZT, Burne RA(2002). Functional genomics approach to identifying genes required forbiofilm development by Streptococcus mutans. Appl Environ Microbiol.68(3):1196-1203.
203. Wen ZT, Baker HV, Burne RA (2006). Influence of BrpA on critical virulence attributes ofStreptococcus mutans. J Bacteriol.188(8):2983-2992.