14-17世纪欧洲的军事革命与社会转型
摘要
从中世纪晚期到近代早期，欧洲军事领域发生了一系列变革，其中一些重要变革不仅在短时间内剧烈地改变了欧洲战争的面貌，而且对欧洲社会发展的进程产生了重大影响，这就是所谓军事革命。在14—17世纪这段时间里，欧洲至少发生了5场军事革命：14世纪的步兵革命、15世纪前期的火炮革命、16世纪早期的防御工事革命、16世纪末至17世纪初的战术革命以及16世纪的海战革命，等等。我们强调这些军事变革的重要性，不仅在于它们在军事史上的地位，更主要的是因为其在制度和社会方面的影响有力地促进了中世纪晚期至近代早期欧洲的社会转型。
以往学术界通常把火药武器或雇佣军的出现作为从军事上促进了西欧封建制瓦解的关键性事件，但英、法及西班牙等国封建贵族被王权驯服的过程证明，这种观点是存在一定局限性的。在14世纪，步兵开始取代重装骑兵成为西欧战场上的主宰，这就是所谓步兵革命。因为步兵在作战技能和装备费用等方面的要求比较低，步兵的兴起和重装骑兵的衰落为第三等级进入军队创造了条件。步兵革命不仅削弱了贵族垄断西欧军事事务的基础，而且提高了平民的政治及社会地位，它从两方面冲击着西欧封建社会的等级秩序，因而有力地促进了西欧封建制度的瓦解。
军事革命是导致16、17世纪欧洲军队规模急剧膨胀的重要原因。军队规模的膨胀使军事费用不断攀升。由于近代早期政府动员社会资源的能力十分有限，尽管它们采取了各种措施，仍不能满足日益庞大的军费需求。另外，主要由军事革命引起的军队规模的扩大及雇佣军向常备军的转变，对政府的组织、管理能力提出挑战。在扩大财源和改善管理的双重压力下，欧洲许多国家进行了行政管理方面的改革，并逐步建立起专业化的官僚行政体系。所以，军事革命促进了欧洲行政管理体系的合理化过程。
军事革命扩大了近代早期欧洲军人与平民的分野，使军人的行为
东北师范大学博士学位论文
方式和价值观念呈现出一些新的特点：中世纪骑士军队那种以追求荣
誉、个人的英勇和对领主的忠诚为美德的观念不见了，取而代之的是
以服从命令、遵守纪律、集体感、合作精神、标准化、等级制为特征
的行为方式和价值观念。这种新的行为方式和价值观念，后来被引入
到工厂、机关、学校等社会组织中，有效地改善了这些组织的管理，
从而在一定程度上促进了欧洲近代社会的形成与发展。
军事革命提高了欧洲海军进行贸易封锁的能力，从而改善了重商
主义政策的实施效果。军事革命还导致欧洲陆海军规模的膨胀，日益
扩大的军需品生产刺激了欧洲冶金、采煤、造船及其它工业的发展。
此外，军事革命在推动欧洲各国建立安定的社会秩序、改善交通状况
及拓展海外事业等方面均发挥了一定作用，这些都是有利于欧洲资本
主义经济发展的。
从理论上讲，军事革命是在任何时期任何地方都可能发生的现象，
但在14——17世纪这段时期，世界各主要文明地区当中只有欧洲发生了
军事革命。备国之间的生存竞争、频繁的战争、巨大的军事威胁，以
及有利于革新的思想文化背景，是欧洲在14——17世纪发生一系列军事
革命的主要条件，由于世界其它地区在这段时期几乎都不具备这些条
件，回此没有发生欧洲那样的军事革命。
随着一系列军事革命的发生，欧洲军队在陆地和海上的作战能力
均得到了稳步提高，这使欧洲在与世界其它地区的对抗中逐渐取得了
越来越明显的军事优势。这种优势是欧洲人能够征服一个又一个民族
的直接原因。所以，军事革命在欧洲确立全球性优势地位的过程中发
挥了多方面的促进作用。反过来，这种全球性优势的确立，在客观上
有助于欧洲将最近几个世纪当中发展出来的各种制度和观念向世界其
它地区传播。因此，军事革命在世界其它地区由传统社会向现代社会
转型过程中也发挥了一定作用。
综上所述，军事革命在中世纪晚期至近代早期欧洲政治、经济。
思想文化和社会生活等各方面都产生了重要而深远的影响。作为推动
社会变革的诸多力量之一，军事革命有力地促进了欧洲由封建社会向
资本主义社会的过渡，加速了现代文明在欧洲的诞生，井推动了这种
且且
东北师范大学博上学位论文
新文明向全世界的传播。当然，军事革命是在与推动杜会转型的其它
因素的相互作用中发展的，其自身也是补会转型的产物。总之，14一
门世纪欧洲的军事革命，在世界由传统文明向现代文明的转型过程中
发挥了重要作用，其影响是深远的。
In the period between the 14th century and the 17th century, a series of transforms took place in the Europe military field while such transform were absent in elsewhere. Some of the transforms have not only changed rapidly the manner and the size of the European warfare but also had far-reaching impacts in the the course of the social development of Europe. These transforms are the so-called military revolutions. There were at least 5 military revolutions during this period including the Infantry Revolution in the fourteenth century, the Artillery Revolution in the early fifteenth century, the Fortification Revolution in the early sixteenth century, the Tactical Revolution from the end of the sixteenth century to the beginning of the seventeenth century, and the Naval Warfare revolution in the sixteenth century, and so on. When we pinpoint the importance of these military revolutions we take into account not only their status in the history of military affairs. What we consider more is that their impacts in the institutions and the society have accelerated effectively the social transition of the late medieval and early modern Europe.
Scholars always think that the appearing of the firearm or the naissance of the mercenary army are the main military causes of the collapse of the feudal system in the western Europe, but the processes during which the feudal nobility in England, France, Spain and other countries were tamed proved that there are defects in the traditional theory. In the fourteenth century, the infantry superseded the men-at-arms and began to dominate the battlefield of the Western Europe, this process is called the the Infantry Revolution. Since the infantry need less skill and expenditure, the rise of the infantry and the decline of the men-in-arms make it possible for the third estate to enter the army. The Revolution of the Infantry not only broke the nobility's monopoly in the military affairs but also improved the status of the third estate, it stroke the old social order of the western Europe and accelerated the collapse of the feudal system.
The military revolutions are the main cause of the sharp growth of European armies during the sixteenth century and the seventeenth century.
The growth of army lead to the rise of expenditure in military affairs. Although the governments of early modern Europe had adopted all kinds of expedients, they still couldn't find enough capital to meet the demand of the military affairs, because they lacked the capacity of mobilizing social resources. On the side, the growth of army and the substitute of the mercenary by the regular army challenged the administration of the states. In order to extending the exchequer and improving the administration, many European states began to reform their administration system and worked up specialization bureaucracy. So the military revolutions accelerated the rationalization of European administration system.
The military revolutions broadened the interfluves between soldiers and the common people, so they made the European soldiers' manner of behavior and their idea about value present some new characteristics: the medieval knight's notion which regard pursuit of honor, individual valor and loyalty to one's lord as virtue had disappeared, what had replaced it is the new notion that regard merits as to obey the orders, to observe the disciplines, loyalty to the collectivity, team spirit, standardization and grading system. Subsequently, the soldier's manner of behavior and their idea about value that came into being mostly as a result of the military revolutions were introduced into the factories, the organs of administration, the schools and other social institutions and effectively improved the management of them. At a certain extent, this had speeded the naissance and development of the modern society in Europe.
The military revolutions have increased the European navy's power to exert traffic blockage then improved the effect of the mercantilist policy. The military revolutions also expanded the size of th
以往学术界通常把火药武器或雇佣军的出现作为从军事上促进了西欧封建制瓦解的关键性事件，但英、法及西班牙等国封建贵族被王权驯服的过程证明，这种观点是存在一定局限性的。在14世纪，步兵开始取代重装骑兵成为西欧战场上的主宰，这就是所谓步兵革命。因为步兵在作战技能和装备费用等方面的要求比较低，步兵的兴起和重装骑兵的衰落为第三等级进入军队创造了条件。步兵革命不仅削弱了贵族垄断西欧军事事务的基础，而且提高了平民的政治及社会地位，它从两方面冲击着西欧封建社会的等级秩序，因而有力地促进了西欧封建制度的瓦解。
军事革命是导致16、17世纪欧洲军队规模急剧膨胀的重要原因。军队规模的膨胀使军事费用不断攀升。由于近代早期政府动员社会资源的能力十分有限，尽管它们采取了各种措施，仍不能满足日益庞大的军费需求。另外，主要由军事革命引起的军队规模的扩大及雇佣军向常备军的转变，对政府的组织、管理能力提出挑战。在扩大财源和改善管理的双重压力下，欧洲许多国家进行了行政管理方面的改革，并逐步建立起专业化的官僚行政体系。所以，军事革命促进了欧洲行政管理体系的合理化过程。
军事革命扩大了近代早期欧洲军人与平民的分野，使军人的行为
东北师范大学博士学位论文
方式和价值观念呈现出一些新的特点：中世纪骑士军队那种以追求荣
誉、个人的英勇和对领主的忠诚为美德的观念不见了，取而代之的是
以服从命令、遵守纪律、集体感、合作精神、标准化、等级制为特征
的行为方式和价值观念。这种新的行为方式和价值观念，后来被引入
到工厂、机关、学校等社会组织中，有效地改善了这些组织的管理，
从而在一定程度上促进了欧洲近代社会的形成与发展。
军事革命提高了欧洲海军进行贸易封锁的能力，从而改善了重商
主义政策的实施效果。军事革命还导致欧洲陆海军规模的膨胀，日益
扩大的军需品生产刺激了欧洲冶金、采煤、造船及其它工业的发展。
此外，军事革命在推动欧洲各国建立安定的社会秩序、改善交通状况
及拓展海外事业等方面均发挥了一定作用，这些都是有利于欧洲资本
主义经济发展的。
从理论上讲，军事革命是在任何时期任何地方都可能发生的现象，
但在14——17世纪这段时期，世界各主要文明地区当中只有欧洲发生了
军事革命。备国之间的生存竞争、频繁的战争、巨大的军事威胁，以
及有利于革新的思想文化背景，是欧洲在14——17世纪发生一系列军事
革命的主要条件，由于世界其它地区在这段时期几乎都不具备这些条
件，回此没有发生欧洲那样的军事革命。
随着一系列军事革命的发生，欧洲军队在陆地和海上的作战能力
均得到了稳步提高，这使欧洲在与世界其它地区的对抗中逐渐取得了
越来越明显的军事优势。这种优势是欧洲人能够征服一个又一个民族
的直接原因。所以，军事革命在欧洲确立全球性优势地位的过程中发
挥了多方面的促进作用。反过来，这种全球性优势的确立，在客观上
有助于欧洲将最近几个世纪当中发展出来的各种制度和观念向世界其
它地区传播。因此，军事革命在世界其它地区由传统社会向现代社会
转型过程中也发挥了一定作用。
综上所述，军事革命在中世纪晚期至近代早期欧洲政治、经济。
思想文化和社会生活等各方面都产生了重要而深远的影响。作为推动
社会变革的诸多力量之一，军事革命有力地促进了欧洲由封建社会向
资本主义社会的过渡，加速了现代文明在欧洲的诞生，井推动了这种
且且
东北师范大学博上学位论文
新文明向全世界的传播。当然，军事革命是在与推动杜会转型的其它
因素的相互作用中发展的，其自身也是补会转型的产物。总之，14一
门世纪欧洲的军事革命，在世界由传统文明向现代文明的转型过程中
发挥了重要作用，其影响是深远的。
In the period between the 14th century and the 17th century, a series of transforms took place in the Europe military field while such transform were absent in elsewhere. Some of the transforms have not only changed rapidly the manner and the size of the European warfare but also had far-reaching impacts in the the course of the social development of Europe. These transforms are the so-called military revolutions. There were at least 5 military revolutions during this period including the Infantry Revolution in the fourteenth century, the Artillery Revolution in the early fifteenth century, the Fortification Revolution in the early sixteenth century, the Tactical Revolution from the end of the sixteenth century to the beginning of the seventeenth century, and the Naval Warfare revolution in the sixteenth century, and so on. When we pinpoint the importance of these military revolutions we take into account not only their status in the history of military affairs. What we consider more is that their impacts in the institutions and the society have accelerated effectively the social transition of the late medieval and early modern Europe.
Scholars always think that the appearing of the firearm or the naissance of the mercenary army are the main military causes of the collapse of the feudal system in the western Europe, but the processes during which the feudal nobility in England, France, Spain and other countries were tamed proved that there are defects in the traditional theory. In the fourteenth century, the infantry superseded the men-at-arms and began to dominate the battlefield of the Western Europe, this process is called the the Infantry Revolution. Since the infantry need less skill and expenditure, the rise of the infantry and the decline of the men-in-arms make it possible for the third estate to enter the army. The Revolution of the Infantry not only broke the nobility's monopoly in the military affairs but also improved the status of the third estate, it stroke the old social order of the western Europe and accelerated the collapse of the feudal system.
The military revolutions are the main cause of the sharp growth of European armies during the sixteenth century and the seventeenth century.
The growth of army lead to the rise of expenditure in military affairs. Although the governments of early modern Europe had adopted all kinds of expedients, they still couldn't find enough capital to meet the demand of the military affairs, because they lacked the capacity of mobilizing social resources. On the side, the growth of army and the substitute of the mercenary by the regular army challenged the administration of the states. In order to extending the exchequer and improving the administration, many European states began to reform their administration system and worked up specialization bureaucracy. So the military revolutions accelerated the rationalization of European administration system.
The military revolutions broadened the interfluves between soldiers and the common people, so they made the European soldiers' manner of behavior and their idea about value present some new characteristics: the medieval knight's notion which regard pursuit of honor, individual valor and loyalty to one's lord as virtue had disappeared, what had replaced it is the new notion that regard merits as to obey the orders, to observe the disciplines, loyalty to the collectivity, team spirit, standardization and grading system. Subsequently, the soldier's manner of behavior and their idea about value that came into being mostly as a result of the military revolutions were introduced into the factories, the organs of administration, the schools and other social institutions and effectively improved the management of them. At a certain extent, this had speeded the naissance and development of the modern society in Europe.
The military revolutions have increased the European navy's power to exert traffic blockage then improved the effect of the mercantilist policy. The military revolutions also expanded the size of th
引文
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4．恩格斯：《棱堡》，《马克思恩格斯全集》第14卷，北京：人民出版社1964年版。
5．恩格斯：《骑兵》，《马克思恩格斯全集》第14卷，北京：人民出版社1964年版。
6．恩格斯：《筑城》，《马克思恩格斯全集》第14卷，北京：人民出版社1964年版。
7．恩格斯：《步兵》，《马克思恩格斯全集》第14卷，北京：人民出版社1964年版。
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11．徐家玲、王云龙：《土耳其近代化改革的特点》，刘明翰等主编《2000年环球回顾：社会转型问题天津国际学术会议论丛》，长春：吉林人民出版社2001年版。
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13．马克垚：《从比较中探索古代世界史结构》，《文明比较研究》(创刊号)2001年第1期。
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18．[宋]朱熹注：《周易本义》，影印本《四书五经》上卷，北京：北京古籍出版社1995年版。
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22．孙建祥、杜永吉：《新军事革命的若干理论问题——记博士生导师梁必骎少将与博士生们的一次对话》，《南京政治学院学报》2002年第2期。
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25．阎理：《军事革命与高等军事教育发展》，《南京政治学院学报》1999年第6期。
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31．[英]R．B．沃纳姆主编：《新编剑桥世界近代史》第3卷，施青林等译，北京：中国社会科学出版社1999年版。
32．[美]菲利普·李·拉尔夫、罗伯特·勒纳、斯坦迪什·米查姆、爱德华·伯恩斯：《世界文明史》下卷，赵丰等译，北京：商务印书馆1999年版。
33．[美]伊曼纽尔·沃勒斯坦：《现代世界体系》第1—2卷，庞卓恒等译，北京：高等教育出版社1998年版。
34．[法]费尔南·布罗代尔：《菲利普二世时代的地中海和地中海世界》上、下卷，吴模信译，北京：商务印书馆1998年版。
35．[法]费尔南·布罗代尔：《十五至十八世纪的物质文明、经济和资本主义》第3卷，顾良、施康强译，北京：三联书店1993年版。
36．[法]费尔南·布罗代尔：《资本主义的动力》，杨起译，北京：三联书店1997年版。
37．[意]卡洛·M．齐波拉主编：《欧洲经济史》第2卷：《十六和十七世纪》，贝昱、张菁译，北京：商务印书馆1988年版。
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42．[美]詹姆斯·W．汤普逊：《中世纪晚期欧洲经济社会史》，徐家玲等译，北京：商务印书馆1992年版。
43．[瑞士]雅各布·布克哈特：《意大利文艺复兴时期的文化》，何新译，北京：商务印书馆1983年版。
44．[英]安东尼·吉登斯：《民族-国家与暴力》，胡宗泽、赵力涛译，北京：三联书店1998年版。
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47．[意]马基亚弗里：《君主论》，高煜译，桂林：广西师范大学出版社2002年版。
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49．[德]贡德·弗兰克：《白银资本：重视经济全球化中的东方》，刘北成译，北京：中央编译出版社2001年版。
50．[法]安德烈·比尔基埃等主编：《家庭史》第2卷，袁树仁等译，北京：三联书店1998年版。
51．[英]杰拉尔德·豪厄特主编：《世界历史词典(简本)》，马加瑞等译，北京：商务印书馆1988年版。
52．[德]格哈特·哈特曼：《世界历代战役博览》，陈锋、吕耀坤译，北京：中国友谊出版公司1994年版。
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