基于Web的空间本体构建方法研究
|
摘要
尽管过去的十年已有成熟的本体工程工具,手工获取空间本体依然是一个耗时、昂贵、高度技巧化,并且有时很麻烦的任务,很容易导致地理领域知识获取瓶颈。这些问题类似于过去二十年来知识工程师在知识获取方法学或定义知识库工作平台上处理过的问题。事实证明,数据挖掘和机器学习技术的整合对地理领域知识获取是有益的。如何利用知识获取技术来降低空间本体构建的开销的相关技术称为空间本体学习技术。空间本体学习即从现有的知识源获取地理领域知识、以(半)自动方式构建或更新空间本体。空间本体学习技术可以支持从Web上现有的数据中抽取空间本体。
作为互联网上最重要的应用之一,Web(万维网)提供了便捷的文档发布与获取机制,并逐步成为各类信息资源的聚集地。由于文本是Web上最丰富的资源,基于Web的本体学习技术的研究主要侧重于从自由文本中获取本体。自由文本依据一定的造句法表达特殊的语义,使得知识工程师可以基于一些背景知识来理解其中的含义。然而,由于缺乏一定的结构,要使机器能够自动地理解纯文本并从中抽取出所需要的知识,则必须利用自然语言处理(NLP)技术对其预处理,然后利用统计、机器学习等手段从中获取知识。基于Web的本体学习方法通常包括术语抽取,语义解释,和创建领域本体。对于基于Web的空间本体学习也包括这三个方面。过去空间本体的构建都是手工的从无到有,根据各自不同应用需求来建立本体,对本体的概念,关系及公理进行形式化的定义,借助各种的本体构建工具来构建本体并进行推理验证,以及对于本体的应用的研究：例如基于本体的空间搜索引擎。而对于从Web上抽取术语以构建空间本体,在其过程中的空间概念学习的语义歧义消除这一基础步骤的系统研究很少。本文试图从自然语言理解的方向着手,研究空间概念学习的语义解释的相关理论与技术；从方法论的角度实现对空间概念语义的深层理解,研究空间本体的构建。论文的创新点包括以下三个：
1.论文对自然语言词汇语义与空间信息词汇语义的联系与区别进行了系统的分析与研究,并对WordNet中的空间本体概念进行了细致的分析。
2.论文从语义解释的角度对空间信息词汇语义进行歧义消除,引入基于论旨角色标记体系理论,在此基础上采用选择限制、统计词义消歧等技术解决语义歧义问题。
3.为了实现从Web页面中自动抽取空间本体,论文提出了一个空间本体学习模型,该模型主要包括Web文档预处理、空间领域术语抽取、空间概念学习、空间关系学习。
Although ontology engineering tools have matured over the last decade, manual spatial ontology acquisition remains a time-consuming, expensive, highly skilled, and sometimes cumbersome task that can easily result in geography knowledge acquisition bottleneck. These problems resemble those that knowledge engineers have dealt with over the last two decades as they worked on knowledge acquisition methodologies or workbenches for defining knowledge bases. The integration of knowledge acquisition with machine learning techniques proved beneficial for geography knowledge acquisition. How to use knowledge acquisition techniques to reduce the overhead in spatial ontology construction is called spatial ontology learning techniques. Spatial ontology learning from existing knowledge sources to obtain geography knowledge in order to (semi) automatic construction or renovation of spatial ontology. Extraction of spatial ontology from existing data on the Web can be supported by ontology learning techniques.
As the Internet, one of the most important applications, Web provides a convenient mechanism for document publishing and access, and gradually became a gathering place for all kinds of information resources. As the text are the Web's most abundant resources, Web-based ontology learning technology research focused on the ontology acquisition from free text. Free text based on certain Sentences methods to express special meaning, so the knowledge engineer can understand the meaning based on some background knowledge. However, the lack of a certain structure, for machines that can automatically understand the text and extracted from the knowledge required, you must use natural language process technology to its pretreatment, then, statistics, machine learning and other means can be used to acquire knowledge. Web-based ontology learning methods typically include terminology extraction, semantic interpretation, and create domain ontology, as well as Web-based spatial ontology learning includes those three aspects. In the past spatial ontology construction was from scratch by hand, such as the construction of spatial ontology according to different application needs,the formalized definition for ontology conception, relationship and axiom, the construction of ontology using all kinds of ontology tools and the deduction for those constructions, and the research on ontology application (for example:the ontology-based spatial search engine). Whereas little research has been conducted in constructing spatial ontology from extract term on the web and disambiguating its semantic statement in spatial term learning. This paper emphasis on the theory and technique of semantic interpretation which bases on natural language understanding and do further research on spatial concept and spatial ontology construction. To make a deep understanding about spatial concept, some theories are provided and methodology is discussed. Three innovation points of this paper list here:
1. Systematic research and analysis on semantic of vocabulary is provided through comparing natural language and spatial information and a meticulous analysis on spatial concept instance included in WordNet is experimented also.
2. Detailed measurements of disambiguation are provided. The base of disambiguation is semantic explanation. Based on the introduction of thematic role system theory, selective constraints and disambiguation of statistic method are used to get the aim.
3. A learning model of spatial ontology is provided which consists of web document arrangement, extracting of spatial term, spatial concept learning, spatial relationship learning, to extract spatial ontology from web pages automatically.
作为互联网上最重要的应用之一,Web(万维网)提供了便捷的文档发布与获取机制,并逐步成为各类信息资源的聚集地。由于文本是Web上最丰富的资源,基于Web的本体学习技术的研究主要侧重于从自由文本中获取本体。自由文本依据一定的造句法表达特殊的语义,使得知识工程师可以基于一些背景知识来理解其中的含义。然而,由于缺乏一定的结构,要使机器能够自动地理解纯文本并从中抽取出所需要的知识,则必须利用自然语言处理(NLP)技术对其预处理,然后利用统计、机器学习等手段从中获取知识。基于Web的本体学习方法通常包括术语抽取,语义解释,和创建领域本体。对于基于Web的空间本体学习也包括这三个方面。过去空间本体的构建都是手工的从无到有,根据各自不同应用需求来建立本体,对本体的概念,关系及公理进行形式化的定义,借助各种的本体构建工具来构建本体并进行推理验证,以及对于本体的应用的研究：例如基于本体的空间搜索引擎。而对于从Web上抽取术语以构建空间本体,在其过程中的空间概念学习的语义歧义消除这一基础步骤的系统研究很少。本文试图从自然语言理解的方向着手,研究空间概念学习的语义解释的相关理论与技术；从方法论的角度实现对空间概念语义的深层理解,研究空间本体的构建。论文的创新点包括以下三个：
1.论文对自然语言词汇语义与空间信息词汇语义的联系与区别进行了系统的分析与研究,并对WordNet中的空间本体概念进行了细致的分析。
2.论文从语义解释的角度对空间信息词汇语义进行歧义消除,引入基于论旨角色标记体系理论,在此基础上采用选择限制、统计词义消歧等技术解决语义歧义问题。
3.为了实现从Web页面中自动抽取空间本体,论文提出了一个空间本体学习模型,该模型主要包括Web文档预处理、空间领域术语抽取、空间概念学习、空间关系学习。
Although ontology engineering tools have matured over the last decade, manual spatial ontology acquisition remains a time-consuming, expensive, highly skilled, and sometimes cumbersome task that can easily result in geography knowledge acquisition bottleneck. These problems resemble those that knowledge engineers have dealt with over the last two decades as they worked on knowledge acquisition methodologies or workbenches for defining knowledge bases. The integration of knowledge acquisition with machine learning techniques proved beneficial for geography knowledge acquisition. How to use knowledge acquisition techniques to reduce the overhead in spatial ontology construction is called spatial ontology learning techniques. Spatial ontology learning from existing knowledge sources to obtain geography knowledge in order to (semi) automatic construction or renovation of spatial ontology. Extraction of spatial ontology from existing data on the Web can be supported by ontology learning techniques.
As the Internet, one of the most important applications, Web provides a convenient mechanism for document publishing and access, and gradually became a gathering place for all kinds of information resources. As the text are the Web's most abundant resources, Web-based ontology learning technology research focused on the ontology acquisition from free text. Free text based on certain Sentences methods to express special meaning, so the knowledge engineer can understand the meaning based on some background knowledge. However, the lack of a certain structure, for machines that can automatically understand the text and extracted from the knowledge required, you must use natural language process technology to its pretreatment, then, statistics, machine learning and other means can be used to acquire knowledge. Web-based ontology learning methods typically include terminology extraction, semantic interpretation, and create domain ontology, as well as Web-based spatial ontology learning includes those three aspects. In the past spatial ontology construction was from scratch by hand, such as the construction of spatial ontology according to different application needs,the formalized definition for ontology conception, relationship and axiom, the construction of ontology using all kinds of ontology tools and the deduction for those constructions, and the research on ontology application (for example:the ontology-based spatial search engine). Whereas little research has been conducted in constructing spatial ontology from extract term on the web and disambiguating its semantic statement in spatial term learning. This paper emphasis on the theory and technique of semantic interpretation which bases on natural language understanding and do further research on spatial concept and spatial ontology construction. To make a deep understanding about spatial concept, some theories are provided and methodology is discussed. Three innovation points of this paper list here:
1. Systematic research and analysis on semantic of vocabulary is provided through comparing natural language and spatial information and a meticulous analysis on spatial concept instance included in WordNet is experimented also.
2. Detailed measurements of disambiguation are provided. The base of disambiguation is semantic explanation. Based on the introduction of thematic role system theory, selective constraints and disambiguation of statistic method are used to get the aim.
3. A learning model of spatial ontology is provided which consists of web document arrangement, extracting of spatial term, spatial concept learning, spatial relationship learning, to extract spatial ontology from web pages automatically.
引文
[1]龚健雅.地理信息系统基础[M].科学出版社,2001年第一版
[2]邬伦等.地理信息系统——原理、方法和应用[M].科学出版社,2001年第一版
[3]谭建豪等.数据挖掘技术[M].中国水利水电出版社,2009年第一版
[4]陆建江等.语义网原理与技术[M].科学出版社,2007年第一版
[5]王晓龙,关毅等.计算机自然语言处理[M].科学出版社,2005年第一版
[6]陈述彭,鲁学军,周成虎.地理信息系统导论[M].北京：科学出版社,1999年第一版
[7]杜清运.空间信息的语言学特征及其自动理解机制研究[D].武汉大学博士论文,2001
[8]黄茂军.地理本体的形式化表达机制及其在地图服务中的应用研究.武汉大学博士论文[D],2005
[9]崔巍.用本体实现地理信息系统语义集成和互操作.武汉大学博士论文[D],2004
[10]傅魁.基于Web的本体学习研究.武汉理工大学博士论文[D],2007
[11]李宏伟.基于Ontology的地理信息服务研究.解放军信息工程大学博士论文[D],2007
[12]景东升.基于本体的地理空间信息语义表达和服务研究.中国科学院研究生院博士论文[D],2005
[13]杨骏.“数字城市”中的空间本体数据库研究.西南交通大学博士论文[D],2007
[14]顾芳.多学科领域本体设计方法的研究.中国科学院研究生院博士论文[D],2004
[15]乐小虬.非结构化网络空间信息智能搜索与服务研究.中国科学院研究生院博士论文[D],2006
[16]刘柏篙.基于Web的通用本体学习研究.浙江大学博士论文[D],2007
[17]李晗静.基于自然语言处理的空间概念建模研究.哈尔滨工业大学博士论文[D],2007
[18]曹菡.空间关系推理的知识表示与推理机制研究.武汉大学博士论文[D],2002
[19]崔巍.用地理本体实现地理信息系统互操作[J],测绘信息与工程,2004,29(1)：20-22
[20]黄茂军,杜清运,吴运超,李凤丹.地理本体及其应用初探[J],地理与地理信息科学,2004,20(4)：l-5
[21]李霖,朱海红,王红,李德仁.基于形式本体的基础地理信息语义分析_以陆地水系要素类为例[J],测绘学报,2008,37(2)：230-235
[22]安杨,边馥荃,关估红.GIS中地理本体的建立与比较[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2006,31(12)：1108-1111
[23]吴运超,杜清运.DAML+OIL构建本体在GIS中的应用[J],地理空间信息,2004,2(2)： 17-19
[24]卓揆,刘德钦,林宗坚,袁长丰.WebGIS与基于网络的数据挖掘整合应用研究[J],测绘科学,2004,29(3)：55-57
[25]王岁花,闫林.Web本体语言OWL及在产品信息表达中的应用[J],计算机应用与软件,2007,24(9)：33-36
[26]胡鹤,刘大有,王生生.Web本体语言OWL[J],计算机工程,2004,30(12)：1-2
[27]赵亮,周巍.Web搜索引擎分析设计和实现[J],武汉科技学院学报,2006,19(3)：70-72
[28]李剑.Web知识本体集成[J],计算机科学,2004,31(9)：1-5
[29]王栋,向阳,张波.本体在数据挖掘系统中的应用研究[J],计算机工程与应用,2009,45(5)： 11-12
[30]邵伟平,郝永平,魏永合,曾鹏飞.产品配置领域本体学习方法研究[J],计算机工程,2009,35(15)：190-192
[31]陈建军,周成虎,王敬贵.地理本体的研究进展与分析[J],地学前缘,2006,13(3)：81-90
[32]闵敏,谭传凤,蒋玲,范冲,胡承芳.地理时空本体研究进展[J],华中师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006,40(1)：133-137
[33]孙敏,陈秀万,张飞舟.地理信息本体论[J],地理与地理信息科学,2004,20(3)：6-11
[34]刘勇军,聂规划.多信息源下本体自动抽取的实现[J],计算机应用研究,2007,24(11)： 183-184
[35]李宏伟,蔡畅,李勤超.基于Jena和地理本体的空间查询与推理研究[J],测绘工程,2009,18(5)：5-9
[36]俞晓舜.基于Lucene的语义搜索引擎设计[J],电脑知识与技术,2008,4(5)：1197-1199
[37]林菡,何钦铭.基于OWL的网页视觉结构本体表示和Web检索[J],计算机工程与应用,2004,15：157-160
[38]陈东方,王华,顾进广.基于Web本体挖掘的语义目录研究[J],计算机工程与设计,2008,29(12)：3182-3184
[39]于娟,马金平,李永.基于Web本体语言OWL的知识表示[J],计算机工程与设计,2006,27(22)：4356-4357
[40]邢军,韩敏.基于Web构造领域本体方法的研究[J],小型微型计算机系统,2006,27(6)：1049-1053
[41]方卫东,袁华,刘卫红.基于Web挖掘的领域本体自动学习[J],清华大学学报(自然科学版),2005,45(S1)：1729-1733
[42]徐力斌,刘宗田,周文,宋二伟.基于WordNet和自然语言处理技术的半自动领域本体构建[J],计算机科学,2007,34(6)：219-222
[43]徐义峰,陈春明.基于本体的Web挖掘分类方法及应用[J],计算机应用与软件,2009,26(3)：208-209
[44]陈兰,金远平.基于本体的垂直搜索引擎研究[J],计算机应用与软件,2009,26(11)：129-130
[45]虞为,曹加恒,陈俊鹏.基于本体的地理信息查询和排序[J],计算机工程,2007,33(21)：157-159
[46]李宏伟,李勤超,段静.基于本体的地理信息系统工程方法[J],计算机应用与软件,2008,25(11)：69-70
[47]曾宪文,高桂革,杨明福.基于本体的多Agent语义挖掘系统[J],华东理工大学学报(自然科学版),2006,32(11)：1323-1326
[48]王艳东,龚健雅,戴晶晶.基于本体的空间数据语义查询研究[J],测绘信息与工程,2007,32(2)：32-33
[49]段磊,李琦,毛曦.基于本体的空间搜索引擎研究[J],计算机科学,2009,36(2)：172-174
[50]宋远芳.基于本体的数据挖掘技术在商务智能中的应用[J],计算机技术与发展,2009,19(1)：184-186
[51]崔巍.基于本体和Web技术的地理信息系统集成研究[J],测绘通报,2004,(12)：14-16
[52]邹志强,胡斌,刘林峰,王汝传.基于空间领域本体的动态工作流模型研究[J],计算机科学,2009,36(10)：160-163
[53]江俊福.基于领域本体和GIS的CGCDM的设计[J],微计算机信息,2008,24(9)：122-124
[54]郑茂辉,冯学智,蒋莹滢,黄照强.基于描述逻辑本体的GIS多重表达[J],测绘学报,2006,35(8)：261-266
[55]任立群,高志强.基于虚拟空间本体的路径规划[J],江南大学学报(自然科学版),2007,6(3)：275-279
[56]吴运超,牛铮,黄茂军,林文鹏.利用Web挖掘技术改善公众网络地图查询服务[J],测绘科学,2007,32(3)：88-90
[57]陈建杰,杨树锋,李长江.一种基于本体的空间信息Web服务实现方法[J],浙江大学学报(工学版),2006,40(3)：376-380
[58]崔巍,蒋天发,张德新.用数据挖掘和本体实现空间信息系统语义互操作[J],武汉理工大学学报(交通科学与工程版),2004,28(1)：118-121
[59]杜世宏,王桥,李治江.GIS中自然语言空间关系定义[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2005,30(6)：533-538
[60]郭庆胜,杨族桥,蔡永香.地图图形目标之间基本空间关系抽象的规律[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2008,33(11)：1190-1193
[61]许珺.对于线状地理特征空间关系的自然语言理解[J],地球信息科学,2008,10(3)：363-369
[62]陈群秀.一个在线义类词库：词网WordNet [J],语言文字应用,1998,(2)：93-99
[63]汪西莉,覃蜻蝉,曹菡,师军.基于SRC-Ontology的空间拓扑关系拓展表示方法及实现[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2009,34(3)：339-343
[64]赵天忠,苗壮,张亚非,徐伟光,陆建江.基于WordNet重用的领域本体构建方法[J],系统仿真学报,2007,19(19)：4583-4586
[65]乔玉平,曹菡,张艳晓.基于本体的空间关系判断研究[J],郑州轻工业学院学报(自然科学版),2009,24(3)：112-115
[66]杜冲,司望利,许珺.基于地理语义的空间关系查询和推理[J],地球信息科学学报, 2010,12(1)：48-55
[67]乐小虬,杨崇俊,于文洋.基于空间语义角色的自然语言空间概念提取[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2005,30(12)：1100-1103
[68]张雪英,闾国年.自然语言空间关系及其在GIS中的应用研究[J],地球信息科学,2007,9(6)：77-81
[69]廖楚江,杜清运.GIS空间关系描述模型研究综述[J],测绘科学,2004,29(41)：79-83
[70]许珺,张晶,司望利,孙红玖.线状物体空间关系的自然语言理解的双语比较[J],遥感学报,2008,12(2)：362-369
[71]Smith B, Mark D. Ontology and geographic kinds, in:Poiker T and Chrisman N. (Eds.), Proceedings 8th International Symposiumon Spatial Data Handling (SDH'98), International Geographical Union, Vancouver,1998,308-320
[72]Smith B., Mark D. Geographical categorie:an ontological investigation [J], International Journal Geographical Information Science,2001a,15 (7):591-612
[73]Smith B., Mark D. Do Mountains Exist? Towards an Ontology of Landforms[J], Environment and Planning,2003,30(3):411-427
[74]Bittner T, Smith B. A Taxonomy of Granular Partitions. Spatial Information Theory, Proceedings of COSIT',2001, Santa Barbara, September 2001, Berlin/New York: Springer
[75]Bittner T. Approximate Qualitative Spatial Reasoning [J], Spatial Cognition and Computer,2002,2(4):435-466
[76]Bittner T. Approximate qualitative temporal reasoning [J], Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence,2002b,35(1-2):39-80
[77]Bittner T. Spatio-temporal ontologies [EB/OL], Report in workshop on Geo-ontology, Ilkley UK, http://www.comp.leeds.ac.uk/brandon/geo-ontology/,2002c
[78]Bittner T., Smith B. Vague Reference and Approximating Judgments, Spatial Cognition and Computation,2003,3(2)
[79]Bittner T. A mereological theory of frames of reference [J], International journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools,2004a,13(1):171-198
[80]Bittner T., Donnelly M., Smith B. Endurants and Perdurants in Directly Depicting Ontologies, AI Communications, IOS Press,2004b
[81]Frank A. U. The rationality of epistemology and the rationality of ontology, Proceedings of the 23rd International Ludwig Wittgenstein Symposium, Kirchberg am Wechsel, Schriftenreihe der Wittgenstein-Gesellschaft, Vol.29, Vienna, Holder-Pichler-Tempsky, 2001,110-120
[82]Frank A. U. Ontology for spatio-temporal databases, in:Sellis T., et al. (Eds.), Spatiotemporal Databases:The Chorochronos Approach, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,2003, Berlin, Springer-Verlag
[83]Guarino N. Formal Ontology in Information Systems, in:Guarino N. (Ed.), Formal Ontology in Information Systems, Amsterdam:IOS Press,1998a
[84]Fonseca F. and Egenhofer M. Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems, in: Medeiros C. B. (Ed.),7th ACM Symposium on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, Kansas City, MO,1999,14-19
[85]Fonseca F. and Egenhofer M. Ontology-Driven Information Integration, in:Montanari A. and Bettini C. (Eds.), AAAI-2000 Workshop on Spatial and Temporal Granularity. Austin, TX,2000a
[86]Fonseca F., Egenhofer M., Davis C., Borges K. Ontologies and Knowledge Sharing in Urban GIS[J], Computer, Environment and Urban Systems,2000b,24(3):232-251
[87]Fonseca F. Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems, PhD thesis University of Maine,2001
[88]Fonseca F., Egenhofer M., Agouris P. and Camara G. Using Ontologies for Integrated Geographic Information Systems[J], Transactions in GIS,2002a,6(3):231-57
[89]Fonseca F., Egenhofer M., Davis C. and Camara G. Semantic Granularity in Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems[J], AMAI Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence - Special Issue on Spatial and Temporal Granularity,2002b,36(1-2):121-151
[90]Fonseca F., Martin J. and Rodriguez A. From Geo to Eco-Ontologies, in:Egenhofer M. and Mark D. (Eds.), GIScience 2002, Vol.2478, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Berlin:Springer Verlag,2002c,93-107
[91]Kavouras M. and Kokla M. Ontology-Based Fusion of Geographic Databases, Spatial Information Management. Experiences and Visions for the 21st Century, International Federation of Surveyors, Commission 3-WG 3.1, Athens, Greece, October 2000
[92]Kavouras M. and Kokla M. A method for the formalization and integration of geographical categorizations, International Journal of Geographical Information Science[J],2002, 16(5):439-453
[93]Bennett B. Logical Representation for Automated Reasoning about Spatial Relationships, PhD thesis, School of Computer Studies, University of Leeds, October 1997
[94]Egenhofer M. and Shariff A. R. Metric details for natural language spatial relations[J], ACM Transactions on Information Systems,1998,16(4):295-321
[95]Egenhofer M. Toward the semantic geospatial ACM International Symposium on Advances in Geographic Information Systems. ACM Press, New York, NY, USA, McLean, Virginia, USA,2002,1-4
[96]Gruber T R. Towards principles for the design of ontologies used for knowledge sharing[J], International Journal of Human and Computer Studies,1995, (43):907-928
[97]Mike Uschold. Knowledge level modelling:concepts and terminology [J], The Knowledge Engineering Review,1998,13(1):5-29
[98]Borgo, stefano, Nicola Guarino and Claudio Masolo. Stratified Ontologies:The Case of Physical Objects, proceedings of ECAI96's Workshop on Ontological Engineering, 1996,5-16
[99]Uschold Mike, Jasper Robert. A frameword for understanding and classifying Ontology Application, http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publication/CEURWS/Vol-18, 2004
[100]Franz Baader, Digeo Calvanese, Deborah McGuinness, Daniele Nardi, Peter-PatelSchineider. The Description Logic Handbook:Theory, Implementation and Application, Cambridge University Press,2003
[101]Peter F., Patel-schneider, Patrick Hayes. OWL Web Ontology Language Semantics and Abstrack Syntax, http://www.w3.org/TR/owlsemantics/,2006
[102]Ian. Horrocks, P. F. Patel-Schneider. Reducing OWL Entailmet to Description Logic Satisfability, http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/-horrocks/Publications/download/2004/ HoPa04b.pdf
[103]Harding J. Geo-ontology Concepts and Issues [EB/OL], Report of a workshop on Geo-ontology. Ilkley UK,2002, http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/
[104]Hardy P. and Yaser B. Domain ontologies for data sharing-an example from environmental monitoring using field GIS[J], Computers and Geosciences,2002,28(1): 95-102
[105]Hiramatsu K. and Reitsma F. GeoReferencing the Semantic Web:ontology based markup of geographically referenced information, Joint EuroSDR/Euro Geographics workshop on Ontologies and Schema TranslationServices, Paris, France,2004
[106]Jones C. B., et al. Spatial Information Retrieval and Geographical Ontologies:An Overview of the SPIRIT project. In:SIGIR 2002:Proceedings of the 25th Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval,2002, Tampere, Finland, ACM Press,387-388
[107]Jones C. B., Abdelmoty A. I. and Fu C. Maintaining Ontologies for Geographical Information Retrieval on the Web, In:Proceedings of OTM Confederated International Conferences CoopIS, DOA, and OOBASE,2003,934-951
[108]Jones C. B., Abdelmoty A. L, Finch D., et al. The SPIRIT Spatial Search Engine: Architecture, Ontologies and Spatial Indexing, In:Geographic Information Science: Third International Conference. GIScience 2004, Adelphi, Md, Usa, October 20-23, 2004,125-139
[109]Kavouras M. and Kokla M. A method for the formalization and integration of geographical categorizations[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2002,16(5):439-453
[110]Kavouras M., Kokla M. and Tomai E. Comparing Categories among geographic ontologies[J], Computers&Geosciences,2005,31(2):145-154
[111]Kokla M. and Kavouras M. Fusion of Top-level and Geographical Domain Ontologies Based on Context Formation and Complementarity[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2001,15(7):679-687
[112]Mark D. M. Human Spatial Cognition. In Medyckyj-Scott, D., and Hearnshaw, H. M., editors, Human Factors in Geographical Information Systems, Belhaven Press,1993b, 51-60
[113]Buitelaar P. Lexical Semantics in Information Systems, http://dfki.de/-paulb/ lexsem/2001/lexsem.html,2001
[114]Smith B., Mark D. M.1999 Ontology with Human Subjects Testing, American Journal of Economics and Sociology 58/2
[115]Simons P. M. Part:An Essay in Ontology, Oxford:Clarendon Press,1987
[116]Guarino N. Formal Ontology, Conceptual Analysis and KnowledgeRepresentation[J], International Journal of Human and Computer Studies,1995,43(5/6):625-640
[117]Kuhn W. Ontologies in support of activities in geographical space[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2001,15(7):591-612
[118]Li M., Zhou S. and Jones C. B. MAPLET:Multi-Agent Systems for Web-Based Map Information Retrieval, in:Egenhofer M. and Mark D. (Eds.), GIScience2002, Vol.2478, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Berlin:Springer Verlag,2002,161-180
[119]Li M. and QiM. MAPBOT:A Web Based Map Information Retrieval System[J], Information and Software Technology,2003,45(10):691-698
[120]Lutz M., Einspanier U., Klien E. and Hiibner S. An Architecture for Ontology-Based Discovery and Retrieval of Geographic Information, Semantic Web Services and DynamicNetworks Workshop (SWSDN2004), Ulm, Germany,2004
[121]D. Fensel, J. Hendler, H. Lieberman and W. Wahlster, eds. Spinning the Semantic Web. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press,2003
[122]J. Davies, D. Fensel and F. van Harmelen, eds. Towards the Semantic Web: Ontology-Driven Knowledge Management, New York:Wiley,2002
[123]Chandrasekaran B, Josephson J R, Benjamins V R. What Are Ontologies, and Why Do We Need Them?[J], IEEE Intelligent Systems,1999,14(1):20-26
[124]RandellD A, Cui Z, Cohn A G. A Spatial Logic Based on Regions and Connection[A], 3rd International Conference on Knowledge Representation and Reasoning[C], San Francisco:Morgan Kaufmann,1992
[125]Cohn A G, Bennett B, Goodday J, et al. Qualitative Spatial Representation and Reasoning with Region Connection Calculus[J], Geoinformatica,1997,1(3):215-316
[126]Quinlan J R. Induction of Decision Trees [J], Machine Learning,1986,1:81-106
[127]Witten IH, Frank E. DataMining:PracticalMachine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java Implementations [M], San Francisco:Morgan Kaufmann,2000
[128]Quinlan J R. C4.5:Programming forMachine Learning[M], SanMateo, CA:Morgan Kaufmann,1993
[129]Mark D. M., Freska C., Hirtle S. C., et al. Cognitive Models of Geographical Space [J], International Journal of Information Science,1999,13(8):747-774
[130]Mark D. M., Egenhofer M. J. Calibrating the Meanings of Spatial Predicates from Natural Language:Line-region Relations[A], Proceedings, Spatial Data Handling[C], 1994
[131]Mark D. M., Egenhofer M. J. Topology of Prototypical Spatial Relations between Lines and Regions in English and Spanish[A], Proceedings, Auto Carto 12 [C]. Charlotte, North Carolina,1995,245-254
[132]ShariffR, EgenhoferM. J, Mark D. M. Natural-language Spatial Relations between Linear and Areal Objects:the Topology and Metric of English-language Terms[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,1998,12(3):215-246
[133]Xu J. Natural-language Representation and Query of Liner GeographicObjects inGIS[D], Ph. D Dissertation, Department of Geography, StateUniversity of New York atBuffalo,2005
[134]Bishr Y. Overcoming the semantic and other barriers to GIS interoperability[J], Int. J. Geographical Information Science,1998,12(4):299-314
[135]William S, Austin T. Ontologies[J], IEEE Intelligent Systems,1999(3):18-19
[136]Cohn A G, Hazarika S M. Qualitative spatial representation and reasoning; An overview[J], Fundamental Information,2001,46(1-2):1-29
[134]Perez A G, Benjamins V R. Overview of knowledge sharing and reuse components: ontologies and problem solving methods[C], Proceedings of the IJCAI99 workshop on Ontologies and Problem Solving Methods(KRR5),1999:1-15
[135]Thomas B. Rough Sets in Spatio-temporal Data Mining, Heidelberg:SpringerBerlin, 2001,89-104
[136]Bittner T,Stell G J. Rough Sets in Approximate Spatial Reasoning, Heidelberg: SpringerBerlin,2001,445-453
[137]Beaubouef T, PetryE F, LadnerR. SpatialDataMethods and Vague Regions:A Rough SetApproac[J]h, Applied Soft Computing,2007,7(1):425-440
[138]Wang S L. Yuan H N,Chen G Q. Rough Spatial Interpretation, Heidelberg: SpringerBerlin,2004,435-444
[139]Ahlqvist O, Keukelaar J, OukbirK. Rough Classification and AccuracyAssessment[J], International JournalGeographical Information Science,2000,14(5):475-496
[140]Ahlqvist O, Keukelaar J, Oukbir K. Rough and Fuzzy Geographical Data Intgration[J], International Journal Geographical Information Science,2003,17(3):223-234
[141]NedasK, EgenhoferM J, W ilmsen D. Metric Details of Topological Line-line Relations[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2007,21(1): 21-48
[142]Xu J. Formalize Natural-language Spatial Relations between Linear Objects with Topologic and Metric Properties[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2007,21(4):377-395
[143]YaoX, Thill JC. How Far isToo Far-A StatisticalApproach to Proximity Modeling[J], Transactions in GIS,2005,9(2):157-178
[144]YaoX, Thill JC. Neuro-Fuzzy Modeling of Context-Contingent Proximity Relations[J], Geographical Analysis:An International Journal of Theoretical Geography,2007,39(2): 169-194
[146]Worboys M. Nearness Relations in Environmental Space[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2001,15(7):633-651
[147]Xu J, Yao C. Formalizing Natural-language Spatial Relations Descriptions with Fuzzy Decision Tree Algorithm[C], In Proceedings of SPIE, Volume 6420, Geoinformatics, Wuhan, China, October28-29,2006,64201E-1-10
[148]Mark M D, Comas D, EgenhoferM J, et al. Evaluating and refining computational models of spatial relations through cross-linguistic human-subjects testing, In:A Frank and W Kuhn (eds.), Spatial Information Theory A theoretical Basis forGIS, International Conference COSIT', Semmering, Austria, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Berlin:Springer-Verlag,1995(988):553-568
[149]刘瑜,龚咏喜,高勇,张晶.地理空间中的空间关系表达和推理[J],地理与地理 信息科学,2007,23(5)：l-6
[150]LiuY. WangX. JinX et al. On internal cardinaldirection relations. In AG Cohn andDMMark (eds.), Spatial Information Theory:Cognitive and Computational Foundations, Proceedings of COSIT'05, LNCS 3693, SpringerVerlag Berlin Heidelberg,2005,283-299
[151]Zhang J, Liu Y, Sun J et al. The semantic analysis about the spatial orientation expression of GIS in Chinese case study of Beijing, In Proceedings of SPIE, Volume 6420, Geoinformatics, Whuhan, China, October28-29,2006,64200Z-1-13
[152]邓敏,徐锐,李志林,祁华斌.空间查询中自然语言空间关系与度量空间关系的转换方法研究：以面目标为例[J],测绘学报,2009,38(6)：527-531
[153]EGENHOFER M J, CLEMENTINI E. Evaluating Inconsistencies among Multiple Representations[D]//Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling, Edinburgh:[s.n.],1994:901-920
[154]CHEN J, LIU W, LI Z, et al. Detection of Spatial Conflicts between Rivers and Contours in Digital Map Updating[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2007,21(10):1093-1114
[155]ZHANG M, MENG L. An Iterative Road-Matching Approach for the Integration of Postal Data [J], Computers, Environment and Urban Systems,2007,31(5):597-615
[156]http://www.w3.org/
[157]http://www.mindswap.org/
[158]http://protege.stanford.edu/
[159]http://www.networkinference.com/
[160]http://www.daml.org/ontologies
[161]http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/vocabularies/tgn/
[162]XU J. Formalizing Natural-Language Spatial Relations between Linear Objects with Topological and Metric properties [J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2007,21(4):377-395
[163]SCHNEIDER M. Vague Topological Predicates for Crisp Regions through Metric Refinements[C]//Proceedings of 12th International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling, Berlin:Springer,2004:149-162
[164]EGENHOFER M J, MARK D. Naive Geography[C]//FRANK A, KUHN W. Conference on Spatial Information Theory:A Theoretical Basis for GIS, Berlin: Springer Verlag,1995:1-5
[165]Coenen F, Visser P. A Core Ontology for SpatialReasoning[D], Liverpool:University of Liverpool,1998
[167]Goyal P K. Similarity Assessment for Gardinal Directions between Extended SpatialObjects[D], Orono:University of Maine,2000
[168]潘农菲.GIS的空间数据在关系型数据库的实现理论及应用技术[J],计算机应用研究,2002,19(2)：92
[169]Morimoto Y. Extracting Spatial Knowledge from the Web, http://www. morimo. com/morimo-ken/pub/120_morimoto_y.pdf,2003
[170]Schilder S. Extracting Spatial Information:Grounding, Classifying and Linking Spatial Expressions, http://www.geo. unizh. ch/-rsp/gir/abstracts/schilder.pdf,2004
[171]Johansson R. Carsim:A System to Visualize Written Road Accident Reports as Animated 3D Scenes, http://www.cs.lth.se/home/Pierre_Nugues/Articles/acl2004/ acl2004.pdf,2004
[172]Baker C F, Fillmore C J, Lowe J B. The Berkeley FrameNet Project, http://framenet. icsi. berkeley.edu/-framenet/papers/acl98.pdf,1998
[173]Gildea D L, Hockenmaier J. Identifying Semantic Roles Using Combinatory Categorial Grammar, http://www. cs. rochester. edu/-gildea/gildea-emn-1p03.pdf,2003
[174]Pradhan S. Semantic Role Parsing:Adding Semantic Structure to UnstructuredText. http://oak.colorado.edu/-spradhan/publications/pradhan-icdm-2003.pdf,2003
[175]吴立新,徐磊,陈学习,车德福.基于主体人与地学本体的人-地-GIS关系讨论[J],地理与地理信息科学,2006,22(1)：1-6
[176]VISSER U, STUCKENSCHMIDT H, SCHUSTER G, et al. Ontologies for geographic information processing[J], Computers & Geosciences,2002(28):103-117
[177]张辉.论空间概念在语言知识构建中的作用.解放军外语学院学报,1998,21(1)：19-22
[178]刘宁生.汉语如何表达物体的空间关系,中国语文,1994,(3)：169-179
[179]T. Fuhr, G. Socher and C. Scheering. A Three-dimensional Spatial Model for the Interpretation of Image Data, IJCAI-95 Workshop on the Representation and Processing of Spatial Expressions, Montreal, Canada,1995,93-102
[180]W. Terry. Understanding Natural Language, Academic Press,1972
[181]W. Terry. Procedures as a Representation for Data in a Computer Program for Understanding Natural Language, MIT AI Technical Report 235,1971
[182]Fensel D, van Harmelen F. OIL:an Ontology Infrastructure for the Semantic Web [J], IEEE Intelligent Systems,2001,2(16):12-14
[183]Han J W, Kamber M. Data Mining Concepts and Techniques[M], New York:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers,2001
[184]Andrews J. H. Map and Language:A Metaphor Extended, Cartographica,28/2: 89-90
[185]http://www.w3china.org/
[186]周子力.基于WordNet的本体构建及其在安全领域应用关键技术研究.华东师范大学博士论文[D],2009
[187]Borgo S, Guarino N, Masolo C and Vetere G. Using a large linguistic ontology for Internet-based retrieval of object-oriented components, In. Proeeedings of 1997 Conference on Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, Mardrid, Knowledge Systems Institute, Snokie, IL, USA
[188]Yamaguehi T. Constructing domain ontologies based on concept drift analysis, In.Proceedings of IJCAI-99 Workshop on Ontologies and Problem-Solving Methods:Lessons Learned and Future Trends, in conjunction with the Sixteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, August, Stockholm, Sweden
[189]Keng-Woei Tan, Hyoil Han, Ramez Elmasri. Web data cleansing and preparation for ontology extraction using WordNet. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Web Information Systems Engineering,2000
[190]ZingerS, Millet C, Mathieu B, Grefenstette G, Hide P, Moellic P.-A. "Extracting an Ontology of Portrayable Objects from Wordnet", MUSCLE/ImageCLEF workshop on Image and Video retrieval evaluation, Vienna, Austria,2005,17-23
[2]邬伦等.地理信息系统——原理、方法和应用[M].科学出版社,2001年第一版
[3]谭建豪等.数据挖掘技术[M].中国水利水电出版社,2009年第一版
[4]陆建江等.语义网原理与技术[M].科学出版社,2007年第一版
[5]王晓龙,关毅等.计算机自然语言处理[M].科学出版社,2005年第一版
[6]陈述彭,鲁学军,周成虎.地理信息系统导论[M].北京：科学出版社,1999年第一版
[7]杜清运.空间信息的语言学特征及其自动理解机制研究[D].武汉大学博士论文,2001
[8]黄茂军.地理本体的形式化表达机制及其在地图服务中的应用研究.武汉大学博士论文[D],2005
[9]崔巍.用本体实现地理信息系统语义集成和互操作.武汉大学博士论文[D],2004
[10]傅魁.基于Web的本体学习研究.武汉理工大学博士论文[D],2007
[11]李宏伟.基于Ontology的地理信息服务研究.解放军信息工程大学博士论文[D],2007
[12]景东升.基于本体的地理空间信息语义表达和服务研究.中国科学院研究生院博士论文[D],2005
[13]杨骏.“数字城市”中的空间本体数据库研究.西南交通大学博士论文[D],2007
[14]顾芳.多学科领域本体设计方法的研究.中国科学院研究生院博士论文[D],2004
[15]乐小虬.非结构化网络空间信息智能搜索与服务研究.中国科学院研究生院博士论文[D],2006
[16]刘柏篙.基于Web的通用本体学习研究.浙江大学博士论文[D],2007
[17]李晗静.基于自然语言处理的空间概念建模研究.哈尔滨工业大学博士论文[D],2007
[18]曹菡.空间关系推理的知识表示与推理机制研究.武汉大学博士论文[D],2002
[19]崔巍.用地理本体实现地理信息系统互操作[J],测绘信息与工程,2004,29(1)：20-22
[20]黄茂军,杜清运,吴运超,李凤丹.地理本体及其应用初探[J],地理与地理信息科学,2004,20(4)：l-5
[21]李霖,朱海红,王红,李德仁.基于形式本体的基础地理信息语义分析_以陆地水系要素类为例[J],测绘学报,2008,37(2)：230-235
[22]安杨,边馥荃,关估红.GIS中地理本体的建立与比较[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2006,31(12)：1108-1111
[23]吴运超,杜清运.DAML+OIL构建本体在GIS中的应用[J],地理空间信息,2004,2(2)： 17-19
[24]卓揆,刘德钦,林宗坚,袁长丰.WebGIS与基于网络的数据挖掘整合应用研究[J],测绘科学,2004,29(3)：55-57
[25]王岁花,闫林.Web本体语言OWL及在产品信息表达中的应用[J],计算机应用与软件,2007,24(9)：33-36
[26]胡鹤,刘大有,王生生.Web本体语言OWL[J],计算机工程,2004,30(12)：1-2
[27]赵亮,周巍.Web搜索引擎分析设计和实现[J],武汉科技学院学报,2006,19(3)：70-72
[28]李剑.Web知识本体集成[J],计算机科学,2004,31(9)：1-5
[29]王栋,向阳,张波.本体在数据挖掘系统中的应用研究[J],计算机工程与应用,2009,45(5)： 11-12
[30]邵伟平,郝永平,魏永合,曾鹏飞.产品配置领域本体学习方法研究[J],计算机工程,2009,35(15)：190-192
[31]陈建军,周成虎,王敬贵.地理本体的研究进展与分析[J],地学前缘,2006,13(3)：81-90
[32]闵敏,谭传凤,蒋玲,范冲,胡承芳.地理时空本体研究进展[J],华中师范大学学报(自然科学版),2006,40(1)：133-137
[33]孙敏,陈秀万,张飞舟.地理信息本体论[J],地理与地理信息科学,2004,20(3)：6-11
[34]刘勇军,聂规划.多信息源下本体自动抽取的实现[J],计算机应用研究,2007,24(11)： 183-184
[35]李宏伟,蔡畅,李勤超.基于Jena和地理本体的空间查询与推理研究[J],测绘工程,2009,18(5)：5-9
[36]俞晓舜.基于Lucene的语义搜索引擎设计[J],电脑知识与技术,2008,4(5)：1197-1199
[37]林菡,何钦铭.基于OWL的网页视觉结构本体表示和Web检索[J],计算机工程与应用,2004,15：157-160
[38]陈东方,王华,顾进广.基于Web本体挖掘的语义目录研究[J],计算机工程与设计,2008,29(12)：3182-3184
[39]于娟,马金平,李永.基于Web本体语言OWL的知识表示[J],计算机工程与设计,2006,27(22)：4356-4357
[40]邢军,韩敏.基于Web构造领域本体方法的研究[J],小型微型计算机系统,2006,27(6)：1049-1053
[41]方卫东,袁华,刘卫红.基于Web挖掘的领域本体自动学习[J],清华大学学报(自然科学版),2005,45(S1)：1729-1733
[42]徐力斌,刘宗田,周文,宋二伟.基于WordNet和自然语言处理技术的半自动领域本体构建[J],计算机科学,2007,34(6)：219-222
[43]徐义峰,陈春明.基于本体的Web挖掘分类方法及应用[J],计算机应用与软件,2009,26(3)：208-209
[44]陈兰,金远平.基于本体的垂直搜索引擎研究[J],计算机应用与软件,2009,26(11)：129-130
[45]虞为,曹加恒,陈俊鹏.基于本体的地理信息查询和排序[J],计算机工程,2007,33(21)：157-159
[46]李宏伟,李勤超,段静.基于本体的地理信息系统工程方法[J],计算机应用与软件,2008,25(11)：69-70
[47]曾宪文,高桂革,杨明福.基于本体的多Agent语义挖掘系统[J],华东理工大学学报(自然科学版),2006,32(11)：1323-1326
[48]王艳东,龚健雅,戴晶晶.基于本体的空间数据语义查询研究[J],测绘信息与工程,2007,32(2)：32-33
[49]段磊,李琦,毛曦.基于本体的空间搜索引擎研究[J],计算机科学,2009,36(2)：172-174
[50]宋远芳.基于本体的数据挖掘技术在商务智能中的应用[J],计算机技术与发展,2009,19(1)：184-186
[51]崔巍.基于本体和Web技术的地理信息系统集成研究[J],测绘通报,2004,(12)：14-16
[52]邹志强,胡斌,刘林峰,王汝传.基于空间领域本体的动态工作流模型研究[J],计算机科学,2009,36(10)：160-163
[53]江俊福.基于领域本体和GIS的CGCDM的设计[J],微计算机信息,2008,24(9)：122-124
[54]郑茂辉,冯学智,蒋莹滢,黄照强.基于描述逻辑本体的GIS多重表达[J],测绘学报,2006,35(8)：261-266
[55]任立群,高志强.基于虚拟空间本体的路径规划[J],江南大学学报(自然科学版),2007,6(3)：275-279
[56]吴运超,牛铮,黄茂军,林文鹏.利用Web挖掘技术改善公众网络地图查询服务[J],测绘科学,2007,32(3)：88-90
[57]陈建杰,杨树锋,李长江.一种基于本体的空间信息Web服务实现方法[J],浙江大学学报(工学版),2006,40(3)：376-380
[58]崔巍,蒋天发,张德新.用数据挖掘和本体实现空间信息系统语义互操作[J],武汉理工大学学报(交通科学与工程版),2004,28(1)：118-121
[59]杜世宏,王桥,李治江.GIS中自然语言空间关系定义[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2005,30(6)：533-538
[60]郭庆胜,杨族桥,蔡永香.地图图形目标之间基本空间关系抽象的规律[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2008,33(11)：1190-1193
[61]许珺.对于线状地理特征空间关系的自然语言理解[J],地球信息科学,2008,10(3)：363-369
[62]陈群秀.一个在线义类词库：词网WordNet [J],语言文字应用,1998,(2)：93-99
[63]汪西莉,覃蜻蝉,曹菡,师军.基于SRC-Ontology的空间拓扑关系拓展表示方法及实现[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2009,34(3)：339-343
[64]赵天忠,苗壮,张亚非,徐伟光,陆建江.基于WordNet重用的领域本体构建方法[J],系统仿真学报,2007,19(19)：4583-4586
[65]乔玉平,曹菡,张艳晓.基于本体的空间关系判断研究[J],郑州轻工业学院学报(自然科学版),2009,24(3)：112-115
[66]杜冲,司望利,许珺.基于地理语义的空间关系查询和推理[J],地球信息科学学报, 2010,12(1)：48-55
[67]乐小虬,杨崇俊,于文洋.基于空间语义角色的自然语言空间概念提取[J],武汉大学学报信息科学版,2005,30(12)：1100-1103
[68]张雪英,闾国年.自然语言空间关系及其在GIS中的应用研究[J],地球信息科学,2007,9(6)：77-81
[69]廖楚江,杜清运.GIS空间关系描述模型研究综述[J],测绘科学,2004,29(41)：79-83
[70]许珺,张晶,司望利,孙红玖.线状物体空间关系的自然语言理解的双语比较[J],遥感学报,2008,12(2)：362-369
[71]Smith B, Mark D. Ontology and geographic kinds, in:Poiker T and Chrisman N. (Eds.), Proceedings 8th International Symposiumon Spatial Data Handling (SDH'98), International Geographical Union, Vancouver,1998,308-320
[72]Smith B., Mark D. Geographical categorie:an ontological investigation [J], International Journal Geographical Information Science,2001a,15 (7):591-612
[73]Smith B., Mark D. Do Mountains Exist? Towards an Ontology of Landforms[J], Environment and Planning,2003,30(3):411-427
[74]Bittner T, Smith B. A Taxonomy of Granular Partitions. Spatial Information Theory, Proceedings of COSIT',2001, Santa Barbara, September 2001, Berlin/New York: Springer
[75]Bittner T. Approximate Qualitative Spatial Reasoning [J], Spatial Cognition and Computer,2002,2(4):435-466
[76]Bittner T. Approximate qualitative temporal reasoning [J], Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence,2002b,35(1-2):39-80
[77]Bittner T. Spatio-temporal ontologies [EB/OL], Report in workshop on Geo-ontology, Ilkley UK, http://www.comp.leeds.ac.uk/brandon/geo-ontology/,2002c
[78]Bittner T., Smith B. Vague Reference and Approximating Judgments, Spatial Cognition and Computation,2003,3(2)
[79]Bittner T. A mereological theory of frames of reference [J], International journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools,2004a,13(1):171-198
[80]Bittner T., Donnelly M., Smith B. Endurants and Perdurants in Directly Depicting Ontologies, AI Communications, IOS Press,2004b
[81]Frank A. U. The rationality of epistemology and the rationality of ontology, Proceedings of the 23rd International Ludwig Wittgenstein Symposium, Kirchberg am Wechsel, Schriftenreihe der Wittgenstein-Gesellschaft, Vol.29, Vienna, Holder-Pichler-Tempsky, 2001,110-120
[82]Frank A. U. Ontology for spatio-temporal databases, in:Sellis T., et al. (Eds.), Spatiotemporal Databases:The Chorochronos Approach, Lecture Notes in Computer Science,2003, Berlin, Springer-Verlag
[83]Guarino N. Formal Ontology in Information Systems, in:Guarino N. (Ed.), Formal Ontology in Information Systems, Amsterdam:IOS Press,1998a
[84]Fonseca F. and Egenhofer M. Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems, in: Medeiros C. B. (Ed.),7th ACM Symposium on Advances in Geographic Information Systems, Kansas City, MO,1999,14-19
[85]Fonseca F. and Egenhofer M. Ontology-Driven Information Integration, in:Montanari A. and Bettini C. (Eds.), AAAI-2000 Workshop on Spatial and Temporal Granularity. Austin, TX,2000a
[86]Fonseca F., Egenhofer M., Davis C., Borges K. Ontologies and Knowledge Sharing in Urban GIS[J], Computer, Environment and Urban Systems,2000b,24(3):232-251
[87]Fonseca F. Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems, PhD thesis University of Maine,2001
[88]Fonseca F., Egenhofer M., Agouris P. and Camara G. Using Ontologies for Integrated Geographic Information Systems[J], Transactions in GIS,2002a,6(3):231-57
[89]Fonseca F., Egenhofer M., Davis C. and Camara G. Semantic Granularity in Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems[J], AMAI Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence - Special Issue on Spatial and Temporal Granularity,2002b,36(1-2):121-151
[90]Fonseca F., Martin J. and Rodriguez A. From Geo to Eco-Ontologies, in:Egenhofer M. and Mark D. (Eds.), GIScience 2002, Vol.2478, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Berlin:Springer Verlag,2002c,93-107
[91]Kavouras M. and Kokla M. Ontology-Based Fusion of Geographic Databases, Spatial Information Management. Experiences and Visions for the 21st Century, International Federation of Surveyors, Commission 3-WG 3.1, Athens, Greece, October 2000
[92]Kavouras M. and Kokla M. A method for the formalization and integration of geographical categorizations, International Journal of Geographical Information Science[J],2002, 16(5):439-453
[93]Bennett B. Logical Representation for Automated Reasoning about Spatial Relationships, PhD thesis, School of Computer Studies, University of Leeds, October 1997
[94]Egenhofer M. and Shariff A. R. Metric details for natural language spatial relations[J], ACM Transactions on Information Systems,1998,16(4):295-321
[95]Egenhofer M. Toward the semantic geospatial ACM International Symposium on Advances in Geographic Information Systems. ACM Press, New York, NY, USA, McLean, Virginia, USA,2002,1-4
[96]Gruber T R. Towards principles for the design of ontologies used for knowledge sharing[J], International Journal of Human and Computer Studies,1995, (43):907-928
[97]Mike Uschold. Knowledge level modelling:concepts and terminology [J], The Knowledge Engineering Review,1998,13(1):5-29
[98]Borgo, stefano, Nicola Guarino and Claudio Masolo. Stratified Ontologies:The Case of Physical Objects, proceedings of ECAI96's Workshop on Ontological Engineering, 1996,5-16
[99]Uschold Mike, Jasper Robert. A frameword for understanding and classifying Ontology Application, http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publication/CEURWS/Vol-18, 2004
[100]Franz Baader, Digeo Calvanese, Deborah McGuinness, Daniele Nardi, Peter-PatelSchineider. The Description Logic Handbook:Theory, Implementation and Application, Cambridge University Press,2003
[101]Peter F., Patel-schneider, Patrick Hayes. OWL Web Ontology Language Semantics and Abstrack Syntax, http://www.w3.org/TR/owlsemantics/,2006
[102]Ian. Horrocks, P. F. Patel-Schneider. Reducing OWL Entailmet to Description Logic Satisfability, http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/-horrocks/Publications/download/2004/ HoPa04b.pdf
[103]Harding J. Geo-ontology Concepts and Issues [EB/OL], Report of a workshop on Geo-ontology. Ilkley UK,2002, http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/
[104]Hardy P. and Yaser B. Domain ontologies for data sharing-an example from environmental monitoring using field GIS[J], Computers and Geosciences,2002,28(1): 95-102
[105]Hiramatsu K. and Reitsma F. GeoReferencing the Semantic Web:ontology based markup of geographically referenced information, Joint EuroSDR/Euro Geographics workshop on Ontologies and Schema TranslationServices, Paris, France,2004
[106]Jones C. B., et al. Spatial Information Retrieval and Geographical Ontologies:An Overview of the SPIRIT project. In:SIGIR 2002:Proceedings of the 25th Annual International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval,2002, Tampere, Finland, ACM Press,387-388
[107]Jones C. B., Abdelmoty A. I. and Fu C. Maintaining Ontologies for Geographical Information Retrieval on the Web, In:Proceedings of OTM Confederated International Conferences CoopIS, DOA, and OOBASE,2003,934-951
[108]Jones C. B., Abdelmoty A. L, Finch D., et al. The SPIRIT Spatial Search Engine: Architecture, Ontologies and Spatial Indexing, In:Geographic Information Science: Third International Conference. GIScience 2004, Adelphi, Md, Usa, October 20-23, 2004,125-139
[109]Kavouras M. and Kokla M. A method for the formalization and integration of geographical categorizations[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2002,16(5):439-453
[110]Kavouras M., Kokla M. and Tomai E. Comparing Categories among geographic ontologies[J], Computers&Geosciences,2005,31(2):145-154
[111]Kokla M. and Kavouras M. Fusion of Top-level and Geographical Domain Ontologies Based on Context Formation and Complementarity[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2001,15(7):679-687
[112]Mark D. M. Human Spatial Cognition. In Medyckyj-Scott, D., and Hearnshaw, H. M., editors, Human Factors in Geographical Information Systems, Belhaven Press,1993b, 51-60
[113]Buitelaar P. Lexical Semantics in Information Systems, http://dfki.de/-paulb/ lexsem/2001/lexsem.html,2001
[114]Smith B., Mark D. M.1999 Ontology with Human Subjects Testing, American Journal of Economics and Sociology 58/2
[115]Simons P. M. Part:An Essay in Ontology, Oxford:Clarendon Press,1987
[116]Guarino N. Formal Ontology, Conceptual Analysis and KnowledgeRepresentation[J], International Journal of Human and Computer Studies,1995,43(5/6):625-640
[117]Kuhn W. Ontologies in support of activities in geographical space[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2001,15(7):591-612
[118]Li M., Zhou S. and Jones C. B. MAPLET:Multi-Agent Systems for Web-Based Map Information Retrieval, in:Egenhofer M. and Mark D. (Eds.), GIScience2002, Vol.2478, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Berlin:Springer Verlag,2002,161-180
[119]Li M. and QiM. MAPBOT:A Web Based Map Information Retrieval System[J], Information and Software Technology,2003,45(10):691-698
[120]Lutz M., Einspanier U., Klien E. and Hiibner S. An Architecture for Ontology-Based Discovery and Retrieval of Geographic Information, Semantic Web Services and DynamicNetworks Workshop (SWSDN2004), Ulm, Germany,2004
[121]D. Fensel, J. Hendler, H. Lieberman and W. Wahlster, eds. Spinning the Semantic Web. Cambridge, MA:MIT Press,2003
[122]J. Davies, D. Fensel and F. van Harmelen, eds. Towards the Semantic Web: Ontology-Driven Knowledge Management, New York:Wiley,2002
[123]Chandrasekaran B, Josephson J R, Benjamins V R. What Are Ontologies, and Why Do We Need Them?[J], IEEE Intelligent Systems,1999,14(1):20-26
[124]RandellD A, Cui Z, Cohn A G. A Spatial Logic Based on Regions and Connection[A], 3rd International Conference on Knowledge Representation and Reasoning[C], San Francisco:Morgan Kaufmann,1992
[125]Cohn A G, Bennett B, Goodday J, et al. Qualitative Spatial Representation and Reasoning with Region Connection Calculus[J], Geoinformatica,1997,1(3):215-316
[126]Quinlan J R. Induction of Decision Trees [J], Machine Learning,1986,1:81-106
[127]Witten IH, Frank E. DataMining:PracticalMachine Learning Tools and Techniques with Java Implementations [M], San Francisco:Morgan Kaufmann,2000
[128]Quinlan J R. C4.5:Programming forMachine Learning[M], SanMateo, CA:Morgan Kaufmann,1993
[129]Mark D. M., Freska C., Hirtle S. C., et al. Cognitive Models of Geographical Space [J], International Journal of Information Science,1999,13(8):747-774
[130]Mark D. M., Egenhofer M. J. Calibrating the Meanings of Spatial Predicates from Natural Language:Line-region Relations[A], Proceedings, Spatial Data Handling[C], 1994
[131]Mark D. M., Egenhofer M. J. Topology of Prototypical Spatial Relations between Lines and Regions in English and Spanish[A], Proceedings, Auto Carto 12 [C]. Charlotte, North Carolina,1995,245-254
[132]ShariffR, EgenhoferM. J, Mark D. M. Natural-language Spatial Relations between Linear and Areal Objects:the Topology and Metric of English-language Terms[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,1998,12(3):215-246
[133]Xu J. Natural-language Representation and Query of Liner GeographicObjects inGIS[D], Ph. D Dissertation, Department of Geography, StateUniversity of New York atBuffalo,2005
[134]Bishr Y. Overcoming the semantic and other barriers to GIS interoperability[J], Int. J. Geographical Information Science,1998,12(4):299-314
[135]William S, Austin T. Ontologies[J], IEEE Intelligent Systems,1999(3):18-19
[136]Cohn A G, Hazarika S M. Qualitative spatial representation and reasoning; An overview[J], Fundamental Information,2001,46(1-2):1-29
[134]Perez A G, Benjamins V R. Overview of knowledge sharing and reuse components: ontologies and problem solving methods[C], Proceedings of the IJCAI99 workshop on Ontologies and Problem Solving Methods(KRR5),1999:1-15
[135]Thomas B. Rough Sets in Spatio-temporal Data Mining, Heidelberg:SpringerBerlin, 2001,89-104
[136]Bittner T,Stell G J. Rough Sets in Approximate Spatial Reasoning, Heidelberg: SpringerBerlin,2001,445-453
[137]Beaubouef T, PetryE F, LadnerR. SpatialDataMethods and Vague Regions:A Rough SetApproac[J]h, Applied Soft Computing,2007,7(1):425-440
[138]Wang S L. Yuan H N,Chen G Q. Rough Spatial Interpretation, Heidelberg: SpringerBerlin,2004,435-444
[139]Ahlqvist O, Keukelaar J, OukbirK. Rough Classification and AccuracyAssessment[J], International JournalGeographical Information Science,2000,14(5):475-496
[140]Ahlqvist O, Keukelaar J, Oukbir K. Rough and Fuzzy Geographical Data Intgration[J], International Journal Geographical Information Science,2003,17(3):223-234
[141]NedasK, EgenhoferM J, W ilmsen D. Metric Details of Topological Line-line Relations[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2007,21(1): 21-48
[142]Xu J. Formalize Natural-language Spatial Relations between Linear Objects with Topologic and Metric Properties[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2007,21(4):377-395
[143]YaoX, Thill JC. How Far isToo Far-A StatisticalApproach to Proximity Modeling[J], Transactions in GIS,2005,9(2):157-178
[144]YaoX, Thill JC. Neuro-Fuzzy Modeling of Context-Contingent Proximity Relations[J], Geographical Analysis:An International Journal of Theoretical Geography,2007,39(2): 169-194
[146]Worboys M. Nearness Relations in Environmental Space[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2001,15(7):633-651
[147]Xu J, Yao C. Formalizing Natural-language Spatial Relations Descriptions with Fuzzy Decision Tree Algorithm[C], In Proceedings of SPIE, Volume 6420, Geoinformatics, Wuhan, China, October28-29,2006,64201E-1-10
[148]Mark M D, Comas D, EgenhoferM J, et al. Evaluating and refining computational models of spatial relations through cross-linguistic human-subjects testing, In:A Frank and W Kuhn (eds.), Spatial Information Theory A theoretical Basis forGIS, International Conference COSIT', Semmering, Austria, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Berlin:Springer-Verlag,1995(988):553-568
[149]刘瑜,龚咏喜,高勇,张晶.地理空间中的空间关系表达和推理[J],地理与地理 信息科学,2007,23(5)：l-6
[150]LiuY. WangX. JinX et al. On internal cardinaldirection relations. In AG Cohn andDMMark (eds.), Spatial Information Theory:Cognitive and Computational Foundations, Proceedings of COSIT'05, LNCS 3693, SpringerVerlag Berlin Heidelberg,2005,283-299
[151]Zhang J, Liu Y, Sun J et al. The semantic analysis about the spatial orientation expression of GIS in Chinese case study of Beijing, In Proceedings of SPIE, Volume 6420, Geoinformatics, Whuhan, China, October28-29,2006,64200Z-1-13
[152]邓敏,徐锐,李志林,祁华斌.空间查询中自然语言空间关系与度量空间关系的转换方法研究：以面目标为例[J],测绘学报,2009,38(6)：527-531
[153]EGENHOFER M J, CLEMENTINI E. Evaluating Inconsistencies among Multiple Representations[D]//Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling, Edinburgh:[s.n.],1994:901-920
[154]CHEN J, LIU W, LI Z, et al. Detection of Spatial Conflicts between Rivers and Contours in Digital Map Updating[J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2007,21(10):1093-1114
[155]ZHANG M, MENG L. An Iterative Road-Matching Approach for the Integration of Postal Data [J], Computers, Environment and Urban Systems,2007,31(5):597-615
[156]http://www.w3.org/
[157]http://www.mindswap.org/
[158]http://protege.stanford.edu/
[159]http://www.networkinference.com/
[160]http://www.daml.org/ontologies
[161]http://www.getty.edu/research/conducting_research/vocabularies/tgn/
[162]XU J. Formalizing Natural-Language Spatial Relations between Linear Objects with Topological and Metric properties [J], International Journal of Geographical Information Science,2007,21(4):377-395
[163]SCHNEIDER M. Vague Topological Predicates for Crisp Regions through Metric Refinements[C]//Proceedings of 12th International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling, Berlin:Springer,2004:149-162
[164]EGENHOFER M J, MARK D. Naive Geography[C]//FRANK A, KUHN W. Conference on Spatial Information Theory:A Theoretical Basis for GIS, Berlin: Springer Verlag,1995:1-5
[165]Coenen F, Visser P. A Core Ontology for SpatialReasoning[D], Liverpool:University of Liverpool,1998
[167]Goyal P K. Similarity Assessment for Gardinal Directions between Extended SpatialObjects[D], Orono:University of Maine,2000
[168]潘农菲.GIS的空间数据在关系型数据库的实现理论及应用技术[J],计算机应用研究,2002,19(2)：92
[169]Morimoto Y. Extracting Spatial Knowledge from the Web, http://www. morimo. com/morimo-ken/pub/120_morimoto_y.pdf,2003
[170]Schilder S. Extracting Spatial Information:Grounding, Classifying and Linking Spatial Expressions, http://www.geo. unizh. ch/-rsp/gir/abstracts/schilder.pdf,2004
[171]Johansson R. Carsim:A System to Visualize Written Road Accident Reports as Animated 3D Scenes, http://www.cs.lth.se/home/Pierre_Nugues/Articles/acl2004/ acl2004.pdf,2004
[172]Baker C F, Fillmore C J, Lowe J B. The Berkeley FrameNet Project, http://framenet. icsi. berkeley.edu/-framenet/papers/acl98.pdf,1998
[173]Gildea D L, Hockenmaier J. Identifying Semantic Roles Using Combinatory Categorial Grammar, http://www. cs. rochester. edu/-gildea/gildea-emn-1p03.pdf,2003
[174]Pradhan S. Semantic Role Parsing:Adding Semantic Structure to UnstructuredText. http://oak.colorado.edu/-spradhan/publications/pradhan-icdm-2003.pdf,2003
[175]吴立新,徐磊,陈学习,车德福.基于主体人与地学本体的人-地-GIS关系讨论[J],地理与地理信息科学,2006,22(1)：1-6
[176]VISSER U, STUCKENSCHMIDT H, SCHUSTER G, et al. Ontologies for geographic information processing[J], Computers & Geosciences,2002(28):103-117
[177]张辉.论空间概念在语言知识构建中的作用.解放军外语学院学报,1998,21(1)：19-22
[178]刘宁生.汉语如何表达物体的空间关系,中国语文,1994,(3)：169-179
[179]T. Fuhr, G. Socher and C. Scheering. A Three-dimensional Spatial Model for the Interpretation of Image Data, IJCAI-95 Workshop on the Representation and Processing of Spatial Expressions, Montreal, Canada,1995,93-102
[180]W. Terry. Understanding Natural Language, Academic Press,1972
[181]W. Terry. Procedures as a Representation for Data in a Computer Program for Understanding Natural Language, MIT AI Technical Report 235,1971
[182]Fensel D, van Harmelen F. OIL:an Ontology Infrastructure for the Semantic Web [J], IEEE Intelligent Systems,2001,2(16):12-14
[183]Han J W, Kamber M. Data Mining Concepts and Techniques[M], New York:Morgan Kaufmann Publishers,2001
[184]Andrews J. H. Map and Language:A Metaphor Extended, Cartographica,28/2: 89-90
[185]http://www.w3china.org/
[186]周子力.基于WordNet的本体构建及其在安全领域应用关键技术研究.华东师范大学博士论文[D],2009
[187]Borgo S, Guarino N, Masolo C and Vetere G. Using a large linguistic ontology for Internet-based retrieval of object-oriented components, In. Proeeedings of 1997 Conference on Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering, Mardrid, Knowledge Systems Institute, Snokie, IL, USA
[188]Yamaguehi T. Constructing domain ontologies based on concept drift analysis, In.Proceedings of IJCAI-99 Workshop on Ontologies and Problem-Solving Methods:Lessons Learned and Future Trends, in conjunction with the Sixteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, August, Stockholm, Sweden
[189]Keng-Woei Tan, Hyoil Han, Ramez Elmasri. Web data cleansing and preparation for ontology extraction using WordNet. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Web Information Systems Engineering,2000
[190]ZingerS, Millet C, Mathieu B, Grefenstette G, Hide P, Moellic P.-A. "Extracting an Ontology of Portrayable Objects from Wordnet", MUSCLE/ImageCLEF workshop on Image and Video retrieval evaluation, Vienna, Austria,2005,17-23