《阳光下的葡萄干》的妇女主义解读
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摘要
洛伦·汉斯贝里(1930-1965)是一位活跃于五十年代末、六十年代初的美国著名黑人女剧作家。她的代表作《阳光下的葡萄干》根植于普通黑人的生活,尤其关注黑人女性在种族主义和性别主义双重压迫下的生存状态和为了摆脱苦难所作的抗争,认为黑人妇女只有勇于反抗性别主义压迫、继承黑人文化传统并实现与黑人男性的共同成长才能实现包括男人和女人在内的全人类的生存与完整,这正契合了后来美国著名黑人女作家艾丽斯·沃克提出的“妇女主义”理论。
《阳光下的葡萄干》剧名取自美国黑人桂冠诗人兰斯顿·休斯的一首诗,诗中写道：“一个未能实现的梦想会有什么下场?/它会不会干瘪枯萎,/像阳光下的一颗葡萄干?”此剧虽是汉斯贝里的处女作,但1959年在纽约百老汇一经上演,便受到高度评价,《纽约时报》甚至认为这部话剧“改写了美国的戏剧史”。此剧在百老汇上演了530场,还改编为电影和歌舞剧,在美国剧坛产生过较大影响。汉斯贝里凭借这部话剧获得了纽约戏剧评论协会奖,成为唯一一位获此殊荣的黑人女性。1961年《阳光下的葡萄干》被改编成电影,并获得该年度戛纳特别奖。
该剧以二十世纪四十年代反种族歧视运动为背景,讲述了一个芝加哥黑人家庭的故事。杨戈尔一家从父亲的人寿保险中获得了一万美元,母亲希望用这笔钱搬离贫民窟,在白人居住的地方买一所带花园的房子,这也正是儿媳露丝所希望的；女儿贝妮莎想利用这笔钱去上医学院从而实现治病救人的梦想；儿子杨戈尔则想用这笔钱和朋友一起开创自己的事业,从而跻身于上流社会。最终杨戈尔拿到了这笔钱,他的合伙人却携款逃之夭夭,全家人对于美好生活的向往就此破灭了。然而在历经磨难后,大家却相互支撑,相互鼓励,勇敢面对现实,重拾生活的信念。
此剧涉及美国当时许多重要的社会问题,如黑色美国梦、黑人文化、种族歧视与种族隔离、黑人妇女的平等权利和非洲的独立运动等,其中体现了鲜明的妇女主义观点。本文试图从妇女主义的角度分析这部剧作,阐述其中蕴含的妇女主义思想。导论部分对汉斯贝里及其代表作《阳光下的葡萄干》进行简要回顾,就剧作的主题、文献综述、本文的写作意图及文章结构进行了简要介绍,并简述妇女主义的基本思想和将其应用于对《阳光下的葡萄干》的文学研究的可行性。正文共三部分：第一章论述反性别主义对于黑人女性争取平等权利的重要性；第二章强调对黑人文化传统的继承；第三章则探讨了黑人妇女与黑人男性共同成长,从而建立平等和谐的黑人社区这一主题。结论部分总结全文,并指出汉斯贝里的妇女主义思想的深远意义及其对后人产生的启示。
Lorrain Hansberry (1930-1965), a black playwright active in the 1950s and early 1960s, is doubtlessly one of the pioneers who not only holds a womanist opinion strongly but also illustrated it in her ever-lasting work--A Raisin in the Sun.
Hansberry is one of the most prominent female black playwrights in the 1950s'American theater. Yet her creation career was cut short at the age of 34 because of cancer. Nevertheless, she made great contributions to both the Afro-American and the world literature by producing five plays and lots of articles, poems and speeches. As one of the oppressed African Americans and as a black woman, she herself suffered the same hardships with all the other blacks, especially black women, in the white-dominant society and witnessed their persistent pursuit of freedom and equality. She shows deep sympathy to the black women and puts forward her womanist viewpoint to emancipate them from the state of double oppression.
A Raisin in the Sun is the first drama written by Lorraine Hansberry but is regarded as her most important work. Hansberry derives the title from one of Langston Hughes'poems: "What happens to a dream deferred?/Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun?/…" The drama focuses on the aspirations, dreams, frustrations and hopes of the Younger family in which each member has his/her own dream. Their dreams are hindered by the racial discrimination and economic deprivation. The postponed dreams of the family are throbbed due to the coming of Father's $10,000 insurance check with which each family member has a plan in mind on how to use the money. Finally, it ends with the whole family's moving into the new house despite the loss of Walter's money and the hostility and threat from the white neighborhoods. The play touches upon many contemporary issues such as the Black American dream, the racial discrimination and racial segregation, the inheritance of black culture, black women's social and familial position and the independent movement in Africa, among which the womanist perspective is evident but does not receive much attention it deserves in Afro-American literature. The thesis is to study the play from a womanist viewpoint.
This thesis is composed of the following five parts:
The first part (Introduction) presents a brief introduction to Lorraine Hansberry as a black female playwright and the synopsis of her A Raisin in the Sun. Also the study of scholars home and abroad on Hansberry and her work, the theme, the motive and the structure of the thesis is briefly reviewed. Furthermore, the thesis makes a brief study of womanism and states how important it is to put A Raisin in the Sun in a setting of womanist perspective to understand it better.
The body of the thesis consists of three chapters. Chapter One discusses the significance of anti-sexism for black women to strive for equality. Chapter Two focuses on the inheritance of the Africa culture for the Afro-Americans, black women in particular, to strive for their survival and development. Chapter Three stresses black women's function in the growing up of the black men to ultimately construct an equal and peaceful community in harmony.
The Conclusion of the thesis is that Lorraine Hansberry is a womanist playwright and in her masterpiece A Raisin in the Sun she analyzes black women's suffering from the double oppression, emphasizes the importance of inheriting the black culture and provides a new understanding of the relationship between men and women as a means to the emancipation of women as well as the human race. This is still instructive for today's women in dealing with their relationship with men, no matter what races they belong to.
《阳光下的葡萄干》剧名取自美国黑人桂冠诗人兰斯顿·休斯的一首诗,诗中写道：“一个未能实现的梦想会有什么下场?/它会不会干瘪枯萎,/像阳光下的一颗葡萄干?”此剧虽是汉斯贝里的处女作,但1959年在纽约百老汇一经上演,便受到高度评价,《纽约时报》甚至认为这部话剧“改写了美国的戏剧史”。此剧在百老汇上演了530场,还改编为电影和歌舞剧,在美国剧坛产生过较大影响。汉斯贝里凭借这部话剧获得了纽约戏剧评论协会奖,成为唯一一位获此殊荣的黑人女性。1961年《阳光下的葡萄干》被改编成电影,并获得该年度戛纳特别奖。
该剧以二十世纪四十年代反种族歧视运动为背景,讲述了一个芝加哥黑人家庭的故事。杨戈尔一家从父亲的人寿保险中获得了一万美元,母亲希望用这笔钱搬离贫民窟,在白人居住的地方买一所带花园的房子,这也正是儿媳露丝所希望的；女儿贝妮莎想利用这笔钱去上医学院从而实现治病救人的梦想；儿子杨戈尔则想用这笔钱和朋友一起开创自己的事业,从而跻身于上流社会。最终杨戈尔拿到了这笔钱,他的合伙人却携款逃之夭夭,全家人对于美好生活的向往就此破灭了。然而在历经磨难后,大家却相互支撑,相互鼓励,勇敢面对现实,重拾生活的信念。
此剧涉及美国当时许多重要的社会问题,如黑色美国梦、黑人文化、种族歧视与种族隔离、黑人妇女的平等权利和非洲的独立运动等,其中体现了鲜明的妇女主义观点。本文试图从妇女主义的角度分析这部剧作,阐述其中蕴含的妇女主义思想。导论部分对汉斯贝里及其代表作《阳光下的葡萄干》进行简要回顾,就剧作的主题、文献综述、本文的写作意图及文章结构进行了简要介绍,并简述妇女主义的基本思想和将其应用于对《阳光下的葡萄干》的文学研究的可行性。正文共三部分：第一章论述反性别主义对于黑人女性争取平等权利的重要性；第二章强调对黑人文化传统的继承；第三章则探讨了黑人妇女与黑人男性共同成长,从而建立平等和谐的黑人社区这一主题。结论部分总结全文,并指出汉斯贝里的妇女主义思想的深远意义及其对后人产生的启示。
Lorrain Hansberry (1930-1965), a black playwright active in the 1950s and early 1960s, is doubtlessly one of the pioneers who not only holds a womanist opinion strongly but also illustrated it in her ever-lasting work--A Raisin in the Sun.
Hansberry is one of the most prominent female black playwrights in the 1950s'American theater. Yet her creation career was cut short at the age of 34 because of cancer. Nevertheless, she made great contributions to both the Afro-American and the world literature by producing five plays and lots of articles, poems and speeches. As one of the oppressed African Americans and as a black woman, she herself suffered the same hardships with all the other blacks, especially black women, in the white-dominant society and witnessed their persistent pursuit of freedom and equality. She shows deep sympathy to the black women and puts forward her womanist viewpoint to emancipate them from the state of double oppression.
A Raisin in the Sun is the first drama written by Lorraine Hansberry but is regarded as her most important work. Hansberry derives the title from one of Langston Hughes'poems: "What happens to a dream deferred?/Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun?/…" The drama focuses on the aspirations, dreams, frustrations and hopes of the Younger family in which each member has his/her own dream. Their dreams are hindered by the racial discrimination and economic deprivation. The postponed dreams of the family are throbbed due to the coming of Father's $10,000 insurance check with which each family member has a plan in mind on how to use the money. Finally, it ends with the whole family's moving into the new house despite the loss of Walter's money and the hostility and threat from the white neighborhoods. The play touches upon many contemporary issues such as the Black American dream, the racial discrimination and racial segregation, the inheritance of black culture, black women's social and familial position and the independent movement in Africa, among which the womanist perspective is evident but does not receive much attention it deserves in Afro-American literature. The thesis is to study the play from a womanist viewpoint.
This thesis is composed of the following five parts:
The first part (Introduction) presents a brief introduction to Lorraine Hansberry as a black female playwright and the synopsis of her A Raisin in the Sun. Also the study of scholars home and abroad on Hansberry and her work, the theme, the motive and the structure of the thesis is briefly reviewed. Furthermore, the thesis makes a brief study of womanism and states how important it is to put A Raisin in the Sun in a setting of womanist perspective to understand it better.
The body of the thesis consists of three chapters. Chapter One discusses the significance of anti-sexism for black women to strive for equality. Chapter Two focuses on the inheritance of the Africa culture for the Afro-Americans, black women in particular, to strive for their survival and development. Chapter Three stresses black women's function in the growing up of the black men to ultimately construct an equal and peaceful community in harmony.
The Conclusion of the thesis is that Lorraine Hansberry is a womanist playwright and in her masterpiece A Raisin in the Sun she analyzes black women's suffering from the double oppression, emphasizes the importance of inheriting the black culture and provides a new understanding of the relationship between men and women as a means to the emancipation of women as well as the human race. This is still instructive for today's women in dealing with their relationship with men, no matter what races they belong to.
引文
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1. Lindsay Patterson, Black Theatre (New York:Columbia University Press,1971),345.
2. Jean Bond, "The Negro Woman in American Literature", Freedomways 8 (2004):7
3. Steven R. Carter, Hansberry's Drama:Commitment amid Complexity (University of Illinois Press:Urbana,1991),19.
4. Interview in New York Times, March 8,1959.
5. Steven R. Carter, Hansberry's Drama:Commitment amid Complexity (University of Illinois Press:Urbana,1991),86.
6. Steven R. Carter, Hansberry's Drama:Commitment amid Complexity (University of Illinois Press:Urbana,1991),57.
7. James C Mckelly, "Hymns of Sedition:Portraits of the Artist in Contemporary African-American Drama". Arizona Quarterly 48.1 (Spring 1992),87.
8. James C Mckelly, "Hymns of Sedition:Portraits of the Artist in Contemporary African-American Drama". Arizona Quarterly 48.1 (Spring 1992):107.
9. Allen Guttman, "Integration and "Black Nationalism" in the Plays of Loraine Hansberry". American Drama and Theater in the 20th Century. Edas. Alfred Webber and Sigfried Newweiler (Gottingen:Vandenhoeck and Puprecht,1975):248.
10. Ossie Davis, "The Significance of Loraine Hansberry". Freedomways,5.3. (1965):397.
11. Douglas Turner Ward, "Loraine Hansberry and the Passion of Walter Lee". Freedomways 19.4 (1979):233.
12. Thomas Allen Greenfield, Work and the Work Ethic in American Drama.1920—1970 (Columbia, Mo:U and Missouri Press,1982),131.
13. Sharon Friedman, "Feminism as Theme in Twentieth Century Women's Drama". American Studies 35.1 (1984):69.
14. Steven R Carter, "Images of Men in Lorraine Hansberry's Writing". Black American Literature Forum 19.4(1985):160.
15. Sheri Parks, "In my Mother's House:Black Feminist Aesthetics, Television and A Raisin in the Sun". Theater and Feminist Aesthetics. Eds. Karen Laughlin, Catherine Schuler (Madison:Faileigh Dickinson University Press,1995),200.
16. Brenda F Berrian, "The Afro-American-West African Marriage Question:Ita Literary and Historical Contexts". Women in African Literature Today. Ed. Durosimi Jones (Trenton: African World,1987),152.
17. Robert Nemiroff, "Forword". A Raisin in the sun and the Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window (New York:Plume,1987), ix.
18. Brooks Atkinson, "A Raisin in the Sun". New York Times.12, March (1959):121.
19. Henry Hewes, "A Plant Grows in Chicago". Saturday Review.4, April, (1959):28.
20. Richard Arnow, "Juicy Raisin". Jewish Currents 18.8 (September.1959):38-39.
21. Ziegenhals Gretchen E, "The World in Walker's Eye". Christian Century 105 (1988): 1037.
22. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),22.
23. Walker Alice, In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),15-16.
24. John Code, Interviews with Black Writers (New York:Liveright.2000),236.
25. Allen Shockley Mclaughin, Afro-American Women Writers:An Anthology and Critical Guide (Boston:G. K. Hall and Co.1988),170.
26. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),14.
27. Alice Walker In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),15.
28. Anne Hine, Lorraine Hansberr. (Boston:Twyane,1984),17.
29. Sheri Parks, In my Mother's House:Black Feminist Aesthetics, Television and A Raisin in the Sun (Madison:Faileigh Dickinson University Press,1995),196.
30. Lorraine Hansberry, To Be Young, Gifted, and Black:Lorraine Hansberry in Her Own Words (New York:New American Library,1970),76.
31. Margaret Wilkerson, "Introduction" to Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Play. (New York:Twayne Publisher,1994),56.
32. Margaret Wilkerson, Introduction to Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Plays (New York:Twayne Publisher,1994),57.
33. Alice Walker. In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Pro. (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),19.
34. Lorraine Hansberry, A Raisin in the Su. (New York:Random House:1959),26 (All the quotations in this thesis refer to this book, unless otherwise stated.)
35. Iibid.61.
36. Ibid.41.
37. Ibid.82.
38. Ibid.62.
39. Ibid.63.
40. Ibid.12.
41. Ibid.11.
42. Ibid.31.
43. Ibid.44.
44. Ibid.26.
45. Ibid.27.
46. Anne Cheney, Lorraine Hansberry (Boston:G K. Hall & Company,1984),60-Ⅰ.
47. Ibid.86.
48. Ibid.61.
49. Ibid.68.
50. Ibid.12.
51. Ibid.11.
52. Ibid.25.
53. Ibid.16.
54. Ibid.29.
55. Ibid.63.
56. Ibid.87.
57. Ibid.65.
58. Elizabeth Brown-Guillory, Their Place on the Stage:Black Women Playwrights in Americ (Westport, CT:Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated.1988),135.
59. Elizabeth Brown-Guillory, Their Place on the Stage:Black Women Playwrights in Americ (Westport, CT:Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated.1988),143.
60. Elizabeth Brown-Guillory, Their Place on the Stage:Black Women Playwrights in Americ (Westport, CT:Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated.1988),135,148.
61. Eleanor Engram, Science, myth, reality:the Black family in one-half century of research (Westport, Conn:Greenwood Press,1982),37.
62. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought:Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York:Rutledge,1990),119.
63. Eleanor Engram, Science, myth, reality:the Black family in one-half century of research. (Westport, Conn:Greenwood Press,1982),87.
64.Ibid.65.
65. Margaret Wilkerson, A Raisin in the Sun:Anniversary of an American Classic (Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1986),451.
66. Ibid.135.
67. Ibid.68.
68. Ibid.37.
69. Ibid.81.
70. Ibid.81.
71. Ibid.66.
72. Ibid.49.
73. Ibid.63.
74. Ibid.64.
75. Ibid.65.
76. Margaret Wilkerson, "Introduction", Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Plays. Ed. Robert Nemiroff (New York::Vintage Books,1994),11.
77. Ibid.39.
78. Ibid.129.
79. Ibid.27.
80. Ibid.27.
81. Ibid.28.
82. Ibid.33.
83. Ibid.27-28.
84. Ibid.41.
85. Paul Carter Harrison, The Drama of Nommo:Black Theater in the African Continuum (New York:Grove Press.1972),56-57.
86. Lorraine Hansberry, "The Negro Writer and His Roots:Toward a New Romanticism". The Black Scholar 12 (Feb.1981):7.
87. Ibid.105.
88. Ibid.133.
89. Ibid.122.
90. Ibid.53.
91. Ibid.110.
92. Annette T. Rubinstein, American Literature Root and Flower (Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,1988),716.
93. Ibid.106.
94. Ibid.77.
95. Ibid.78.
96. Ibid.79.
97. Annette T. Rubinstein. American Literature Root and Flower (Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,1988),663-664.
98. Ibid.33.
99. Ibid.45.
100. Steven R Cater, Hansberry's Drama:Commitment amid Complexity (Urbana:University of Illinois Press,1991),41.
101. Toni Morrison, "The Ancestor as Foundation". American Literary Criticism,1773 to 2000. Ed. Hazel Arnett Ervin (New York:Oxford University Press,1987),202.
102. Claudia Tate, Ed. Black Women Writers at Work (New York:Continuum,1983),88.
103. Evelyn C White, Alice Walker:A Life (New York:W.W. Norton and Company,2004), 168.
104. Madhu Dubey, Black Women Novelists and the Nationalist Aesthetic. (Bloomington: Indian University Press,1994),128.
105. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mother's Garden:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.1983),252.
106. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought:Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment (New York:Rutledge,1990),154.
107 Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought:Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment (New York:Rutledge,1990),155.
108. Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press, USA.1991:230.
109. Lorraine Hansberry, Unpublished transcript of an interview with Studs Terkel.12, May, 1959. "Fearful of the written word":white fear, black writing, and lorraine hansberry's a raisin in the sun screenplay, Lisbeth Lipari, Quarterly Journal of Speech, Volume 90, Issue 1 February 2004:81-102.
110. Lorraine Hansberry, "In Defense of the Equality of Men". Ed. Susan Gubar. The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women (New York and London:W. W. Norton & Company. 1996),435.
111. Lorraine Hansberry, "Simone de Beauvoir and the Second Sex:An American Commentary". Ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall (New York:New Press,1995),132.
112. Lorraine Hansberry, "In Defense of the Equality of Men". Ed. Susan Gubar. The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women (New York and London:W. W. Norton & Company. 1996),435.
113. Ibid.13.
114. Ibid.89.
115. Ibid.17.
116. Ibid.13.
117. Ibid.74.
118. Ibid.58.
119. Ibid.59-60.
120. Ibid.34.
121. Ibid.36.
122. Ibid.139.
123. Ibid.143.
124. Ibid.152.
125. Ibid.153.
126. Ibid.155.
127. Ibid.127.
128. Ibid.74.
129. Ibid.130.
130. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mothers'Gardens:Womanist Prose (Rothenberg: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),13.
131. Margaret Wilkerson, Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Plays. Ed. Robert Nemiroff (New York:New American Library,1983),8.
132. Margaret Wilkerson, Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Plays. Ed. Robert Nemiroff (New York:New American Library,1983),8-9.
133. Robert Nemiroff, Ed. To be Young, Gifted and Black:Lorraine Hansberry in Her Own Words (New York:New American Library,1969), ⅹⅹ-ⅹⅹⅰ.
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1. Lindsay Patterson, Black Theatre (New York:Columbia University Press,1971),345.
2. Jean Bond, "The Negro Woman in American Literature", Freedomways 8 (2004):7
3. Steven R. Carter, Hansberry's Drama:Commitment amid Complexity (University of Illinois Press:Urbana,1991),19.
4. Interview in New York Times, March 8,1959.
5. Steven R. Carter, Hansberry's Drama:Commitment amid Complexity (University of Illinois Press:Urbana,1991),86.
6. Steven R. Carter, Hansberry's Drama:Commitment amid Complexity (University of Illinois Press:Urbana,1991),57.
7. James C Mckelly, "Hymns of Sedition:Portraits of the Artist in Contemporary African-American Drama". Arizona Quarterly 48.1 (Spring 1992),87.
8. James C Mckelly, "Hymns of Sedition:Portraits of the Artist in Contemporary African-American Drama". Arizona Quarterly 48.1 (Spring 1992):107.
9. Allen Guttman, "Integration and "Black Nationalism" in the Plays of Loraine Hansberry". American Drama and Theater in the 20th Century. Edas. Alfred Webber and Sigfried Newweiler (Gottingen:Vandenhoeck and Puprecht,1975):248.
10. Ossie Davis, "The Significance of Loraine Hansberry". Freedomways,5.3. (1965):397.
11. Douglas Turner Ward, "Loraine Hansberry and the Passion of Walter Lee". Freedomways 19.4 (1979):233.
12. Thomas Allen Greenfield, Work and the Work Ethic in American Drama.1920—1970 (Columbia, Mo:U and Missouri Press,1982),131.
13. Sharon Friedman, "Feminism as Theme in Twentieth Century Women's Drama". American Studies 35.1 (1984):69.
14. Steven R Carter, "Images of Men in Lorraine Hansberry's Writing". Black American Literature Forum 19.4(1985):160.
15. Sheri Parks, "In my Mother's House:Black Feminist Aesthetics, Television and A Raisin in the Sun". Theater and Feminist Aesthetics. Eds. Karen Laughlin, Catherine Schuler (Madison:Faileigh Dickinson University Press,1995),200.
16. Brenda F Berrian, "The Afro-American-West African Marriage Question:Ita Literary and Historical Contexts". Women in African Literature Today. Ed. Durosimi Jones (Trenton: African World,1987),152.
17. Robert Nemiroff, "Forword". A Raisin in the sun and the Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window (New York:Plume,1987), ix.
18. Brooks Atkinson, "A Raisin in the Sun". New York Times.12, March (1959):121.
19. Henry Hewes, "A Plant Grows in Chicago". Saturday Review.4, April, (1959):28.
20. Richard Arnow, "Juicy Raisin". Jewish Currents 18.8 (September.1959):38-39.
21. Ziegenhals Gretchen E, "The World in Walker's Eye". Christian Century 105 (1988): 1037.
22. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),22.
23. Walker Alice, In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),15-16.
24. John Code, Interviews with Black Writers (New York:Liveright.2000),236.
25. Allen Shockley Mclaughin, Afro-American Women Writers:An Anthology and Critical Guide (Boston:G. K. Hall and Co.1988),170.
26. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),14.
27. Alice Walker In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),15.
28. Anne Hine, Lorraine Hansberr. (Boston:Twyane,1984),17.
29. Sheri Parks, In my Mother's House:Black Feminist Aesthetics, Television and A Raisin in the Sun (Madison:Faileigh Dickinson University Press,1995),196.
30. Lorraine Hansberry, To Be Young, Gifted, and Black:Lorraine Hansberry in Her Own Words (New York:New American Library,1970),76.
31. Margaret Wilkerson, "Introduction" to Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Play. (New York:Twayne Publisher,1994),56.
32. Margaret Wilkerson, Introduction to Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Plays (New York:Twayne Publisher,1994),57.
33. Alice Walker. In Search of Our Mother's Gardens:Womanist Pro. (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),19.
34. Lorraine Hansberry, A Raisin in the Su. (New York:Random House:1959),26 (All the quotations in this thesis refer to this book, unless otherwise stated.)
35. Iibid.61.
36. Ibid.41.
37. Ibid.82.
38. Ibid.62.
39. Ibid.63.
40. Ibid.12.
41. Ibid.11.
42. Ibid.31.
43. Ibid.44.
44. Ibid.26.
45. Ibid.27.
46. Anne Cheney, Lorraine Hansberry (Boston:G K. Hall & Company,1984),60-Ⅰ.
47. Ibid.86.
48. Ibid.61.
49. Ibid.68.
50. Ibid.12.
51. Ibid.11.
52. Ibid.25.
53. Ibid.16.
54. Ibid.29.
55. Ibid.63.
56. Ibid.87.
57. Ibid.65.
58. Elizabeth Brown-Guillory, Their Place on the Stage:Black Women Playwrights in Americ (Westport, CT:Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated.1988),135.
59. Elizabeth Brown-Guillory, Their Place on the Stage:Black Women Playwrights in Americ (Westport, CT:Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated.1988),143.
60. Elizabeth Brown-Guillory, Their Place on the Stage:Black Women Playwrights in Americ (Westport, CT:Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated.1988),135,148.
61. Eleanor Engram, Science, myth, reality:the Black family in one-half century of research (Westport, Conn:Greenwood Press,1982),37.
62. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought:Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (New York:Rutledge,1990),119.
63. Eleanor Engram, Science, myth, reality:the Black family in one-half century of research. (Westport, Conn:Greenwood Press,1982),87.
64.Ibid.65.
65. Margaret Wilkerson, A Raisin in the Sun:Anniversary of an American Classic (Baltimore and London:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1986),451.
66. Ibid.135.
67. Ibid.68.
68. Ibid.37.
69. Ibid.81.
70. Ibid.81.
71. Ibid.66.
72. Ibid.49.
73. Ibid.63.
74. Ibid.64.
75. Ibid.65.
76. Margaret Wilkerson, "Introduction", Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Plays. Ed. Robert Nemiroff (New York::Vintage Books,1994),11.
77. Ibid.39.
78. Ibid.129.
79. Ibid.27.
80. Ibid.27.
81. Ibid.28.
82. Ibid.33.
83. Ibid.27-28.
84. Ibid.41.
85. Paul Carter Harrison, The Drama of Nommo:Black Theater in the African Continuum (New York:Grove Press.1972),56-57.
86. Lorraine Hansberry, "The Negro Writer and His Roots:Toward a New Romanticism". The Black Scholar 12 (Feb.1981):7.
87. Ibid.105.
88. Ibid.133.
89. Ibid.122.
90. Ibid.53.
91. Ibid.110.
92. Annette T. Rubinstein, American Literature Root and Flower (Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,1988),716.
93. Ibid.106.
94. Ibid.77.
95. Ibid.78.
96. Ibid.79.
97. Annette T. Rubinstein. American Literature Root and Flower (Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,1988),663-664.
98. Ibid.33.
99. Ibid.45.
100. Steven R Cater, Hansberry's Drama:Commitment amid Complexity (Urbana:University of Illinois Press,1991),41.
101. Toni Morrison, "The Ancestor as Foundation". American Literary Criticism,1773 to 2000. Ed. Hazel Arnett Ervin (New York:Oxford University Press,1987),202.
102. Claudia Tate, Ed. Black Women Writers at Work (New York:Continuum,1983),88.
103. Evelyn C White, Alice Walker:A Life (New York:W.W. Norton and Company,2004), 168.
104. Madhu Dubey, Black Women Novelists and the Nationalist Aesthetic. (Bloomington: Indian University Press,1994),128.
105. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mother's Garden:Womanist Prose (New York:Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.1983),252.
106. Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought:Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment (New York:Rutledge,1990),154.
107 Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought:Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment (New York:Rutledge,1990),155.
108. Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press, USA.1991:230.
109. Lorraine Hansberry, Unpublished transcript of an interview with Studs Terkel.12, May, 1959. "Fearful of the written word":white fear, black writing, and lorraine hansberry's a raisin in the sun screenplay, Lisbeth Lipari, Quarterly Journal of Speech, Volume 90, Issue 1 February 2004:81-102.
110. Lorraine Hansberry, "In Defense of the Equality of Men". Ed. Susan Gubar. The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women (New York and London:W. W. Norton & Company. 1996),435.
111. Lorraine Hansberry, "Simone de Beauvoir and the Second Sex:An American Commentary". Ed. Beverly Guy-Sheftall (New York:New Press,1995),132.
112. Lorraine Hansberry, "In Defense of the Equality of Men". Ed. Susan Gubar. The Norton Anthology of Literature by Women (New York and London:W. W. Norton & Company. 1996),435.
113. Ibid.13.
114. Ibid.89.
115. Ibid.17.
116. Ibid.13.
117. Ibid.74.
118. Ibid.58.
119. Ibid.59-60.
120. Ibid.34.
121. Ibid.36.
122. Ibid.139.
123. Ibid.143.
124. Ibid.152.
125. Ibid.153.
126. Ibid.155.
127. Ibid.127.
128. Ibid.74.
129. Ibid.130.
130. Alice Walker, In Search of Our Mothers'Gardens:Womanist Prose (Rothenberg: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1983),13.
131. Margaret Wilkerson, Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Plays. Ed. Robert Nemiroff (New York:New American Library,1983),8.
132. Margaret Wilkerson, Lorraine Hansberry:The Collected Last Plays. Ed. Robert Nemiroff (New York:New American Library,1983),8-9.
133. Robert Nemiroff, Ed. To be Young, Gifted and Black:Lorraine Hansberry in Her Own Words (New York:New American Library,1969), ⅹⅹ-ⅹⅹⅰ.