聋人与听力正常人图形视知觉加工能力的比较实验研究
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摘要
在现代认知心理学的知觉研究中，局部加工假说一直占据着理论阐述和实验研究的核心地位。作为一个重要的对立力量，整体加工假说也存在着较大的影响，并在一定程度上校正着局部加工假说的的研究偏差。但由于格式塔心理学缺乏实验研究的支持，整体加工假说始终远离现代认知心理学的主流研究。基于二十余年的研究积累，陈霖的拓扑性质知觉理论从格式塔心理学的整体加工思想出发，试图结合拓扑学的相关研究，对人类的知觉加工给出一个“大范围到局部”的说明，认为视觉系统的基本单元和一般功能是拓扑性质的知觉，知觉组织应当从变换和变换中的不变性知觉的角度进行理解。
基于拓扑性质知觉理论的相关阐述设计实验材料，主要采用知觉研究中的注意捕获和变化盲视的实验范式，本研究尝试以四个系列研究对拓扑性质知觉理论的基本观点进行检验。与此同时，基于感觉剥夺或丧失的跨模块可塑性研究成果，本研究在四个系列研究的实验开展中，相继引入视觉刺激呈现时间、注意负载、视觉刺激的特异性、视觉刺激的意义性等新的变量，以进一步考察视知觉加工过程所可能牵涉到的影响因素的作用，并以听力正常人的行为表现为参照对聋人的视觉补偿机制进行研究性评估。
四个系列研究的研究结果表明，陈霖的拓扑性质知觉理论对视觉系统具有早期抽取图形拓扑性质的描述欠妥当，图形视知觉的加工过程并不受图形几何变换功能层次的制约，不同几何性质的相对知觉显著性与克莱茵的埃尔朗根纲领所描述的几何层次不一致。与此同时，聋人听力损失所带来的视知觉补偿效应可能是有限的，且具有选择性。在图形差异的视觉判断任务上，聋人的视知觉加工能力虽然不会因刺激呈现时间的缩短而变化，但总体上并不比听力正常人优越；在注意负载和中心视野条件下的视觉搜索任务上，聋人同样表现出与听力正常人相当的加工水平，没有出现视知觉加工的补偿效应；而在跨时间间隔的变化检测任务上，聋人则表现出相对于听力正常人的视知觉加工劣势，不能有效地对图形的变化进行检测。
In the perceptive studies of modern cognitive psychology, the local processing hypothesis is the core theory of experimental study. Being one opposite theory, the holistic processing hypothesis also affects the perceptive studies, and corrects the research direction of local processing hypothesis in some degree. However, for the shortage of the evidence of experimental study in Gestalt psychological research, the holistic processing hypothesis deviated from the main stream of modern cognitive psychology. Based on twenty years's research, Chen Lin developed the holistic processing hypothesis of Gestalt psychology into topology property perception theory, and thought of the human perception as a processing from holistic property to local property of perceptual object. From the viewpoint of Chen, a primitive and general function of the visual system is the perception of topological properties, and perceptual organization should be understood in the perspective of transformation and perception of invariance over transformation in the topological approach.
Based on the Chen's topology property perception theory, we designed a series of experimental materials in four studies, and emipoyed some experimental paradigms, such as attentional capture and change blindness, in order to examine the basic viewpoint of topology property perception theory. At the same time, we used some new variances, for example, visual stimulus emerging time, visual attentional loading, special visual stimulus, and meaning of visual stimulus, in order to examine the effect of affecting factor of visual processing. Based on the studies on cross-modal plasticity of sensory deprived animals or sensory loss human, we also examined the visual compensation mechanism in deaf human, and compared the differences between deaf and hearing-normal human.
Through analyzing the research result of four series studies, we conclude that the description about toplogical perception that is prior to the perception of local featural properties does not fit to the visual perception, and the figure visual perception is not affected by the different geometrical levels, and the relative perceptual salience of different geometrical properities is not consistent with the hierarchy of geometries according to Klein's Erlangen Program. At the same time, we conclude that the visual compensation in deaf human is limited and selected because of the audio-loss. In the task of visual judgment of difference between two figures, the visual perception abilities of deaf human kept the same level when the emerging time of visual stimulus becomes short, but was not different from hearing-normal human in total. In the task of visual search which must be completed in the condition of attentional loading or central focus of attention, the abilities of visual perception had no difference between deaf and hearing-normal human, and the visual compensation in deaf human did not appear. In the task of changing detection during a temporal gap, deaf human did worse than hearing-normal human in that they could not effectively detect the change between the orginal and altered figure.
基于拓扑性质知觉理论的相关阐述设计实验材料，主要采用知觉研究中的注意捕获和变化盲视的实验范式，本研究尝试以四个系列研究对拓扑性质知觉理论的基本观点进行检验。与此同时，基于感觉剥夺或丧失的跨模块可塑性研究成果，本研究在四个系列研究的实验开展中，相继引入视觉刺激呈现时间、注意负载、视觉刺激的特异性、视觉刺激的意义性等新的变量，以进一步考察视知觉加工过程所可能牵涉到的影响因素的作用，并以听力正常人的行为表现为参照对聋人的视觉补偿机制进行研究性评估。
四个系列研究的研究结果表明，陈霖的拓扑性质知觉理论对视觉系统具有早期抽取图形拓扑性质的描述欠妥当，图形视知觉的加工过程并不受图形几何变换功能层次的制约，不同几何性质的相对知觉显著性与克莱茵的埃尔朗根纲领所描述的几何层次不一致。与此同时，聋人听力损失所带来的视知觉补偿效应可能是有限的，且具有选择性。在图形差异的视觉判断任务上，聋人的视知觉加工能力虽然不会因刺激呈现时间的缩短而变化，但总体上并不比听力正常人优越；在注意负载和中心视野条件下的视觉搜索任务上，聋人同样表现出与听力正常人相当的加工水平，没有出现视知觉加工的补偿效应；而在跨时间间隔的变化检测任务上，聋人则表现出相对于听力正常人的视知觉加工劣势，不能有效地对图形的变化进行检测。
In the perceptive studies of modern cognitive psychology, the local processing hypothesis is the core theory of experimental study. Being one opposite theory, the holistic processing hypothesis also affects the perceptive studies, and corrects the research direction of local processing hypothesis in some degree. However, for the shortage of the evidence of experimental study in Gestalt psychological research, the holistic processing hypothesis deviated from the main stream of modern cognitive psychology. Based on twenty years's research, Chen Lin developed the holistic processing hypothesis of Gestalt psychology into topology property perception theory, and thought of the human perception as a processing from holistic property to local property of perceptual object. From the viewpoint of Chen, a primitive and general function of the visual system is the perception of topological properties, and perceptual organization should be understood in the perspective of transformation and perception of invariance over transformation in the topological approach.
Based on the Chen's topology property perception theory, we designed a series of experimental materials in four studies, and emipoyed some experimental paradigms, such as attentional capture and change blindness, in order to examine the basic viewpoint of topology property perception theory. At the same time, we used some new variances, for example, visual stimulus emerging time, visual attentional loading, special visual stimulus, and meaning of visual stimulus, in order to examine the effect of affecting factor of visual processing. Based on the studies on cross-modal plasticity of sensory deprived animals or sensory loss human, we also examined the visual compensation mechanism in deaf human, and compared the differences between deaf and hearing-normal human.
Through analyzing the research result of four series studies, we conclude that the description about toplogical perception that is prior to the perception of local featural properties does not fit to the visual perception, and the figure visual perception is not affected by the different geometrical levels, and the relative perceptual salience of different geometrical properities is not consistent with the hierarchy of geometries according to Klein's Erlangen Program. At the same time, we conclude that the visual compensation in deaf human is limited and selected because of the audio-loss. In the task of visual judgment of difference between two figures, the visual perception abilities of deaf human kept the same level when the emerging time of visual stimulus becomes short, but was not different from hearing-normal human in total. In the task of visual search which must be completed in the condition of attentional loading or central focus of attention, the abilities of visual perception had no difference between deaf and hearing-normal human, and the visual compensation in deaf human did not appear. In the task of changing detection during a temporal gap, deaf human did worse than hearing-normal human in that they could not effectively detect the change between the orginal and altered figure.
引文
1 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论(译者的话)，北京：科学出版社，1988：ⅰ
2 苏格兰哲学家托马斯·里德(1710-1796)首先在感觉和知觉之间进行区分，认为感觉是意识中经验到的感觉器官的活动，而知觉依赖于感觉，又不同于感觉，包括着知觉者对外界存在的一种强烈的意识和信念。在现代心理学的“普通心理学”体系中，感觉和知觉也被看作是两个分离的过程，前者主要指感觉器官和中枢的生理活动，后者则指个体对于直接刺激的一种意义获得，受到知识经验的影响和制约，是一种纯粹的心理活动。而在现代认知心理学的理论体系中，感觉和知觉并没有进行区分，被笼统地成为“感知觉”或“知觉”，但含义等同于“知觉”。本文所述“知觉”以现代认知心理学的相关阐述为依据，包括“普通心理学”体系的“感觉”和“知觉”部分。
3 J．P．查普林，T．S．克拉威克(林方译)：心理学的体系和理论，北京：商务印书馆，1983：115
4 F．梯利(葛力译)：西方哲学史(增补修订版)，北京：商务印书馆，1995：345
5 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：190
6 T. H. Leahey: A history of psychology: Main currents in psychological thought, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 2000: 254-255
7 冯特本人所谓的“实验内省”的德文原词是“experimentelle selbstbeobachtung”，而“内省”的德文词是“innere wahrnehmung”。因此，严格意义上，“selbstbeobachtung”并不能翻译成“内省”(即英文的“introspection”)。实际上，冯特本人的“selbstbeobachtung”主要指的是使用诸如反应的测量、词语的联想、对刺激的辨别反应等客观技术对心理过程进行研究。这种研究方法和铁钦纳的实验内省方法是根本对立的，冯特本人对“内省”也是深恶痛绝。在1900年评论铁钦纳研究方法的一篇文章中，冯特尖锐地指出实验内省法是一种虚假的方法。
8 B．R．赫根汉(郭本禹等译)：心理学史导论(第四版)，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：408
9 J．P．查普林，T．S．克拉威克(林方译)：心理学的体系和理论，北京：商务印书馆，1983：183
10 J. Gibson: The ecological approach to visual perception, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979: 249
11 R. Lachman et al: Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 1979: 88-129
12 E. S. Reed: James J. Gibson and the psychology of perception, New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 1988: 7
13 K. M. Galotti: Cognitive psychology: In and out of the laboratory (third edition), Belmont:Wadsworch Publishing Company, 1999:28-34
14 L. Chen: The topological approach to perceptual organization, Visual Cognition, 2005, 12(4):553-554
15 M. W. Eysenck et al: Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook (fourth edition), Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press, 2000:25
16 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fifth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1999:24
17 R．J．Sternberg(杨炳钧等译)：认知心理学(第三版)，北京：中国轻工业出版社，2006：2
18 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：179
19 G．希尔贝克，N．伊耶(童世骏等译)：西方哲学史——从古希腊到二十世纪，上海：上海译文出版社，2004：307
20 在科学心理学产生之前，哲学心理学研究的理性主义者和经验主义者都对知觉问题作了符合各自理论传统观点的说明和阐述。其中，理性主义者缪勒、海林、斯图姆夫坚持知觉的“先天说”，经验主义者洛采、赫尔姆霍茨、冯特坚持知觉的“发生说”，并由此进行了一些知觉现象的探讨。但“先天说”的坚持者并不深入讨论知觉加工的发生机制问题，只对知觉问题进行一种现象学的描述，对实验研究采取一种为我所用的态度。
21 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：343
22 主要依据B．R．赫根汉的《心理学史导论(第四版)》(郭本禹等译，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：189-236)整理。
23 无论对于理性主义，还是经验主义，“经验”一词都包含着复杂的含义，且由此而给理性主义和经验主义带来关于“知识”的理解分歧。实际上，即使是经验主义者所反对的“理性直觉”也可能给他们带来逻辑上的陷阱。因为，经验主义的基本命题“所有知识来源于经验”到底是来源于“经验”还是来源于“理性直觉”呢?抛开经验主义的逻辑陷阱，“经验”在经验主义者看来包括两个方面：内部经验和外部经验(感觉经验)，而经验主义者通常把内部经验从“经验”的解释中剔除．由此，经验主义者所坚持的基本命题可以从三个层次去理解：(1)感觉经验构成了所有知识的基本资料；(2)只有先收集了感觉证据，知识才能产生；(3)由感觉经验而产生的一切理智过程只侧重于感觉经验是如何形成有关外部世界的观念的．因此，理性主义和经验主义的重要区别不在于是否关注“感觉经验”，而在于“感觉经验”是否是个体思维过程所关注的对象。这也是科学心理学产生时期知觉研究成为第一批有着经验主义传统的心理学研究者主要研究领域的重要原因．
24 关于第一性的质和第二性的质有两种截然不同的理解．一种理解是：第一性的质是物理实在的属性，第二性的质则是主观实在的属性，其在物理世界中没有对应物．这种理解为伽利略所采用，并由此认为主观实在低于物理实在，没有办法象物理实在那样进行客观研究．另一种理解则为洛克等人所采用．实际上，关于二者的区分，后来的经验主义者贝克莱则在“存在就是被感知”的著名论断中反对洛克关于“观念源于与物理世界的相互作用”的看法，从而否认第一性的质的存在．延续贝克莱的看法，休谟进一步否认直接认识物理世界的可能性．
25 在否认直接认识物理世界的可能性的基础上，休谟进行了印象和观念的区分，认为印象是强烈而生动的知觉，而观念则是相对较弱的知觉。由此认为，所有的简单观念都来源于印象，而复合观念并不必定对应于复合的印象，观念一旦产生，可以通过想象产生无以计数的新的组合。和休谟不同，哈特莱(1705-1757)对洛克观点的修正在于否认复合观念产生时心理过程的主动性，认为所有复合观念都是由于简单观念的接近通过联想的过程自动形成的。进一步，哈特莱认为，接近也可以使复合观念发生联系而形成抽象观念．由此认为，简单观念结合成复合观念，复合观念结合成抽象观念，人们已经很难记起组成这些观念的单个的感觉．
26 约翰·穆勒(1806-1873)在很大程度上继承了其父亲詹姆斯·穆勒(1773-1836)的观点，但唯一不同的是反对其父亲的“心理物理学”观点，而提倡一种“心理化学”观点。在约翰·穆勒看来，从接近的经验中确实能自动产生一个全新的观念，但这个观念并不能被还原为简单的观念或感觉．此外，约翰·穆勒还系统阐述了观念联想的一些基本规律，其本人和父亲，及后来的培因(1818-1903)也因此被称为联想主义者．
27 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981；371
28 G．墨菲，J．科瓦奇(林方，王景和译)：近代心理学历史导引，北京：商务印书馆，1980：222
29 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：367
30 冯特(叶浩生等译)：人类与动物心理学讲义，西安：陕西人民出版社，2003：29
31 关于冯特的“元素主义”倾向，西方心理学史学者新近的一些研究认为，波林的认识是错误的，冯特本人实际上是反对元素主义的。冯特的儿子、哲学家麦克斯·冯特认为：“无论谁把这样一种思想归于我父亲，那么他肯定没有读过我父亲的著作。事实上，我的父亲正是反对元素主义心理学，即在赫尔巴特的心理学的基础上，形成他自己的心理过程的科学观的。”(麦克斯·冯特：种族中的哲学的根源，转引自高觉敷主编《西方心理学史论》，合肥：安徽教育出版社，1995：129-130)
32 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆．1981：376
33 一些心理学史研究资料表明，虽然冯特是科学心理学的奠基人，但冯特心理学的大部分并不属于实验心理学。(参见A. L. Blumenthal: A reappraisal of Wilhelm Wundt, In W. E. Pickren and D. A.Dewsbury(eds): Evolving perspectives on the history of psychology, Washington, DC: American Psychology Association，2002：65-78)即便如此，如我们在前文所指出的那样，冯特心理学的实验心理学部分也在包括研究方法和研究对象上很大程度上与铁钦纳的实验心理学相异。
34 B．R．赫根汉(郭本禹等译)：心理学史导论(第四版)，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：405
35 E．B．铁钦纳：构造心理学的公设，见：张述祖(总审校)：西方心理学家文选，北京：人民教育出版社，1983，23
36 车文博：西方心理学史，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1998：257
37 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：471
38 主要依据J．P．查普林和T．S．克拉威克的《心理学的体系和理论》(林方译，北京：商务印书馆，1983：116-120，176-178)、B．R．赫根汉的《心理学史导论(第四版)》(郭本禹等译，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004，405-407)整理。
39 在铁钦纳看来，性质、强度、明晰性和持续时间是一切感觉都有的特性，每种感觉经验中都某种程度地存在．但某些感觉可能还具有外延性的特性。如，一长条蓝纸唤起的感觉可能除四种基本特性外，还有外延性的特性．因此，有些心理学史著作把感觉和意象的特性表述为五种，即性质、强度、明晰性、持续时间和外延性． 表象就是使儿童的现在知觉富有意义的背景关系。
42 G．墨菲，J．科瓦奇(林方，王景和译)：近代心理学历史导引，北京：商务印书馆，1980：293
43 J．P．查普林，T．S．克拉威克(林方译)：心理学的体系和理论．北京：商务印书馆，1983：120
44 彼得·沃森(朱进东等译)：20世纪思想史，上海：上海译文出版社，2005：2
45 G．墨菲，J．科瓦奇(林方，王景和译)：近代心理学历史导引，北京：商务印书馆．1980：366
46 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：497
47 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：502
48 从思想渊源和师承关系来看，意动心理学、现象学、格式塔心理学都有着千丝万缕的联系。意动心理学的主要思想是布伦塔诺于1874—1894年间在奥地利首府维也纳任教期间所倡导的，因此也被称为奥地利学派，它的主要继承人是厄棱费尔。但斯图姆夫曾为布伦塔诺于1866—1874年间在符茨堡大学任教时的学生，且由于受布伦塔诺的影响而入符茨堡大学学习哲学和科学，在心理学研究的基本理念上，斯图姆夫都追随布伦塔诺，二者的观点颇为相似。但斯图姆夫并没有完全忠实于布伦塔诺，其中主要的变化就是把现象学引入了心理学，认为直接经验可以区分为三类，即现象、心理的机能和关系。在斯图姆夫看来，现象是初步的经验材料，包括感觉和意象，是心理学和物理学共同研究的对象，是为现象学；而心理的机能则包括知觉活动、组合活动、理会活动、欲望活动、意志活动等，是心理学的研究对象，但应以现象学的研究为基础。显然，我们看到，斯图姆夫的“机能”即为布伦塔诺的“意动”，而现象则包含了一部分冯特的看法，且与胡塞尔(1859-1938)的现象学有着根本的区别。众所周知，胡塞尔是现象学的创始人，但并不只有胡塞尔一人专用“现象学”一词，如斯图姆夫。但作为一种哲学和方法论的“现象学”，却是胡塞尔所独有的。胡塞尔曾于1884-1886年间为布伦塔诺的学生，后又追随斯图姆夫，并深受二者的影响。当1900-1901年出版《逻辑研究》一书时，胡塞尔把该书献给了斯图姆夫．和布伦塔诺、斯图姆夫一样，胡塞尔坚决反对心理学研究的“元素主义”倾向，坚持认为心理学的研究对象应是完整的、有意义的心理经验；和布伦塔诺、斯图姆夫不一样，胡塞尔坚持一种纯粹现象学的观点，很少或不关心主观经验和物理世界之间的关系。在胡塞尔看来，意动研究只会产生一种人向外探究环境的知识，而人向内探究所获得的知识同样重要。对于前者来说，我们可以通过内省法考察用来包含物理世界的心理意动；而对于后者来说，我们则可以通过内省法考察正在发生的所有主观性经验，而不需要把它与任何其他事物联系起来。虽然这两种内省法都关注现象学的经验，但后一种关注心理过程的本质，被胡塞尔称为纯粹现象学。和胡塞尔一样，格式塔心理学的创立者也都深受意动心理学的影响，并与斯图姆夫有着直接的师承关系，虽然他们并不承认这一点。实际上，正如我们已经指出的，几乎所有对格式塔心理学的产生起到先驱作用的思想和研究都与意动心理学有着或直接或间接的联系。无论是厄棱费尔，还是胡塞尔，甚至是马赫也曾于布伦塔诺刚刚离开时抵达维也纳，更由于关心和讨论空间知觉的缘故而和厄棱费尔相提并论。也许，我们能够得到的一个结论是，不是意动心理学或现象学促进了了格式塔心理学的产生，而是反结构主义的时代精神使然。“从广阔的前景来看，科学的发展几乎总是连续不断的，所以惠太海默在1910年的出现，不过代表时代的要求而已。假使惠太海默于1901年在布拉格执业当律师，却也可能出现另一个人来代替他，把有关整体，突现和意义等结论推向前进，因为这些结论已早为其他一些人——詹姆士，厄棱费尔，屈尔佩——各自宣传的对象了。”(E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：685)
49 作为冯特学生的屈尔佩(1862-1915)所创立的符茨堡学派提倡一种“二重心理学”，虽然试图对冯特心理学和布伦塔诺心理学进行调和，但实质上更接近布伦塔诺心理学，和对胡塞尔现象学的接受有关．“他(指屈尔佩)不相信他的哲学的兴趣和心理学的兴趣有任何不相容之处，而他之所以和冯特相距渐远，而和布伦塔诺相距渐近之故，则似间接由于胡塞尔的启发．”(E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：459)
50 按照格式塔心理学的理解，心理学研究尚处于科学研究的初期阶段，不宜使用量的研究方法，因此经验的观察是必然的．苛勒认为：“物理学是一门古老的科学，而心理学则仍处于它的幼稚时期．……如果我们想效法各种物理科学，那么我们切不可从它们的现代的、最发达的形式方面来效法它们；我们必须从它们的历史上的少年时期方面来效法它们，它们在少年时期的发展状况是可以和我们目前的状况相比拟的．”(W．苛勒：格式塔心理学，转引自杨清：现代西方心理学主要派别，沈阳：辽宁人民出版社，1980：282-283)实际上，这也是一直困扰心理学研究的一个重要问题．当库恩的“范式理论”提出后很快就被心理学研究者引用以审视心理学研究和心理学研究的发展进程即为明证．R．拉赫曼等人以范式理论为指导，声称：“我们的(认知)革命现在已经完成，并呈现出一种常规科学的气氛。”(R．Lachman et al:Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc．，1979：525)B．R．赫根汉撰写心理学史时，“假设心理学是多范式的学科，而不是处于前范式发展阶段的学科．”(B．R．赫根汉(郭本禹等译)：心理学史导论(第四版)，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：18)
51 借用现象学的理解，格式塔心理学认为，经验中的资料就是现象的经验(phenomenal experience)，是中立的经验，是不偏不倚、毫无约束的经验本身。“现象的经验”不与固定的元素(如感觉、意象、情感等)或元素的各种属性(如性质、强度、广度、持续性等)发生关系．如，我们看见一张桌子，却无须知道构成这张桌子的有意识的元素．此外，“现象的经验”包含着物体和意义，且是直接获得的。由此，格式塔心理学不对“听说”(knowledge of，对事物本质的直觉的知识)和“知及”(knowledge about，对事物明显的外在关系的知识)进行区分．在他们看来，一切物体、一切意义、一切解释和说明都是直接得到的，无须借助于推论的过程．如，我们看见一张桌子，我们可以说：“我看见一张桌子。”却无须说：“我体验到这样一种感觉模型，它与我看见一张桌子时所发生的情形相同。”
52 K．考夫卡：知觉：格式塔学说引论，见：张述祖(总审校)：西方心理学家文选，北京：人民教育出版社，1983：315
53 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：92
54 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：688
55 M．惠太海默：视见运动的实验研究，见：张述祖(总审校)：西方心理学家文选，北京：人民教育出版社，1983：285
56 M．惠太海默：视见运动的实验研究，见：张述祖(总审校)：西方心理学家文选，北京：人民教育出版社，1983：297-298
57 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：671
58 在构造主义心理学看来，感觉是直接获得的，物体的性质则是由感觉的推论得到的．因此，报告刺激本身是在报告一个推论，也就是正在作出解释和说明，不是坚持坦率的科学描述。而在格式塔心理学看来，物体是如实地呈现于经验之中的，它们就是可直接观察的资料，对它们的感觉分析才是推论的．“幸运的是，实际上我们的世界不是这样一场滑稽的恶梦；一般说来，事物总是像它们看上去的那样，或者，换一种说法，事物的外表告诉我们怎样去应付它们，尽管这像前面关于视错觉的讨论已经表明的那样，知觉有时可能具有欺骗性．”(K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：97)
59 在格式塔心理学创始人迁居美国之前，格式塔心理学的著作主要用德文写成，这使美国同行难以真正理解其思想内涵。在迁居美国之后，格式塔心理学创始人虽然也在一些大学任教，但由于其理论体系与美国的整个学术思想氛围不甚协调，他们的一些著作和言论也较少受重视。事实上，苛勒早在1917年就出版了《猿猴的智力》一书，讨论黑猩猩的学习问题，并提出“顿悟说”：考夫卡也早在1921就出版了《心之成长：儿童心理学导论》一书，并在1924年被译为英文；即使是著述较少的惠太海默，也在其逝世后于1945年出版了《创造性思维》一书，对人类的学习、思维和问题解决等问题进行讨论；更重要的是，格式塔心理学的重要学者——勒温(1890—1947)从一开始就对知觉、思维和问题解决等问题不感兴趣，而是把格式塔心理学思想扩大到社会情境，对人与环境、人与人之间的关系进行研究，并创立了“群体动力学”理论而被视为社会心理学家。在《格式塔心理学原理》一书中，考夫卡写道：“如果心理学能够指点科学和生活相遇的路径，如果它能奠定知识体系的基础[这种知识体系既包括了变形虫、白鼠、黑猩猩和人类的行为，又包含了单一原子的行为。前者的奇异活动我们称之为社会行为、音乐艺术、文学戏剧]，那末认识这样的心理学是值得的，在它上面花费时间和力气会获得补偿。”(K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：27)
60 G．墨菲，J．科瓦奇(林方，王景和译)：近代心理学历史导引，北京：商务印书馆，1980：366-367
61 主要依据K．考夫卡：格式塔心理学原理(黎炜译，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：29-276)、J．P．查普林和T．S．克拉威克：心理学的体系和理论(林方译，北京：商务印书馆，1983：183-189)、E．B．Goldstein：Sensation and perception (fourth edition) (Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996:180-194), E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fifth edition) (Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1999: 176-191)整理。
62 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：33
63 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：692-693
64 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：78
65 在区分出行为环境和地理环境的基础上，格式塔心理学引入了场论的观点，把行为环境看作是一种决定实际行为的应变和应力的系统，从而把行为环境看作是一个心理场．但是，格式塔心理学认为，如果把场的概念引入行为环境又具有一些不适当性．这种不适当性主要表现为行为环境的本体论地位、行为环境和地理环境的关系、行为场的不足。进而，格式塔心理学认为，引入生理场的概念，并把生理过程看作是一 种克分子水平的变化，从而达到了生理场和行为场的统一。由此，格式塔心理学认为，在这样一个认识基础上，可以对与心物场具有因果联系的行为进行研究。“这一纲领还可以说得更具体一些。从期望的角度，我们认为心物场是有组织的。首先，它表明了自我的极性和环境的极性，其次，这两极都具自身的结构。于是，环境既不是感觉的镶嵌，又不是‘旺盛的、嗡嗡作响的混乱状态’，更不是模糊不清的整体单位；相反，它是由一些明确的彼此独立的物体和事件所组成的，这些彼此独立的物体和事件都是组织的产物。同样，自我既不是一个点，也不是内驱力和本能的总合或镶嵌．”(K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：84-85)
66 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：135
67 在各种格式塔心理学的资料有上百种定律、原理和推论．其中，重要的有相似律(law of similarity,相似的事物被倾向于看作一组)、连续律(law of good continuation，沿一条直线或光滑曲线连续分布的点倾向于被看作一组)、接近律(law of proximity，空间上接近的事物被倾向于看作一组)、协变律(law of common fate，朝一个方向运动的事物被倾向于看作一组)、熟悉律(law of familiarity，熟悉的或有意义的事物被倾向于看作一组)．
68 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：228
69 J．P．查普林，T．S．克拉威克(林方译)：心理学的体系和理论，北京：商务印书馆，1983：186
70 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：26
71 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996:190
72 R．L．格列高里(彭聃龄，杨旻译)：视觉心理学，北京：北京师范大学出版社，1986：2
73 叶浩生：西方心理学中两种文化的分裂及其整合，心理学报，1999，31(3)：349-356
74 D. D. Cummins: A history of thinking, In R. Commins et al (eds): Minds, brains, and computers:The foundations of cognitive science: An anthology, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2000:8-19
75 B．R．赫根汉(郭本禹等译)；心理学史导论，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：907
76 心身关系问题一直是意识研究不可回避的核心问题．在“单子论”的思想基础之上，德国理性主义者莱布尼兹认为，精神和肉体之间的关系是在上帝创造时就确定好的和谐关系，二者之间不存在因果的相互作用，都按照其本性预先制定的规律而活动。可以看到，莱布尼兹实际上坚持的是一种“前定和谐”的二元论思想，即是说，精神和肉体的活动是两种不同的、独立的活动，但都受到某种外在动因的协调．
77 R. Commins et al (eds): Minds, brains, and computers: The foundations of cognitive science:An anthology, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 2000:7
78 T. H. Leahey: A history of psychology: Main currents in psychological thought, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,2000:505-510
79 R. Lachman et al: Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction, Hillsdale,New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 1979:94-110
80 在“图灵测验”中，假象一个人通过一台终端与一个隐蔽的对话者(可能是一台计算机，也可能是一个人)交换信息，如果这个人不能判断出对方是人还是计算机，这个计算机就具有了人类水平的智能。长期以来，“图灵测验”一直是对人工智能进行检验的基本方式，并构成了现代认知心理学信息加工理论的核心．然而，哲学家J．R．塞尔1980年所假象的一个思想实验——“中文屋论证”则证明这个检验是无效的．“中文屋”的思想实验表明，一个处在屋内并不懂中文的人在某种任务中可以完成与屋外说中文的人的对话．因此，J．R．塞尔认为，启用一个计算机程序并不能构成真正的思维与理解，计算机只是根据符号的形式来操作符号。
81 A. M. Turing: Computing machinery and intelligence, In R. Commins et al (eds): Minds, brains,and computers: The foundations of cognitive science: An anthology, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.. 2000:153-167
82 H. Gardner: The mind's new science: A history of the cognitive revolution, New York: Basic Books Inc., 1985:16-18
83 熊哲宏：认知科学导论，武汉：华中师范大学出版社，2002：6-9
84 T. H. Leahey: A history of psychology: Main currents in psychological thought, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 2000:505-506
85 R. Lachman et al: Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction, Hillsdale,New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 1979:33
86 T. A. Polk et al: Cognitive modeling, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002: Ⅺ
87 U. Neisser: Cognitive psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967:47
88 R．L．格列高里(彭聃龄，杨旻译)：视觉心理学，北京：北京师范大学出版社，1986：221
89 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996:176
90 U. Neisser: Cognitive and reality: Principles and implications of psychology, San Francisco:W. H. Freeman and Company,. 1976: Ⅺ-Ⅻ
91 J. L. McClelland et al: Parallel distributed processing, Volume 2: Psychological and biological models, Cambridge, MA:MIT press, 1986
92 M. S. Gazzaniga (ed): The cognitive neurosciences, Cambridge, MA:MIT press, 1995
93 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996:178-179
94 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：356
95 R．L．格列高里(彭聃龄，杨旻译)：视觉心理学，北京：北京师范大学出版社，1986：37
96 陈霖：拓扑性质检测——计算理论的一朵可能的乌云，见：钱学森：关于思维科学，上海：上海人民出版社，1986：294
97 S. Coren et al: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Orlando: Harcourt Brace & Company,1994:398-399
98 经典模板理论强调视觉信息与记忆储存模板的接近性匹配，后期的一个主要修正是假设进行匹配之前存在一个标准化的过程(即对刺激信息进行大小和方位的调整)。基于“心物同型”的理论基础，格式塔心理学反对模板理论关于记忆存储信息的使用和标准化的调整过程．(参见U．Neisser:Cognitive psychology,Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967: 61-65)
99 U. Neisser: Cognitive psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967:51-52
100 L. Chen: The topological approach to perceptual organization, Visual Cognition, 2005, 12(4):553-701
101 U. Neisser: Visual search, Scientific American, 1964, 210:94-102
102 U. Neisser et al: Searching for ten targets simultaneously, Perception of Motion Skills, 1963,17:955-961
103 U. Neisser: Cognitive psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967:71
104 M. S. Mayzner: Visual information processing of alphabetic inputs, Psychonomic Monograph Supplements, 1963, 4:239-243
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301 雷江华，李海燕：听觉障碍学生与正常学生视觉识别敏度的比较研究，中国特殊教育，2005，8：7-10
302 P. Stivalet et al: Differences in visual search tasks between congenitally deaf and normally hearing adults, Cognitive Brain Research, 1998, 6: 227-232
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304 R. Sireteanu et al: Perceptual learning in visual search: Fast, enduring, bnt non-specific, Vision Research, 1995, 35: 2037-2043
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325 赵小风：人像辨认类型及辨认人像五官的眼动差异研究，西安：陕西师范大学(学位论文)．2006
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339 在生态学研究范式的发展过程中，以U·奈瑟为首的生态学研究范式的倡导者曾对现代认知心理学的实验室研究提出过严重质疑，并主要与以M·R·百纳吉等人为首的实验室研究的维护者发生过激烈的争论。争论所带来的结果是，现代认知心理学基于生态学研究范式出现了重要的应用认知转向，纠正了现代认知心理学对现实生活场景认知研究的漠然。(参见王庭照等：现代认知心理学的应用认知转向，陕西师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)，2007年第4期，待发)
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370 实际上，人们对特征捆绑脑机制问题的认识也许并没有那么糟。新近一项关于视觉运动方向的归类研究表明，中部颞皮层对运动方向的差别更敏感，但不会对运动方向的归属关系进行编码；而顶叶皮层则决定运动方向的归类，且会随着认识和经验的增进或改变而发生完全的重组。这提示，视觉信息的重组和归类可能是由更高级的神经中枢完成，而不是由直接与视觉信息处理有关的相对低级的神经中枢完成。(参见D. J. Freedman et al: Experience-dependent representation of visualcategories in parietal cortex, Nature, 2006, 443: 85-88)
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2 苏格兰哲学家托马斯·里德(1710-1796)首先在感觉和知觉之间进行区分，认为感觉是意识中经验到的感觉器官的活动，而知觉依赖于感觉，又不同于感觉，包括着知觉者对外界存在的一种强烈的意识和信念。在现代心理学的“普通心理学”体系中，感觉和知觉也被看作是两个分离的过程，前者主要指感觉器官和中枢的生理活动，后者则指个体对于直接刺激的一种意义获得，受到知识经验的影响和制约，是一种纯粹的心理活动。而在现代认知心理学的理论体系中，感觉和知觉并没有进行区分，被笼统地成为“感知觉”或“知觉”，但含义等同于“知觉”。本文所述“知觉”以现代认知心理学的相关阐述为依据，包括“普通心理学”体系的“感觉”和“知觉”部分。
3 J．P．查普林，T．S．克拉威克(林方译)：心理学的体系和理论，北京：商务印书馆，1983：115
4 F．梯利(葛力译)：西方哲学史(增补修订版)，北京：商务印书馆，1995：345
5 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：190
6 T. H. Leahey: A history of psychology: Main currents in psychological thought, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 2000: 254-255
7 冯特本人所谓的“实验内省”的德文原词是“experimentelle selbstbeobachtung”，而“内省”的德文词是“innere wahrnehmung”。因此，严格意义上，“selbstbeobachtung”并不能翻译成“内省”(即英文的“introspection”)。实际上，冯特本人的“selbstbeobachtung”主要指的是使用诸如反应的测量、词语的联想、对刺激的辨别反应等客观技术对心理过程进行研究。这种研究方法和铁钦纳的实验内省方法是根本对立的，冯特本人对“内省”也是深恶痛绝。在1900年评论铁钦纳研究方法的一篇文章中，冯特尖锐地指出实验内省法是一种虚假的方法。
8 B．R．赫根汉(郭本禹等译)：心理学史导论(第四版)，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：408
9 J．P．查普林，T．S．克拉威克(林方译)：心理学的体系和理论，北京：商务印书馆，1983：183
10 J. Gibson: The ecological approach to visual perception, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979: 249
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12 E. S. Reed: James J. Gibson and the psychology of perception, New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 1988: 7
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14 L. Chen: The topological approach to perceptual organization, Visual Cognition, 2005, 12(4):553-554
15 M. W. Eysenck et al: Cognitive psychology: A student's handbook (fourth edition), Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press, 2000:25
16 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fifth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1999:24
17 R．J．Sternberg(杨炳钧等译)：认知心理学(第三版)，北京：中国轻工业出版社，2006：2
18 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：179
19 G．希尔贝克，N．伊耶(童世骏等译)：西方哲学史——从古希腊到二十世纪，上海：上海译文出版社，2004：307
20 在科学心理学产生之前，哲学心理学研究的理性主义者和经验主义者都对知觉问题作了符合各自理论传统观点的说明和阐述。其中，理性主义者缪勒、海林、斯图姆夫坚持知觉的“先天说”，经验主义者洛采、赫尔姆霍茨、冯特坚持知觉的“发生说”，并由此进行了一些知觉现象的探讨。但“先天说”的坚持者并不深入讨论知觉加工的发生机制问题，只对知觉问题进行一种现象学的描述，对实验研究采取一种为我所用的态度。
21 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：343
22 主要依据B．R．赫根汉的《心理学史导论(第四版)》(郭本禹等译，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：189-236)整理。
23 无论对于理性主义，还是经验主义，“经验”一词都包含着复杂的含义，且由此而给理性主义和经验主义带来关于“知识”的理解分歧。实际上，即使是经验主义者所反对的“理性直觉”也可能给他们带来逻辑上的陷阱。因为，经验主义的基本命题“所有知识来源于经验”到底是来源于“经验”还是来源于“理性直觉”呢?抛开经验主义的逻辑陷阱，“经验”在经验主义者看来包括两个方面：内部经验和外部经验(感觉经验)，而经验主义者通常把内部经验从“经验”的解释中剔除．由此，经验主义者所坚持的基本命题可以从三个层次去理解：(1)感觉经验构成了所有知识的基本资料；(2)只有先收集了感觉证据，知识才能产生；(3)由感觉经验而产生的一切理智过程只侧重于感觉经验是如何形成有关外部世界的观念的．因此，理性主义和经验主义的重要区别不在于是否关注“感觉经验”，而在于“感觉经验”是否是个体思维过程所关注的对象。这也是科学心理学产生时期知觉研究成为第一批有着经验主义传统的心理学研究者主要研究领域的重要原因．
24 关于第一性的质和第二性的质有两种截然不同的理解．一种理解是：第一性的质是物理实在的属性，第二性的质则是主观实在的属性，其在物理世界中没有对应物．这种理解为伽利略所采用，并由此认为主观实在低于物理实在，没有办法象物理实在那样进行客观研究．另一种理解则为洛克等人所采用．实际上，关于二者的区分，后来的经验主义者贝克莱则在“存在就是被感知”的著名论断中反对洛克关于“观念源于与物理世界的相互作用”的看法，从而否认第一性的质的存在．延续贝克莱的看法，休谟进一步否认直接认识物理世界的可能性．
25 在否认直接认识物理世界的可能性的基础上，休谟进行了印象和观念的区分，认为印象是强烈而生动的知觉，而观念则是相对较弱的知觉。由此认为，所有的简单观念都来源于印象，而复合观念并不必定对应于复合的印象，观念一旦产生，可以通过想象产生无以计数的新的组合。和休谟不同，哈特莱(1705-1757)对洛克观点的修正在于否认复合观念产生时心理过程的主动性，认为所有复合观念都是由于简单观念的接近通过联想的过程自动形成的。进一步，哈特莱认为，接近也可以使复合观念发生联系而形成抽象观念．由此认为，简单观念结合成复合观念，复合观念结合成抽象观念，人们已经很难记起组成这些观念的单个的感觉．
26 约翰·穆勒(1806-1873)在很大程度上继承了其父亲詹姆斯·穆勒(1773-1836)的观点，但唯一不同的是反对其父亲的“心理物理学”观点，而提倡一种“心理化学”观点。在约翰·穆勒看来，从接近的经验中确实能自动产生一个全新的观念，但这个观念并不能被还原为简单的观念或感觉．此外，约翰·穆勒还系统阐述了观念联想的一些基本规律，其本人和父亲，及后来的培因(1818-1903)也因此被称为联想主义者．
27 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981；371
28 G．墨菲，J．科瓦奇(林方，王景和译)：近代心理学历史导引，北京：商务印书馆，1980：222
29 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：367
30 冯特(叶浩生等译)：人类与动物心理学讲义，西安：陕西人民出版社，2003：29
31 关于冯特的“元素主义”倾向，西方心理学史学者新近的一些研究认为，波林的认识是错误的，冯特本人实际上是反对元素主义的。冯特的儿子、哲学家麦克斯·冯特认为：“无论谁把这样一种思想归于我父亲，那么他肯定没有读过我父亲的著作。事实上，我的父亲正是反对元素主义心理学，即在赫尔巴特的心理学的基础上，形成他自己的心理过程的科学观的。”(麦克斯·冯特：种族中的哲学的根源，转引自高觉敷主编《西方心理学史论》，合肥：安徽教育出版社，1995：129-130)
32 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆．1981：376
33 一些心理学史研究资料表明，虽然冯特是科学心理学的奠基人，但冯特心理学的大部分并不属于实验心理学。(参见A. L. Blumenthal: A reappraisal of Wilhelm Wundt, In W. E. Pickren and D. A.Dewsbury(eds): Evolving perspectives on the history of psychology, Washington, DC: American Psychology Association，2002：65-78)即便如此，如我们在前文所指出的那样，冯特心理学的实验心理学部分也在包括研究方法和研究对象上很大程度上与铁钦纳的实验心理学相异。
34 B．R．赫根汉(郭本禹等译)：心理学史导论(第四版)，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：405
35 E．B．铁钦纳：构造心理学的公设，见：张述祖(总审校)：西方心理学家文选，北京：人民教育出版社，1983，23
36 车文博：西方心理学史，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1998：257
37 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：471
38 主要依据J．P．查普林和T．S．克拉威克的《心理学的体系和理论》(林方译，北京：商务印书馆，1983：116-120，176-178)、B．R．赫根汉的《心理学史导论(第四版)》(郭本禹等译，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004，405-407)整理。
39 在铁钦纳看来，性质、强度、明晰性和持续时间是一切感觉都有的特性，每种感觉经验中都某种程度地存在．但某些感觉可能还具有外延性的特性。如，一长条蓝纸唤起的感觉可能除四种基本特性外，还有外延性的特性．因此，有些心理学史著作把感觉和意象的特性表述为五种，即性质、强度、明晰性、持续时间和外延性． 表象就是使儿童的现在知觉富有意义的背景关系。
42 G．墨菲，J．科瓦奇(林方，王景和译)：近代心理学历史导引，北京：商务印书馆，1980：293
43 J．P．查普林，T．S．克拉威克(林方译)：心理学的体系和理论．北京：商务印书馆，1983：120
44 彼得·沃森(朱进东等译)：20世纪思想史，上海：上海译文出版社，2005：2
45 G．墨菲，J．科瓦奇(林方，王景和译)：近代心理学历史导引，北京：商务印书馆．1980：366
46 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：497
47 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：502
48 从思想渊源和师承关系来看，意动心理学、现象学、格式塔心理学都有着千丝万缕的联系。意动心理学的主要思想是布伦塔诺于1874—1894年间在奥地利首府维也纳任教期间所倡导的，因此也被称为奥地利学派，它的主要继承人是厄棱费尔。但斯图姆夫曾为布伦塔诺于1866—1874年间在符茨堡大学任教时的学生，且由于受布伦塔诺的影响而入符茨堡大学学习哲学和科学，在心理学研究的基本理念上，斯图姆夫都追随布伦塔诺，二者的观点颇为相似。但斯图姆夫并没有完全忠实于布伦塔诺，其中主要的变化就是把现象学引入了心理学，认为直接经验可以区分为三类，即现象、心理的机能和关系。在斯图姆夫看来，现象是初步的经验材料，包括感觉和意象，是心理学和物理学共同研究的对象，是为现象学；而心理的机能则包括知觉活动、组合活动、理会活动、欲望活动、意志活动等，是心理学的研究对象，但应以现象学的研究为基础。显然，我们看到，斯图姆夫的“机能”即为布伦塔诺的“意动”，而现象则包含了一部分冯特的看法，且与胡塞尔(1859-1938)的现象学有着根本的区别。众所周知，胡塞尔是现象学的创始人，但并不只有胡塞尔一人专用“现象学”一词，如斯图姆夫。但作为一种哲学和方法论的“现象学”，却是胡塞尔所独有的。胡塞尔曾于1884-1886年间为布伦塔诺的学生，后又追随斯图姆夫，并深受二者的影响。当1900-1901年出版《逻辑研究》一书时，胡塞尔把该书献给了斯图姆夫．和布伦塔诺、斯图姆夫一样，胡塞尔坚决反对心理学研究的“元素主义”倾向，坚持认为心理学的研究对象应是完整的、有意义的心理经验；和布伦塔诺、斯图姆夫不一样，胡塞尔坚持一种纯粹现象学的观点，很少或不关心主观经验和物理世界之间的关系。在胡塞尔看来，意动研究只会产生一种人向外探究环境的知识，而人向内探究所获得的知识同样重要。对于前者来说，我们可以通过内省法考察用来包含物理世界的心理意动；而对于后者来说，我们则可以通过内省法考察正在发生的所有主观性经验，而不需要把它与任何其他事物联系起来。虽然这两种内省法都关注现象学的经验，但后一种关注心理过程的本质，被胡塞尔称为纯粹现象学。和胡塞尔一样，格式塔心理学的创立者也都深受意动心理学的影响，并与斯图姆夫有着直接的师承关系，虽然他们并不承认这一点。实际上，正如我们已经指出的，几乎所有对格式塔心理学的产生起到先驱作用的思想和研究都与意动心理学有着或直接或间接的联系。无论是厄棱费尔，还是胡塞尔，甚至是马赫也曾于布伦塔诺刚刚离开时抵达维也纳，更由于关心和讨论空间知觉的缘故而和厄棱费尔相提并论。也许，我们能够得到的一个结论是，不是意动心理学或现象学促进了了格式塔心理学的产生，而是反结构主义的时代精神使然。“从广阔的前景来看，科学的发展几乎总是连续不断的，所以惠太海默在1910年的出现，不过代表时代的要求而已。假使惠太海默于1901年在布拉格执业当律师，却也可能出现另一个人来代替他，把有关整体，突现和意义等结论推向前进，因为这些结论已早为其他一些人——詹姆士，厄棱费尔，屈尔佩——各自宣传的对象了。”(E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：685)
49 作为冯特学生的屈尔佩(1862-1915)所创立的符茨堡学派提倡一种“二重心理学”，虽然试图对冯特心理学和布伦塔诺心理学进行调和，但实质上更接近布伦塔诺心理学，和对胡塞尔现象学的接受有关．“他(指屈尔佩)不相信他的哲学的兴趣和心理学的兴趣有任何不相容之处，而他之所以和冯特相距渐远，而和布伦塔诺相距渐近之故，则似间接由于胡塞尔的启发．”(E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：459)
50 按照格式塔心理学的理解，心理学研究尚处于科学研究的初期阶段，不宜使用量的研究方法，因此经验的观察是必然的．苛勒认为：“物理学是一门古老的科学，而心理学则仍处于它的幼稚时期．……如果我们想效法各种物理科学，那么我们切不可从它们的现代的、最发达的形式方面来效法它们；我们必须从它们的历史上的少年时期方面来效法它们，它们在少年时期的发展状况是可以和我们目前的状况相比拟的．”(W．苛勒：格式塔心理学，转引自杨清：现代西方心理学主要派别，沈阳：辽宁人民出版社，1980：282-283)实际上，这也是一直困扰心理学研究的一个重要问题．当库恩的“范式理论”提出后很快就被心理学研究者引用以审视心理学研究和心理学研究的发展进程即为明证．R．拉赫曼等人以范式理论为指导，声称：“我们的(认知)革命现在已经完成，并呈现出一种常规科学的气氛。”(R．Lachman et al:Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc．，1979：525)B．R．赫根汉撰写心理学史时，“假设心理学是多范式的学科，而不是处于前范式发展阶段的学科．”(B．R．赫根汉(郭本禹等译)：心理学史导论(第四版)，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：18)
51 借用现象学的理解，格式塔心理学认为，经验中的资料就是现象的经验(phenomenal experience)，是中立的经验，是不偏不倚、毫无约束的经验本身。“现象的经验”不与固定的元素(如感觉、意象、情感等)或元素的各种属性(如性质、强度、广度、持续性等)发生关系．如，我们看见一张桌子，却无须知道构成这张桌子的有意识的元素．此外，“现象的经验”包含着物体和意义，且是直接获得的。由此，格式塔心理学不对“听说”(knowledge of，对事物本质的直觉的知识)和“知及”(knowledge about，对事物明显的外在关系的知识)进行区分．在他们看来，一切物体、一切意义、一切解释和说明都是直接得到的，无须借助于推论的过程．如，我们看见一张桌子，我们可以说：“我看见一张桌子。”却无须说：“我体验到这样一种感觉模型，它与我看见一张桌子时所发生的情形相同。”
52 K．考夫卡：知觉：格式塔学说引论，见：张述祖(总审校)：西方心理学家文选，北京：人民教育出版社，1983：315
53 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：92
54 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：688
55 M．惠太海默：视见运动的实验研究，见：张述祖(总审校)：西方心理学家文选，北京：人民教育出版社，1983：285
56 M．惠太海默：视见运动的实验研究，见：张述祖(总审校)：西方心理学家文选，北京：人民教育出版社，1983：297-298
57 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：671
58 在构造主义心理学看来，感觉是直接获得的，物体的性质则是由感觉的推论得到的．因此，报告刺激本身是在报告一个推论，也就是正在作出解释和说明，不是坚持坦率的科学描述。而在格式塔心理学看来，物体是如实地呈现于经验之中的，它们就是可直接观察的资料，对它们的感觉分析才是推论的．“幸运的是，实际上我们的世界不是这样一场滑稽的恶梦；一般说来，事物总是像它们看上去的那样，或者，换一种说法，事物的外表告诉我们怎样去应付它们，尽管这像前面关于视错觉的讨论已经表明的那样，知觉有时可能具有欺骗性．”(K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：97)
59 在格式塔心理学创始人迁居美国之前，格式塔心理学的著作主要用德文写成，这使美国同行难以真正理解其思想内涵。在迁居美国之后，格式塔心理学创始人虽然也在一些大学任教，但由于其理论体系与美国的整个学术思想氛围不甚协调，他们的一些著作和言论也较少受重视。事实上，苛勒早在1917年就出版了《猿猴的智力》一书，讨论黑猩猩的学习问题，并提出“顿悟说”：考夫卡也早在1921就出版了《心之成长：儿童心理学导论》一书，并在1924年被译为英文；即使是著述较少的惠太海默，也在其逝世后于1945年出版了《创造性思维》一书，对人类的学习、思维和问题解决等问题进行讨论；更重要的是，格式塔心理学的重要学者——勒温(1890—1947)从一开始就对知觉、思维和问题解决等问题不感兴趣，而是把格式塔心理学思想扩大到社会情境，对人与环境、人与人之间的关系进行研究，并创立了“群体动力学”理论而被视为社会心理学家。在《格式塔心理学原理》一书中，考夫卡写道：“如果心理学能够指点科学和生活相遇的路径，如果它能奠定知识体系的基础[这种知识体系既包括了变形虫、白鼠、黑猩猩和人类的行为，又包含了单一原子的行为。前者的奇异活动我们称之为社会行为、音乐艺术、文学戏剧]，那末认识这样的心理学是值得的，在它上面花费时间和力气会获得补偿。”(K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：27)
60 G．墨菲，J．科瓦奇(林方，王景和译)：近代心理学历史导引，北京：商务印书馆，1980：366-367
61 主要依据K．考夫卡：格式塔心理学原理(黎炜译，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：29-276)、J．P．查普林和T．S．克拉威克：心理学的体系和理论(林方译，北京：商务印书馆，1983：183-189)、E．B．Goldstein：Sensation and perception (fourth edition) (Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996:180-194), E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fifth edition) (Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1999: 176-191)整理。
62 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：33
63 E．G．波林(高觉敷译)：实验心理学史，北京：商务印书馆，1981：692-693
64 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：78
65 在区分出行为环境和地理环境的基础上，格式塔心理学引入了场论的观点，把行为环境看作是一种决定实际行为的应变和应力的系统，从而把行为环境看作是一个心理场．但是，格式塔心理学认为，如果把场的概念引入行为环境又具有一些不适当性．这种不适当性主要表现为行为环境的本体论地位、行为环境和地理环境的关系、行为场的不足。进而，格式塔心理学认为，引入生理场的概念，并把生理过程看作是一 种克分子水平的变化，从而达到了生理场和行为场的统一。由此，格式塔心理学认为，在这样一个认识基础上，可以对与心物场具有因果联系的行为进行研究。“这一纲领还可以说得更具体一些。从期望的角度，我们认为心物场是有组织的。首先，它表明了自我的极性和环境的极性，其次，这两极都具自身的结构。于是，环境既不是感觉的镶嵌，又不是‘旺盛的、嗡嗡作响的混乱状态’，更不是模糊不清的整体单位；相反，它是由一些明确的彼此独立的物体和事件所组成的，这些彼此独立的物体和事件都是组织的产物。同样，自我既不是一个点，也不是内驱力和本能的总合或镶嵌．”(K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：84-85)
66 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：135
67 在各种格式塔心理学的资料有上百种定律、原理和推论．其中，重要的有相似律(law of similarity,相似的事物被倾向于看作一组)、连续律(law of good continuation，沿一条直线或光滑曲线连续分布的点倾向于被看作一组)、接近律(law of proximity，空间上接近的事物被倾向于看作一组)、协变律(law of common fate，朝一个方向运动的事物被倾向于看作一组)、熟悉律(law of familiarity，熟悉的或有意义的事物被倾向于看作一组)．
68 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：228
69 J．P．查普林，T．S．克拉威克(林方译)：心理学的体系和理论，北京：商务印书馆，1983：186
70 K．考夫卡(黎炜译)：格式塔心理学原理，杭州：浙江教育出版社，1997：26
71 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996:190
72 R．L．格列高里(彭聃龄，杨旻译)：视觉心理学，北京：北京师范大学出版社，1986：2
73 叶浩生：西方心理学中两种文化的分裂及其整合，心理学报，1999，31(3)：349-356
74 D. D. Cummins: A history of thinking, In R. Commins et al (eds): Minds, brains, and computers:The foundations of cognitive science: An anthology, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2000:8-19
75 B．R．赫根汉(郭本禹等译)；心理学史导论，上海：华东师范大学出版社，2004：907
76 心身关系问题一直是意识研究不可回避的核心问题．在“单子论”的思想基础之上，德国理性主义者莱布尼兹认为，精神和肉体之间的关系是在上帝创造时就确定好的和谐关系，二者之间不存在因果的相互作用，都按照其本性预先制定的规律而活动。可以看到，莱布尼兹实际上坚持的是一种“前定和谐”的二元论思想，即是说，精神和肉体的活动是两种不同的、独立的活动，但都受到某种外在动因的协调．
77 R. Commins et al (eds): Minds, brains, and computers: The foundations of cognitive science:An anthology, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 2000:7
78 T. H. Leahey: A history of psychology: Main currents in psychological thought, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,2000:505-510
79 R. Lachman et al: Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction, Hillsdale,New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 1979:94-110
80 在“图灵测验”中，假象一个人通过一台终端与一个隐蔽的对话者(可能是一台计算机，也可能是一个人)交换信息，如果这个人不能判断出对方是人还是计算机，这个计算机就具有了人类水平的智能。长期以来，“图灵测验”一直是对人工智能进行检验的基本方式，并构成了现代认知心理学信息加工理论的核心．然而，哲学家J．R．塞尔1980年所假象的一个思想实验——“中文屋论证”则证明这个检验是无效的．“中文屋”的思想实验表明，一个处在屋内并不懂中文的人在某种任务中可以完成与屋外说中文的人的对话．因此，J．R．塞尔认为，启用一个计算机程序并不能构成真正的思维与理解，计算机只是根据符号的形式来操作符号。
81 A. M. Turing: Computing machinery and intelligence, In R. Commins et al (eds): Minds, brains,and computers: The foundations of cognitive science: An anthology, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.. 2000:153-167
82 H. Gardner: The mind's new science: A history of the cognitive revolution, New York: Basic Books Inc., 1985:16-18
83 熊哲宏：认知科学导论，武汉：华中师范大学出版社，2002：6-9
84 T. H. Leahey: A history of psychology: Main currents in psychological thought, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 2000:505-506
85 R. Lachman et al: Cognitive psychology and information processing: An introduction, Hillsdale,New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 1979:33
86 T. A. Polk et al: Cognitive modeling, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002: Ⅺ
87 U. Neisser: Cognitive psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967:47
88 R．L．格列高里(彭聃龄，杨旻译)：视觉心理学，北京：北京师范大学出版社，1986：221
89 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996:176
90 U. Neisser: Cognitive and reality: Principles and implications of psychology, San Francisco:W. H. Freeman and Company,. 1976: Ⅺ-Ⅻ
91 J. L. McClelland et al: Parallel distributed processing, Volume 2: Psychological and biological models, Cambridge, MA:MIT press, 1986
92 M. S. Gazzaniga (ed): The cognitive neurosciences, Cambridge, MA:MIT press, 1995
93 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996:178-179
94 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：356
95 R．L．格列高里(彭聃龄，杨旻译)：视觉心理学，北京：北京师范大学出版社，1986：37
96 陈霖：拓扑性质检测——计算理论的一朵可能的乌云，见：钱学森：关于思维科学，上海：上海人民出版社，1986：294
97 S. Coren et al: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Orlando: Harcourt Brace & Company,1994:398-399
98 经典模板理论强调视觉信息与记忆储存模板的接近性匹配，后期的一个主要修正是假设进行匹配之前存在一个标准化的过程(即对刺激信息进行大小和方位的调整)。基于“心物同型”的理论基础，格式塔心理学反对模板理论关于记忆存储信息的使用和标准化的调整过程．(参见U．Neisser:Cognitive psychology,Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967: 61-65)
99 U. Neisser: Cognitive psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967:51-52
100 L. Chen: The topological approach to perceptual organization, Visual Cognition, 2005, 12(4):553-701
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102 U. Neisser et al: Searching for ten targets simultaneously, Perception of Motion Skills, 1963,17:955-961
103 U. Neisser: Cognitive psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967:71
104 M. S. Mayzner: Visual information processing of alphabetic inputs, Psychonomic Monograph Supplements, 1963, 4:239-243
105 O. G. Selfridge: Pandemonium: A paradigm of learning, In D. V. Blake and A. M. Uttley(eds):Proceedings of the symposium of the mechanisation of thought processes, London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1959:511-529
106 O. G. Selfridge and U. Neisser: Pattern recognition of machine, Scientific American, 1960,203:60-68
107 U. Neisser: Cognitive psychology, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.,1967:72
108 A. M. Treisman et al: A feature integration theory of attention, Cognitive Psychology, 1980,12:97-136
109 A. M. Treisman et al: Illusory conjunction in the perception of objects, Cognitive Psychology,1982. 14:107-141
110 王甦，汪安圣：认知心理学，北京：北京大学出版社，1992：57-58
111 H. B. Barlow: Summation and inhibition in the frog's retina, Journal of Physiology, 1953,119:69-88
112 J. Y. Lettvin et al: What the frog's eye tells the frog' s brain, In R. Commins et al (eds):Minds, brains, and computers: The foundations of cognitive science: An anthology, Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd., 2000:382-396
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114 D. H. Hubel and T. N. Wiesel: Receptive fields, binocular interaction and function architecture in the cat's visual cortex, Journal of Physiology, 1962, 160:106-154
115 D. H. Hubel and T. N. Wiesel: Receptive fields and functional architecture in two nonstriate visual areas (18 and 19) of the cat, Journal of Neurophysiology, 1965, 28:229-289
116 D. H. Hubel and T. N. Wiesel: Receptive fields and function architecteure of monkey striate cortex, Journal of Physiology, 1968, 195:215-243
117 M. S. Gazzaniga et al: Cognitive neuroscience: The biology of the mind, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1998:134
118 F．克里克(汪云久等译)：惊人的假说，长沙：湖南科学技术出版社，2002：207-219
119 鲍鲁转而研究心理物理学，休伯尔和威塞尔专心致志于解剖学．同时，神经生理学的主流研究也改变了方向，如神经元发育和可塑性。
120 E. B. Goldstein(ed): Blackwell handbook of perception, Malden, Massachusetts:Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2001:11
121 A. Treisman and R. Paterson: Emergent features, attention, and object perception, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1984, 10(1): 12-31
122 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京；科学出版社，1988；6-38
123 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：351
124 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：356-357
125 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：24
126 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社．1988：27
127 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：41
128 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：312
129 在马尔的视觉计算理论中，“观察点不变理论”是其阐述三维表征模型的一个重要概念．延续马尔的思想，柏德门也在其“成分识别理论”(recognition-by-components theory)中采用了“观察点不变理论”．实际上．“观察点不变理论”和“观察点依赖理论”都获得了实验研究的支持．因此，有人认为，观察者可能是交替使用两种机制，而使用何种机制可能和识别任务的难度有关．当识别任务较为容易时，被试可能使用观察点不变机制；而当识别任务难度提高时，被试可能使用观察点依赖机制．(M.J.Tarr and H.H.Bulthoff: Is human object recognition better described by geon structural descriptions or by multiple views?Comment on Biedermanand Gerhardstein (1993), Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perceptionand Performance, 1995, 21: 1494-1505; M. J. Tarr and H. H. Bulthoff: Imagebased object recognition in man, monkey and machine, Cognition, 1998, 67: 1-20)
130 D. Marr and K. Nishihara: Representation and recognition of spatial organisation of three-dimensional shapes, Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society, Series B, 1978:269-294
131 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：348
132 I. Biederman: Recognition-by-components: A theory of human image understanding, Psychology Review, 1987, 94: 115-147
133 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996: 207
134 R．L．格列高里(彭聃龄，杨旻译)：视觉心理学，北京：北京师范大学出版社，1986：4
135 S. Coren et al: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Orlando: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1994: 373-375
136 B. Julesz: Textons, the elements of texture perception and their interaction, Nature, 1981, 290: 91-97
137 B. Julesz: A brief outline of the texton theory of human vision, Trends in Neuroscience, 1984, 7: 41-45
138 A. M. Treisman: Feartures and objects in visual processing, Scientific American, 1986, 225: 114B-125
139 A. M. Treisman et al: A feature integration theory of attention, Cognitive Psychology, 1980, 12: 97-136
140 A. M. Treisman et al: Illusory conjuctions in the perception of objects, Cognitive Psychology, 1982, 14: 107-141
141 A. M. Treisman et al: Emergent features, attention, and object perception, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1984, 10(1) : 12-31
142 A. M. Treisman et al: Illusory words: The roles of attention and of top-Down constraints in conjoining letters to form words, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1986, 12(1) : 3-17
143 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996: 199
144 J. Duncan et al: A resemblance theory of visual search, Psychology Review, 1989, 96: 433-458
145 J. Duncan et al: Beyond the search surface: Visual search and attentional engagement, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1992, 18(2) : 578-588
146 A. M. Treisman: Conjunction search revisited, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1990, 16(3) : 459-478
147 A. M. Treisman: Spreading suppression or feature integration? A reply to Duncan and Humphreys, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1992, 18(2) : 589-593
148 A. M. Treisman: The perception of featuresand objects, In A. Baddeley et al(eds) : Attention: Selection, awareness, and control, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993: 5-35
149 E. B. Goldstein: Sensation and perception (fourth edition), Pacific Grove: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1996: 199
150 D. L. Schacter et al: Conscious recollection and human hippocampal formation: Evidence from positron emission tomography, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 1996, 93: 321-325
151 R．索拉索(朱滢等译)：21世纪的心理科学与脑科学，北京：北京大学出版社，2002：68
152 P. T. Quinlan et al: Grouping by proximity or similarity? Competition between the Gestalt principle in vision, Perception, 1998, 27: 417-430
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154 L. Chen: The topological approach to perceptual organization, Visual Cognition, 2005, 12(4) : 553-701
155 D．马尔(姚国正等译)：视觉计算理论，北京：科学出版社，1988：8
156 R. N. Shepard et al: Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects, Science, 1971, 191: 701-703
157 L. A. Cooper et al: The time required to prepare for a rotated stimulus, Memory and Cognition, 1973, 1: 246-250
158 L. A. Cooper et al: Mental transformation in the identification of left and right hands, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1975, 1: 48-56
159 L. A. Cooper: Mental rotation of random two-dimensional shapes, Cognitive Psychology, 1975, 7: 20-43
160 陈霖；拓扑性质检测——计算理论的一朵可能的乌云，见：钱学森：关于思维科学，上海：上海人民出版社，1986：296-297
161 D. Navon: Forest before trees: The precedence of global features in visual perception, Cognitive Psychology, 1977, 9: 353-383
162 K. Boer et al: Global precedence as postperceptual effect: An analysis of speed accuracy trade off function, Perception and Psychophysics, 1982, 31: 358-366
163 H. C. Hughes et al: Global precedence in visual pattern recognition, Perception and Psychophysics, 1984, 35: 361-371
164 M, Martin: Local and global processing: the role of sparsity, Memory and Cognition, 1979, 7: 476-484
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167 王甦，汪安圣：认知心理学，北京：北京大学出版社，1992：46
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169 N. Weisstein et al: Visual detection of line segments: An object-superiority effect, Science, 1974, 186: 752-755
170 J. R. Pomerantz et al: Perception of wholes and of their parts: some configural superiority effects, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perceptionand Performance, 1977, 3: 422-435
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175 J. M. Rubin et al: Topological perception: Holes in anexperiment, Perception and Psychophysics, 1985, 37: 179-180
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