差分干涉雷达技术用于不连续形变的监测研究
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摘要
合成孔径雷达干涉测量(Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry，InSAR)及差分InSAR(D-InSAR)技术是近十几年来发展非常迅速的微波遥感技术。由于它具有全天候、全天时、覆盖面广和高精度获取地表信息的能力，因而在地球科学的诸多领域如地震、火山、矿区塌陷、地面沉降、滑坡、冰川等灾害中逐渐得到了广泛的应用。在诸多灾害中多数表现为不连续形变，如地震、火山等构造断裂带形变、城市活动地裂缝、矿区塌陷裂缝、滑坡、冰川活动等。因此专门研究不连续形变的监测理论与技术方法对于灾害机理的精确解释、防灾减灾以及防治有着重要的科学意义和实用价值。
不连续形变监测的主要内容包括不连续形变区域的定位和不连续形变量的获取，这将分别用于灾害的定性和定量研究。根据不连续形变灾害的表现形式、影响范围和形变量级等不同特征，本文将其分三类来研究：(1)地震构造断裂：其延伸长度很长，形变影响宽度达公里级，且断裂带两侧形变的差异达米级；(2)城市地裂缝：其空间延伸长度相对较短，分布具有方向性，形变的影响宽度较窄，地裂缝两侧的形变差异也较小；(3)矿区塌陷裂缝：其空间分布的规模更小，一般呈规律曲线展布，但其塌陷的量级却很大。本文针对上述三类不连续形变在其不连续区域定位与监测两方面开展了理论和应用试验研究，其研究内容主要包括：
第一，分析了差分干涉雷达技术用于形变监测的原理、方法以及数据处理过程中的主要误差源、影响量级及其减弱措施。在干涉图噪音减弱方面重点提出了干涉图的迭代自适应滤波算法，并采用模拟干涉图和实际SAR干涉图分别进行了验证。
第二，重点研究了不连续形变区域定位的不同方法。对于活动地震构造断裂带的定位采用基于SAR强度图的偏移量信息来进行，并以1997年西藏玛尼地震为例进行了试验分析。对于城市地裂缝和矿区塌陷裂缝则首次提出采用差分干涉图的伪相干图来进行定位，分析了伪相干图进行地裂缝不连续形变区域定位的理论基础和定位步骤，并分别选取西安地裂缝和陕北煤矿塌陷进行了实例验证。为了实现对小规模的地裂缝监测以及提高地裂缝定位的绝对精度，首次对用于地裂缝监测的人工角反射器(CR)进行探测试验，分析了CR探测的方法以及用于地理编码精度评定的方法，并将其用于西安地裂缝定位试验中。
第三，针对不连续形变的不同特征，研究了不连续形变监测的三类方法。(1)对于地震构造断裂带附近的形变，采用基于偏移量信息来进行提取，并与常规差分InSAR监测形变进行了有效互补和组合，获取更全面的形变特征，同样以玛尼地震为例进行了实验分析；(2)对于矿区塌陷的监测，提出采用全分辨率干涉的方法来提高InSAR形变监测梯度的能力，并以陕北煤矿塌陷监测为例与常规多视监测进行了比较分析；(3)对于城市地裂缝形变监测，通过采用L波段的ALOS／PALSAR数据进行干涉计算以提高形变梯度的监测能力，这里重点提出了改进的基于地面控制点的基线精化方法，以及DEM精度对形变的影响，最后以西安地区2007-2008年内的ALOS／PALSAR和Envisat干涉组合进行了比较分析。
第四，为减弱大气效应、计算误差等随机误差对差分干涉形变结果的影响，本文研究了采用干涉图堆叠技术(Stacking Interferograms)来提取线性形变速率的方法。采用西安地区2005—2006年间的SAR干涉图进行堆叠试验，并与同期GPS监测成果进行了比较分析，其监测精度优于1cm／a。
第五，综合采用ERS、Envisat数据对西安地区1992-2008年间的地裂缝进行了时序分析，获取了西安地区地裂缝的时空发育特征信息。
通过以上理论研究和大量的模拟和实例分析，本文在采用差分InSAR技术进行不连续形变研究中取得了以下主要成果及创新点：
1、相位噪音是InSAR测量的一项主要误差，本文提出采用基于伪相干图的迭代自适应滤波算法。由于该算法能合理地确定滤波参数，从模拟和实际SAR干涉试验均验证了该方法比Goldstain滤波及其改进的Baran滤波两种方法的滤波效果更好；
2、在不连续形变定位方面：针对不同类型的不连续形变需要采取不同的定位方法。对于大范围、大形变梯度的地震构造断裂可以采用精密配准偏移量信息进行高精度定位；对于城市活动地裂缝和矿区塌陷裂缝首次提出采用差分干涉的伪相干图来精确定位与提取，并且通过分析不同期的伪相干图可以揭示地裂缝的时空活动特征。对于较小尺度的地裂缝监测研究采用人工角反射器技术，基于强度信息的CR定位技术与GPS融合可用于对InSAR地理编码进行精度评定；
3、在不连续形变监测方面，提出了三类监测或改进方法。第一，对于地震构造断裂附近的形变采用基于偏移量信息来获取形变，并与常规差分InSAR成果进行互补，从而获取更为全面的形变信息；第二，提出采用全分辨率干涉法来提高差分InSAR监测形变梯度的能力，这里又可分为单干涉图的全分辨率干涉法和基于强相干点的多干涉图形变提取方法。前者在陕北补连塔煤矿塌陷监测中获取了常规多视差分难以监测到的形变量；第三，针对L波段的ALOS／PALSAR进行差分干涉时基线残差效应的问题，本文提出一种改进的基于地面控制点的基线精化方法。在西安地裂缝监测中通过与同期GPS成果比较，经基线改正后的ALOS InSAR监测精度为2cm／a；
4、干涉图堆叠技术能有效地减弱差分干涉中随机误差的影响，从而提高InSAR监测形变的精度。在西安地裂缝监测中，采用该方法获取了2005—2006年间西安地区活动地裂缝的形变特征，通过与GPS监测成果比较，其精度优于1cm／a，并首次发现一些新的地裂缝活动现象；
5、采用InSAR技术综合研究了西安地区1992-2008年间的地裂缝灾害活动特征，即1996年是西安地区地裂缝范围最广且活动最剧烈的时间段，包括f3-f11九条地裂缝均为活动地裂缝，而2000年以后，活动地裂缝主要集中在位于西安市南郊的f10和f11，且在西安市现有地裂缝的南部又出现了新的地裂缝如f12、f13和f14，该成果与工程地质调查结论具有很强的一致性。
In recent decades, interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) and differentialInSAR techniques are rapidly developed microwave techniques, which have been widelyapplied in earth science especially in surface deformation monitoring for their all- weatherconditions, day and night working, large coverage and high precision characteristics, such asthe monitoring of earthquake, volcano, mine collapse, land subsidence, landslide and glacieretc. which can greatly support the explanation, forecasting and mitigation of these geo-hazards.In fact, most of these geo-hazards mentioned above are discontinuous deformationin spatial domain, such as the fault of earthquake and volcano, ground fissures in urban areaand mine spot, the boundary of landslide and glacier etc. So it is essential to research thetheories and methods of the discontinuous deformation monitoring among the D-InSARapplications, which have great scientific and practical values for the fine explanation,mitigation and forecasting of such hazards.
The main research of discontinuous deformation monitoring includes the positioningand monitoring of the discontinuous deformation, which are related to the qualitatively andquantitatively research of these geo-hazards respectively. According to the differentcharacteristics of discontinuous deformation, such as fissure length and shape, influencedwidth and deformation magnitude, this paper devides them into three parts as (1) Earthquakefault, with longer than 100 kilometers in length, up to several kilometers influenced widthand meter-scale deformation near fault; (2) Urban fissures, with maximum length about tenskilometers, the influenced width is between the magnitude of meters and 100 meters, and thedifference deformation across the ground fissure is about centimeters; (3) Mine collapsefissure, short fissures in length and always with regular shapes, and large subsidencemagnitude, some of them are larger than one meter. So this paper mainly focuses on thesethree kinds of deformation to analyze their positioning and monitoring theories and methodsas follows:
Firstly, the principle, data processing flow, main errors, influenced magnitudes andmitigation measurements are analyzed. And the iteratively adaptive filtering algorithm ofinterferogram is deduced, which is verified with simulated and real SAR interferogramsrespectively.
Secondly, the positioning methods of discontinuous deformation are mainly researched.The offset map based on the fine registration of master and slave SAR images is applied to detect the position of earthquake fault. The Manyi (Tibet) earthquake in 1997 is tested. Thepseudo-coherence map of filtered differential interferogram is applied to detect the groundfissure in urban and mine subsidence regions, where rationale and method are introduced.Xian ground fissure and Shaanbei mine subsidence are taken as examples. Still in order toincrease the positioning ability of small scale ground fissures and the absolute precision ofground fissure, some pre- installed Comer Reflectors (CR) are detected from Envisat ASARmagnitude images in Xian. And the method to evaluate the geocoding precision is pointedout with the fusion of CR and GPS techniques.
Thirdly, three methods are pointed out for the discontinuous deformation monitoring as:(1) the deformation deduced from the offset maps can be used to monitor the deformationnear the earthquake fault, which can be well complementary to the conventional D-InSARresult at coherent region and provide a whole deformation map. Meanwhile Manyiearthquake is tested; (2) The full resolution interferogram is researched for mine collapsemonitoring. This method is preliminarily tested with Shaanbei mine subsidence; the result iscompared with traditional multi-looked InSAR result. (3) For the urban ground fissuresmonitoring, the L band SAR data as ALOS/PALSAR are applied to increase the monitoringability of InSAR deformation gradient, where the refined baseline estimation based onground control points (GCP) is mainly pointed out and the external DEM errors are alsodiscussed to increase the reliabilities of ALOS interferometry. Xian ground fissuredeformation in 2007-2008 is tested with ALOS/PALSAR and Envisat data.
Fourthly, in order to mitigate the stochastic errors, such as atmospheric effect andprocessing errors, the stacking interferograms method is studied, and the linear subsidencerate and its RMS (root mean square) are calculated. Xian land subsidence during 2005 to2006 is tested using several interferograms, and the results are also calibrated with GPSresults during thesame period, and the InSAR precision is better than 1 cm/a.
Lastly, ERS and Envisat data are applied to demonstrate the spatio-temporal landsubsidence and ground fissures evolution during 1992 to 2008.
So, from the above research, the following conclusions can be drawn for thediscontinuous positioning and monitoring by applying the differential SAR interferometry:
1、Phase noise is a key error for InSAR measurement, and the iteratively adaptivefiltering algorithm deduced in this thesis is a better algorithm than Goldstein and its modifiedform for its rational filter parameters determination. The simulated and real SARinterferograms verified this.
2、As for the positioning of discontinuous deformation, it should be taken differentmeasurements, exactly to say, the offset map based on fine corregistration can be applied forthe earthquake fault positioning and orientation for its large scale in length and greatdeformation gradient. Whereas the pseudo-coherence map of differential interferogram canbe well used to detect the urban ground fissures and mine subsidence edge. Meanwhile thepseudo-coherence maps in different acquisition times can also show evident spatio-temporalcharacteristics of land fissures. As for the positioning of small scale ground fissures, CRtechnique can be applied, which can also be used to evaluate the InSAR geocoding precisionby fusing with GPS.
3、As for the discontinuous deformation monitoring three new or modified methods arepointed out. Firstly, the displacement from offset maps is applied complementary for themonitoring of the deformation near the earthquake fault, which can supply a wholedeformation map. Manyi earthquake (Mw =7.9) in 8 Nov. 1997 is tested. Secondly, the fullresolution interferogram can increase the deformation gradient monitoring ability, which canalso be divided into two different methods as single interferogram and multi-interferogramsbased on coherent points. The former on is verified with Shaanbei Bulianta mine monitoringtest, and more subsidence is achieved than traditional method. Thirdly, during the L bandALSO/PALSAR data interferometric processing, the baseline estimation error is greatlymitigated with refined baseline estimation method based on GCPs. And about 2cm/adeformation precision are achieved from the two-pass ALOS interferometric processing bycomparing with GPS results in the same time spanning.
4、The stacking interferograms can effectively mitigate the stochastic errors, such asatmospheric effect and data processing errors, which can eventually increase the precision ofdeformation results. This method is applied for Xian ground fissure monitoring during 2005-2006, better than 1cm/a precision is achieved by comparing with GPS measurements andsome new fissures activities are firstly discovered.
5、Lastly, differential interferometric method is applied to demonstrate spatio-temporalevolution of Xian ground fissures during 1992 to 2008, and some conclusions can be drawnas: the year of 1996 is the historically most active for ground fissure activities, in whichnearly 9 fissures as f3 to f11 in Xian have been detected as active fissures, while after 2000,the active fissures are mainly moved to f10 and f11, meanwhile three new fissures as f12,f13 and f14 came into being to south of Xian city, which are highly consistent with GPSresults and in-situ geological reconnaissance results.
不连续形变监测的主要内容包括不连续形变区域的定位和不连续形变量的获取，这将分别用于灾害的定性和定量研究。根据不连续形变灾害的表现形式、影响范围和形变量级等不同特征，本文将其分三类来研究：(1)地震构造断裂：其延伸长度很长，形变影响宽度达公里级，且断裂带两侧形变的差异达米级；(2)城市地裂缝：其空间延伸长度相对较短，分布具有方向性，形变的影响宽度较窄，地裂缝两侧的形变差异也较小；(3)矿区塌陷裂缝：其空间分布的规模更小，一般呈规律曲线展布，但其塌陷的量级却很大。本文针对上述三类不连续形变在其不连续区域定位与监测两方面开展了理论和应用试验研究，其研究内容主要包括：
第一，分析了差分干涉雷达技术用于形变监测的原理、方法以及数据处理过程中的主要误差源、影响量级及其减弱措施。在干涉图噪音减弱方面重点提出了干涉图的迭代自适应滤波算法，并采用模拟干涉图和实际SAR干涉图分别进行了验证。
第二，重点研究了不连续形变区域定位的不同方法。对于活动地震构造断裂带的定位采用基于SAR强度图的偏移量信息来进行，并以1997年西藏玛尼地震为例进行了试验分析。对于城市地裂缝和矿区塌陷裂缝则首次提出采用差分干涉图的伪相干图来进行定位，分析了伪相干图进行地裂缝不连续形变区域定位的理论基础和定位步骤，并分别选取西安地裂缝和陕北煤矿塌陷进行了实例验证。为了实现对小规模的地裂缝监测以及提高地裂缝定位的绝对精度，首次对用于地裂缝监测的人工角反射器(CR)进行探测试验，分析了CR探测的方法以及用于地理编码精度评定的方法，并将其用于西安地裂缝定位试验中。
第三，针对不连续形变的不同特征，研究了不连续形变监测的三类方法。(1)对于地震构造断裂带附近的形变，采用基于偏移量信息来进行提取，并与常规差分InSAR监测形变进行了有效互补和组合，获取更全面的形变特征，同样以玛尼地震为例进行了实验分析；(2)对于矿区塌陷的监测，提出采用全分辨率干涉的方法来提高InSAR形变监测梯度的能力，并以陕北煤矿塌陷监测为例与常规多视监测进行了比较分析；(3)对于城市地裂缝形变监测，通过采用L波段的ALOS／PALSAR数据进行干涉计算以提高形变梯度的监测能力，这里重点提出了改进的基于地面控制点的基线精化方法，以及DEM精度对形变的影响，最后以西安地区2007-2008年内的ALOS／PALSAR和Envisat干涉组合进行了比较分析。
第四，为减弱大气效应、计算误差等随机误差对差分干涉形变结果的影响，本文研究了采用干涉图堆叠技术(Stacking Interferograms)来提取线性形变速率的方法。采用西安地区2005—2006年间的SAR干涉图进行堆叠试验，并与同期GPS监测成果进行了比较分析，其监测精度优于1cm／a。
第五，综合采用ERS、Envisat数据对西安地区1992-2008年间的地裂缝进行了时序分析，获取了西安地区地裂缝的时空发育特征信息。
通过以上理论研究和大量的模拟和实例分析，本文在采用差分InSAR技术进行不连续形变研究中取得了以下主要成果及创新点：
1、相位噪音是InSAR测量的一项主要误差，本文提出采用基于伪相干图的迭代自适应滤波算法。由于该算法能合理地确定滤波参数，从模拟和实际SAR干涉试验均验证了该方法比Goldstain滤波及其改进的Baran滤波两种方法的滤波效果更好；
2、在不连续形变定位方面：针对不同类型的不连续形变需要采取不同的定位方法。对于大范围、大形变梯度的地震构造断裂可以采用精密配准偏移量信息进行高精度定位；对于城市活动地裂缝和矿区塌陷裂缝首次提出采用差分干涉的伪相干图来精确定位与提取，并且通过分析不同期的伪相干图可以揭示地裂缝的时空活动特征。对于较小尺度的地裂缝监测研究采用人工角反射器技术，基于强度信息的CR定位技术与GPS融合可用于对InSAR地理编码进行精度评定；
3、在不连续形变监测方面，提出了三类监测或改进方法。第一，对于地震构造断裂附近的形变采用基于偏移量信息来获取形变，并与常规差分InSAR成果进行互补，从而获取更为全面的形变信息；第二，提出采用全分辨率干涉法来提高差分InSAR监测形变梯度的能力，这里又可分为单干涉图的全分辨率干涉法和基于强相干点的多干涉图形变提取方法。前者在陕北补连塔煤矿塌陷监测中获取了常规多视差分难以监测到的形变量；第三，针对L波段的ALOS／PALSAR进行差分干涉时基线残差效应的问题，本文提出一种改进的基于地面控制点的基线精化方法。在西安地裂缝监测中通过与同期GPS成果比较，经基线改正后的ALOS InSAR监测精度为2cm／a；
4、干涉图堆叠技术能有效地减弱差分干涉中随机误差的影响，从而提高InSAR监测形变的精度。在西安地裂缝监测中，采用该方法获取了2005—2006年间西安地区活动地裂缝的形变特征，通过与GPS监测成果比较，其精度优于1cm／a，并首次发现一些新的地裂缝活动现象；
5、采用InSAR技术综合研究了西安地区1992-2008年间的地裂缝灾害活动特征，即1996年是西安地区地裂缝范围最广且活动最剧烈的时间段，包括f3-f11九条地裂缝均为活动地裂缝，而2000年以后，活动地裂缝主要集中在位于西安市南郊的f10和f11，且在西安市现有地裂缝的南部又出现了新的地裂缝如f12、f13和f14，该成果与工程地质调查结论具有很强的一致性。
In recent decades, interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) and differentialInSAR techniques are rapidly developed microwave techniques, which have been widelyapplied in earth science especially in surface deformation monitoring for their all- weatherconditions, day and night working, large coverage and high precision characteristics, such asthe monitoring of earthquake, volcano, mine collapse, land subsidence, landslide and glacieretc. which can greatly support the explanation, forecasting and mitigation of these geo-hazards.In fact, most of these geo-hazards mentioned above are discontinuous deformationin spatial domain, such as the fault of earthquake and volcano, ground fissures in urban areaand mine spot, the boundary of landslide and glacier etc. So it is essential to research thetheories and methods of the discontinuous deformation monitoring among the D-InSARapplications, which have great scientific and practical values for the fine explanation,mitigation and forecasting of such hazards.
The main research of discontinuous deformation monitoring includes the positioningand monitoring of the discontinuous deformation, which are related to the qualitatively andquantitatively research of these geo-hazards respectively. According to the differentcharacteristics of discontinuous deformation, such as fissure length and shape, influencedwidth and deformation magnitude, this paper devides them into three parts as (1) Earthquakefault, with longer than 100 kilometers in length, up to several kilometers influenced widthand meter-scale deformation near fault; (2) Urban fissures, with maximum length about tenskilometers, the influenced width is between the magnitude of meters and 100 meters, and thedifference deformation across the ground fissure is about centimeters; (3) Mine collapsefissure, short fissures in length and always with regular shapes, and large subsidencemagnitude, some of them are larger than one meter. So this paper mainly focuses on thesethree kinds of deformation to analyze their positioning and monitoring theories and methodsas follows:
Firstly, the principle, data processing flow, main errors, influenced magnitudes andmitigation measurements are analyzed. And the iteratively adaptive filtering algorithm ofinterferogram is deduced, which is verified with simulated and real SAR interferogramsrespectively.
Secondly, the positioning methods of discontinuous deformation are mainly researched.The offset map based on the fine registration of master and slave SAR images is applied to detect the position of earthquake fault. The Manyi (Tibet) earthquake in 1997 is tested. Thepseudo-coherence map of filtered differential interferogram is applied to detect the groundfissure in urban and mine subsidence regions, where rationale and method are introduced.Xian ground fissure and Shaanbei mine subsidence are taken as examples. Still in order toincrease the positioning ability of small scale ground fissures and the absolute precision ofground fissure, some pre- installed Comer Reflectors (CR) are detected from Envisat ASARmagnitude images in Xian. And the method to evaluate the geocoding precision is pointedout with the fusion of CR and GPS techniques.
Thirdly, three methods are pointed out for the discontinuous deformation monitoring as:(1) the deformation deduced from the offset maps can be used to monitor the deformationnear the earthquake fault, which can be well complementary to the conventional D-InSARresult at coherent region and provide a whole deformation map. Meanwhile Manyiearthquake is tested; (2) The full resolution interferogram is researched for mine collapsemonitoring. This method is preliminarily tested with Shaanbei mine subsidence; the result iscompared with traditional multi-looked InSAR result. (3) For the urban ground fissuresmonitoring, the L band SAR data as ALOS/PALSAR are applied to increase the monitoringability of InSAR deformation gradient, where the refined baseline estimation based onground control points (GCP) is mainly pointed out and the external DEM errors are alsodiscussed to increase the reliabilities of ALOS interferometry. Xian ground fissuredeformation in 2007-2008 is tested with ALOS/PALSAR and Envisat data.
Fourthly, in order to mitigate the stochastic errors, such as atmospheric effect andprocessing errors, the stacking interferograms method is studied, and the linear subsidencerate and its RMS (root mean square) are calculated. Xian land subsidence during 2005 to2006 is tested using several interferograms, and the results are also calibrated with GPSresults during thesame period, and the InSAR precision is better than 1 cm/a.
Lastly, ERS and Envisat data are applied to demonstrate the spatio-temporal landsubsidence and ground fissures evolution during 1992 to 2008.
So, from the above research, the following conclusions can be drawn for thediscontinuous positioning and monitoring by applying the differential SAR interferometry:
1、Phase noise is a key error for InSAR measurement, and the iteratively adaptivefiltering algorithm deduced in this thesis is a better algorithm than Goldstein and its modifiedform for its rational filter parameters determination. The simulated and real SARinterferograms verified this.
2、As for the positioning of discontinuous deformation, it should be taken differentmeasurements, exactly to say, the offset map based on fine corregistration can be applied forthe earthquake fault positioning and orientation for its large scale in length and greatdeformation gradient. Whereas the pseudo-coherence map of differential interferogram canbe well used to detect the urban ground fissures and mine subsidence edge. Meanwhile thepseudo-coherence maps in different acquisition times can also show evident spatio-temporalcharacteristics of land fissures. As for the positioning of small scale ground fissures, CRtechnique can be applied, which can also be used to evaluate the InSAR geocoding precisionby fusing with GPS.
3、As for the discontinuous deformation monitoring three new or modified methods arepointed out. Firstly, the displacement from offset maps is applied complementary for themonitoring of the deformation near the earthquake fault, which can supply a wholedeformation map. Manyi earthquake (Mw =7.9) in 8 Nov. 1997 is tested. Secondly, the fullresolution interferogram can increase the deformation gradient monitoring ability, which canalso be divided into two different methods as single interferogram and multi-interferogramsbased on coherent points. The former on is verified with Shaanbei Bulianta mine monitoringtest, and more subsidence is achieved than traditional method. Thirdly, during the L bandALSO/PALSAR data interferometric processing, the baseline estimation error is greatlymitigated with refined baseline estimation method based on GCPs. And about 2cm/adeformation precision are achieved from the two-pass ALOS interferometric processing bycomparing with GPS results in the same time spanning.
4、The stacking interferograms can effectively mitigate the stochastic errors, such asatmospheric effect and data processing errors, which can eventually increase the precision ofdeformation results. This method is applied for Xian ground fissure monitoring during 2005-2006, better than 1cm/a precision is achieved by comparing with GPS measurements andsome new fissures activities are firstly discovered.
5、Lastly, differential interferometric method is applied to demonstrate spatio-temporalevolution of Xian ground fissures during 1992 to 2008, and some conclusions can be drawnas: the year of 1996 is the historically most active for ground fissure activities, in whichnearly 9 fissures as f3 to f11 in Xian have been detected as active fissures, while after 2000,the active fissures are mainly moved to f10 and f11, meanwhile three new fissures as f12,f13 and f14 came into being to south of Xian city, which are highly consistent with GPSresults and in-situ geological reconnaissance results.
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