美国影视文化贸易的成功对中国的启示
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摘要
在经济全球化程度不断加深和中国已加入WTO的大背景下,文化贸易在全球范围内迅速发展并改变传统的经济模式,已经成为推动经济增长和增强国家国际竞争力的重要因素。从世界范围看,不少发达国家的文化产业发展速度不仅超过传统制造业,而且作为新兴的朝阳产业在经济规模上成为了国家的主导和支柱产业,越来越多发展中国家的文化产业也逐渐成为国民经济新的增长点。在文化产业中,影视业作为最国际化的媒介产业,在国际贸易中所占的比重大小不仅直接关系到文化产业的发展态势,而且对于整个国家经济增长也起着非常重要的作用。影视产品作为典型的文化产品,不仅能够为输出国带来巨大的经济收益,而且以其形象生动的形式与内容传播着输出国的价值观与生活方式,带动着相关产业的发展。
在影视文化贸易方面,最成功的当数美国。美国控制了全球75%的电视节目的生产与制作,生产的电影虽只占全球的6.7%,却占全球总放映时间的50%以上,影视文化出口贸易世界市场占有率长期保持在45%左右。虽然中国经济经过30多年的改革开放,获得了世人瞩目的飞速发展,然而我国影视文化产业化发展严重滞后,这与我国的经济大国和历史悠久的文化大国身份十分不相称。本文正是基于此,运用产业竞争力相关理论比较分析了我国与美国影视文化产业的国际竞争力并且借助美国影视文化贸易的成功经验给我国影视文化产业的发展以及如何扩大我国影视出口贸易提出几点建议。
本文首先介绍了本论文的研究背景、研究意义和海内外的研究现状。在经济全球化和文化经济为导向的大背景下,文化贸易在国际贸易中占据重要地位,一国文化产业的强弱已成为衡量一国综合实力的重要因素。作为文化大国,中国应该依托其文化优势,把优秀的文化传播到世界各地。影视文化贸易可以说是一种传播文化的最直接的方式。美国作为世界上文化贸易尤其是影视文化贸易最发达的国家,有许多值得我们借鉴的宝贵经验。欧美各国对于美国影视产业的研究比较成熟,且已形成了科学的学科体系。随着中国加入WTO以及影视产业的不断发展,对美国影视产业的研究逐渐成为热点。一些大学和学者已经开始涉及这一领域并且出版了许多顾着浓郁这方面的著作和论文。
第二部分阐述了影视产业的基本概念与特征,以及影视产业在当今世界经济中所占地位。影视产业属于文化产业中的视听产业,是指在商品经济体制下,电影与电视产品在制作、放映及销售等生产或服务环节中形成相互竞争与合作的企业的集合。影视产业的主要特征有：高投入、进入门槛高、知识密集度高和外部效应大等特点。
第三部分详细介绍了美国影视文化产业的发展历程、现状及贸易状况并且分析了美国影视文化贸易成功的原因。伴随着1939年第一个电视台的建立,美国电视产业诞生了。经历了几十年的发展,美国电视产业走向成熟并已经成了世界领先的电视大国,其电视节目出口居各国之首。在国际经济活动中,美国电视产业扮演重要的角色,不仅是最大的出口者也是最大的投资者和合作者。自1893年,爱迪生发明了电影镜,创立了“黑色玛利亚”电影棚,美国电影产业走过了一个世纪多的风雨历程。尽管美国并不是世界上最大的电影生产国,但美国的电影出口量历年来稳居世界第一,好莱坞大片受到世界各国人民的喜爱。
美国影视文化产业的成功主要归因于：高度产业化、国际化经营和政府的大力支持。美国影视业有完整的产业结构和产业链,其产业结构包括派拉蒙、环球、华纳兄弟、20世纪福克斯、索尼、迪士尼六家主流制片公司和许多独立制片公司；产业链延伸至影视后产品的开发,包括道具、录像带、音乐磁带、外景地的旅游开发等与影视产业相关的演艺经纪和广告等相关产业。这些产业的收入是美国影视产业的主要收入。此外,美国影视贸易的成功与其充分的国际市场营销方式紧密相连,主要表现在美国影视公司通常采用独资或合资的方式进入他国市场；在作品的选材和制作环节上考虑到全世界观众的需求；拥有完整独立的全球发行体系。再者,美国政府给予文化产业大力支持,为文化产业创造良好的外部环境。美国政府不仅为文化产业提供大量资金支持在对外贸易中也极力降低文化贸易准入门槛,为本国文化产品走向世界扫清道路。
第四部分介绍了中国影视文化产业的发展历程、现状及贸易状况并且分析了中国影视文化贸易逆差形成的原因。中国电视产业形成于20世纪50年代,除了大跃进期间发展停滞外,一直以来发展迅速,目前全国已有三千个电台。电视节目出口起步较晚,1996年政府第一次举办了电视节目贸易展,吸引了许多国外买家。自此,中国电视节目开始正式走向世界。近几年,电视节目展览与年俱增,中国的电视节目出口量不断扩大。中国电影产业起源于1913年郑正秋编剧、张石川导演的中国第一部有故事情节的短片《难夫难妻》。由于战乱,中国电影产业的发展几近周折,中国电影贸易也经历了不同的发展时期。随着中国加入WTO,中国电影贸易发展迅速,其出口额大幅增长。
尽管中国影视文化产业近年来发展迅速,但在贸易方面存在一些问题：贸易逆差严重、贸易伙伴集中和产品形式单一以及产业化程度低等。这些问题产生的原因主要有以下几点：首先,中国影视文化产业缺乏国际竞争力。第一,中国影视文化产业起步晚,发展水平低,直至上世纪90年代初才开始兴起,目前不具备完善的产业性质。第二,影视文化产业的规模经济效应尚未形成。目前中国国内制作、发行等机构数量众多,但规模较小,不能充分利用资源。第三,制作发行体制不够完善,产品的制作与发行严重脱节。第四,专业人才储备不足,缺乏技术性人才、营销人才和具有市场意识和现代影视意识的编剧和导演。第五,国际市场营销观念和策略落后,国内许多影视公司不注重国际市场营销,国际市场营销的渠道不畅通。其次,中国影视文化产品难以满足市场需求。中国多数影视产品过于强调民族性,文化折扣过大。再者,中国影视文化产业缺乏完善的融资体制,目前还没有一个科学合理的影视文化资本平台。此外,政府支持力度不足也是中国影视文化产业落后的一方面原因。
第五部分运用迈克波特的钻石模型从需求状况、经营状况、融资渠道及体制、相关产业、产业政策和法制环境以及出口竞争力六个竞争因素出发,比较分析了中美两国影视文化产业的国际竞争力。在需求状况方面,中国作为世界人口大国观众数量居世界第一,市场需求庞大。美国仅次于中国,其观众数量居世界第二,但美国是世界上最大的电影和声像市场。
在经营状况方面,美国生产的电影虽然不是世界上最多的,但是其票房收入确是最多的(占世界票房收入的三分之二),而且影视后产品及相关产业的收入也占据世界之首。此外美国是世界上银幕密度最大的国家,中国的银幕密度仅是美国的二十分之一,远远无法满足市场需求。在融资渠道及体制方面,美国在整个制片、发行和销售过程中的资金应用一直是好莱坞产业结构的长远动力。美国影视产业有很多融资渠道,例如股票上市、证券销售、政府投资、金融财团的支持等。中国影视产业融资起步较晚,尚未能熟悉资本运营,缺少实践经验。2009年,中国影视业开始在资本市场上寻求资金支持,华谊兄弟、中国电影集团、上海电影集团等相继上市,为中国影视产业的发展开辟了新的篇章。
在相关产业方面,美国影视产业收入的三分之二来自相关产业,相关产业及后产品的开发已经相当成熟。中国影视产业的主要收入来自票房和广告赞助,具有很大商业价值的后产品开发等仍然处于起步阶段。进入新千年后,中国影视产业不断走向成熟,一些富有经验的制片商已经开始运用影视的再开发策略挖掘影视的潜在效益。
在产业政策和法制环境方面,美国政府为文化产业创造了宽松的外部环境和严格的法律保障。美国政府对文化产业采取多方投资和多种经营的方式,鼓励非文化部门和外来资金的投入。此外,美国政府对文化产业提供政策性支持,保护和规范文化产业。相对而言,中国在融资、制作等方面对影视产业限制过多,是产业的创造力和竞争力低于其他国家。目前,中国政府正在逐步改变这种现状,陆续出台了一系列促进影视产业发展的政策。在出口竞争力方面,美国影视文化贸易一直在全球文化贸易中占据领先地位,贸易顺差巨大。中国一直在影视文化贸易方面处于弱势,贸易逆差巨大,出口贸易额比美国相差近一百倍。从中美两国影视文化产业国际竞争力比较分析可以看出中国影视文化产业的国际竞争力还很低,与美国还存在巨大差距。在国际竞争力的几个比较要素中,中国除了在需求状况方面占据优势外,在其他几方面均处于劣势。
第六部分借鉴美国影视文化贸易的成功经验,本论文对我国影视文化贸易的发展提出以下几点建议。首先,提高整个影视文化产业国际竞争力。第一,通过组建大型影视制作企业,实现集团化发展。第二,优化产业化结构,建立多种盈利模式。第三,充分利用国际资源。第四,大力培养专业化人才
中国拥有深厚的文化底蕴,有些文化国人尚且无法完全了解,更不用说外国观众了,这就存在着文化折扣。降低影视产品的文化折扣是中国影视业走向世界的重要手段。第一,尽量出口文化折扣低的影视作品。第二,出口外国观众熟知的文化产品。第三,本土化与国际化相结合。
影视后产品的开发在整个影视产业链中最为重要,因为影视后产品的收入存在无限的潜力。大力发展影视后产品将会提高整个影视业的收入。此外,影视产业的成功离不开政府的大力支持。这就需要政府增加对影视文化产业的政府补贴,对影视产品出口实行减免税以提高其出口竞争力以及扩大影视产业的投融资渠道。
总之,作为一个文明古国,中国应该发挥其文化优势努力成为文化强国。而影视产业的产业化进程直接关系到文化强国的建设。最近几年,中国影视产业发展迅速,将成为国民经济新的增长点。然而,总体来说,中国影视文化产业化水平还很低远不及发达国家。因此,找出阻碍中国影视文化产业发展的问题所在并予以解决对影视产业国际化进程有巨大的促进作用。
In the context of economic globalization and China's accession into WTO, cultural trade develops rapidly and changes traditional economic model, becoming an essential factor in promoting economic growth and heightening international competitiveness. In many developed countries, the developing speed of cultural industry exceeds traditional manufacturing industries and cultural industry as a sunrise industry is a leader and pillar in economic development. Even for many developing countries, the cultural industry becomes new economic growth point. Film and television industry as the most international media industry its proportion in international trade is not only related to the development of cultural industry but also plays an essential role in economic growth throughout the country. Video products as a typical cultural product not only brings huge economic benefits for the exporter but also spread a country's values by its vivid form and content leading the development of related industries.
The United States makes remarkable success in film and television trade controlling 75% of the production of television programs and seizing more than 50% of global film screening time though its film production accounting for 6.7% of the world's total. The trade volume of American video products makes up 45% of the world's total for a long time. Although Chinese economy accomplished resounding achievement after 30 years of reform and opening up, the development of film and television industry is seriously backward which is not commensurate with China's identity as the historic country with five thousand civilization. Basing on the above, this paper compares the international competitiveness between China and the US by using the theory of industrial competitiveness, implements America's successful experience in film and television trade to China and puts forward suggestions to expanding film and television trade.
In the first part, the paper introduces the background and significance of this paper and the current research status in both home and abroad. Under the background of economic globalization and the advent of cultural orientation era, cultural trade holds a significant position in international trade and its strength plays an important role in measuring a country's comprehensive strength. As the country of profound culture, China should rely on cultural advantages and spread the culture to the world. Film and television trade will be the most effective way to broadcast culture between different countries. America as the most advanced country in cultural trade especially in film and television trade has much excellent experience for China to learn. American film and television industry was studied maturely by European countries and has formed a scientific system. With China's accession to WTO and the development of film and television industry, the study on American film and television industry is a hotspot. Some universities and scholars have engaged in this field and have published many books and theses.
In the second part, the paper introduces the concept and characteristics of the film and television industry as well as its position in world economy. Film and television industry belongs to video industry in cultural industry and is the integration of the competition and cooperation of making, screening and distributing film and television products. Comparing to other industry, film and television industry is specialized in several characteristics:higher capital investment; knowledge concentration and high entrance conditions; cultural discount in international trade; profound external effect.
The third section elaborates the film and television industry in the United States including the history, current situation and trade conditions, and analyzes the causes of the success of American film and television industry. Television industry in American began with the opening of the nation's first television station in 1939. With several decades of developments, American television industry is matured and becomes the leader around the world. In international commercial activities, American television industry plays an important role. It is not only a greatest importer but also the biggest investor and collaborator in world market. In 1893, Edison invented the Kinetoscope and created "Black Maria". Since then, American film has the history of over 100 years. Although America is not the biggest film producer in the world, it is the largest exporter and Hollywood blockbusters win great popularity around the world.
The success of American film and television trade is caused by several reasons:high degree of industrialization, international marketing methods, and government support. The film industrial structure is composed by six major film companies and many independent film companies of different sizes. The television industrial structure is mainly composed by five major TV networks. On the other hand, American film and industry chain is expanded to spinoff industry including video, VCD, music record, the auction of garments and properties, tourist development of film and television location and the related industries like broker agency, advertising and film channels etc., which are main sources of the income of film and television industry. International marketing is another factor of the success of American film and television trade. Firstly, American film companies often enter other markets by joint ventures. Secondly, Hollywood tries to meet the needs of audiences around the world. When promoting new films, Hollywood will contrive different trailers to different countries. Thirdly, the US has complete independent global distribution systems for film and television industry. Meanwhile, the United States Government creates a favorable external environment for developing cultural industry not only provides financial support but also seeks protection in world market:
The third section introduces the film and television industry in China including the history, current situation and trade conditions, and analyzes the causes of the trade deficit of Chinese film and television industry. Communications in China were founded in the early 1950s and developed rapidly in the following year except the Great Leap Forward. Presently, there are total 3000 television stations across the country. Chinese television programs formally entering world market started late. In 1996 the government held the first TV programs trading fair which intrigued much attraction from overseas and the foreign media reviewed that it indicated Chinese TV programs entered into global market formally. In recent years, the exhibitions for trading television programs are increasing year by year and the trade volume goes up steadily. As to film industry, the Chinese film industry didn't commence until 1913 when Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan shot the first Chinese movie "The Difficult Couple". Chinese film industry was halted by wars for several times and its trade also experienced different periods. Since China's accession to WTO, Chinese film industry has developed rapidly and the trade volume increases largely year by year.
Although Chinese film and television industry develops rapidly these years, the trade situation is less than satisfactory:huge trade deficit, over-concentration of trade partners and product type, and low industrialization. The reasons that cause the trade deficit are as follows. First of all, Chinese film and television industry is deficient in international competitiveness. As a latecomer flourished in 1990s, Chinese film and television industry is relatively in a low level and have not been completely industrialized. Besides, Chinese film and television industry has not formed economics of scale. The large number of producing and distributing institutions are small size and yet cannot fully use the resources and equipments, let alone reinvestment and scale-up. Furthermore, the production and distribution system of film and television industry is not in perfect with the gap between production and distribution. In addition, the professional talents are in shortage, especially specialized technicians, marketing talents, and the playwright and director with market and modern sensitivity. Presently, the industry lacks international marketing concept and strategies and the marketing channel is not smooth. Secondly, the film and television products are dissatisfied with the market demand, most of which take much emphasis on nationality and are with huge cultural discount. Thirdly, Chinese film and television industry lacks the proper investment and financing system and do not have a reasonable capital platform. Last but not the least, government's insufficient support is also a big hindrance for developing film and television industry.
In the fifth part, by using Michael Porter's diamond thesis the paper compares the industrial competitiveness between China and the United States in several aspects: demand conditions, operating conditions, financing channels, related industries, industrial policy and legal environment and export competitiveness. In aspect of demand conditions, China as the most populous country has the largest audience and the market demand is considerable. America, only second to China, has the second largest audiences but it is the largest market for film and video.
As to operating conditions, America is the largest film exporter and the leader of box office revenue, taking up two-thirds of the world's total box office revenue and the income of the spinoffs is also in the lead position. Besides, the screen density in America is the highest in the world, which is 20 times than Chinese. Due to lack of screens, the market demand cannot be satisfied by large number of audience. In financing channels, American film producing, distributing and marketing are supported by large amount of funds, which is the momentum of Hollywood's development. A series of financing tactics such as stocks, securities play a crucial role in film development. Without the development of complex financing methods and the intervention of capital market, Hollywood film industry cannot be so successful. In China, film and television financing started late and has little experience about capital management. In 2009, the Chinese film industry has also begun to seek financing from the capital market. Huayi Brothers Media went public in Shenzhen Stock Exchange in Oct 2009 and becomes the first film company listed in China's stock market. After Huayi Brothers, China Film Group, Shanghai Film Group and Bona International Film Group and Enlight Media have also announced their plans in the stock market in the next few years.
In aspect of industrial policy and legal environment, the US advocates liberal economic policies providing economic base and policy support for cultural industry. The government mainly provides easy external environment and strict legal protection. The US takes diversified investments and operation way, encouraging foreign investment and the investment from non-cultural sectors. Besides, the US government does not neglect policy support for cultural industry. In comparison, Chinese policies on film and television industry have to be further improved. The original policies and regulations were inadequacy:too many restrictions on financing, production and other aspects of film and television industry. As a result, the creativity and the competitiveness of Chinese cultural industries are not a patch on other countries. Presently, Chinese government is to reform this situation, putting forward a series of related policies to specify policies for developing film and television industry. When comes to export competitiveness, the United Stated is among the minority that can keep constant trade surplus and strong international competitiveness in global film and television market. Comparatively, Chinese film and television products make up a small part in world film and television market and falls far behind the US in export, nearly 100 times less than the US.
In aspect of related industries, two thirds of the income of American film and television industry is from related industries. The development of the related industries and spinoffs is quite mature in the US. In China, the income of film industry mostly depends on box office, while the most commercially valuable products-spinoffs are still underdeveloped. After entering the 21st century, the film and television industry develops rapidly. Some experienced Producers adopt the strategy of developing film-related products to explore the social and economic value of the film and television industry. According to the above analysis, it is obvious that competitiveness of China's film and television industry is in a low level. There is a huge gap between China and the US in the development of film and television industry. Among the above competitive elements, China only has obvious advantage in demand conditions but other elements is still locating at the first step, especially in financing, industrial policy and legal environment.
Finally, drawing on American successful experience in film and television industry the paper gives some suggestions on Chinese film and television industry, such as improving the international competitiveness of the entire film and television industry, reducing cultural discount, developing film spinoffs and enhancing government support. There are several ways in improving the international competitiveness. Firstly, the industry should compose large-scale companies to improve its international competitiveness. Secondly, the film and television industry should optimize industry structure and establish diversified revenue model. Besides, taking full advantage of international resources and cultivating professional talents are another effective way in improving the international competitiveness of film and television industry.
As China has profound culture, some cultures cannot be even totally understood by Chinese audiences let alone foreign audiences, which results in cultural discount. Reducing cultural discount is essential in expanding international market for Chinese film and television products. Firstly, it is necessary to export products with low culture discount. Secondly, the industry can export products with foreign audiences' familiar culture. Thirdly, when the local culture cannot be total understood by overseas consumers, the combination of localization and internationalization is undoubtedly an effective strategy.
In film industry chain, developing spinoffs is the most effective way to explore the value of film industry to the maximum extent as the income of spinoffs is limitless. Chinese filmmakers perceived the necessity of exploring spinoffs and paid more attention to develop spinoffs in recent years. In addition, government support is the key factor contributing to the success of American film and television industry. Chinese government can take several measures like subsiding, reducing or exempting tariffs on exported film and television products and expanding investment channels for film and television industry.
In conclusion, as a country of ancient civilization, China should exert its cultural advantage and tries to be a power nation in cultural industry. While the industrialization process of film and television industry is directly related to build a strong cultural industry. In recent years, film and television industry is developing rapidly and will certainly be a new growth point of national economy in the future. However, in China, the film and television industry is still in a low level and falls far behind the world's advanced level. Therefore, it is crucial to find out the reasons that impeding the developing proceedings of Chinese film and television industry and resolve these block, and promote the international competitiveness of the film and television industry.
在影视文化贸易方面,最成功的当数美国。美国控制了全球75%的电视节目的生产与制作,生产的电影虽只占全球的6.7%,却占全球总放映时间的50%以上,影视文化出口贸易世界市场占有率长期保持在45%左右。虽然中国经济经过30多年的改革开放,获得了世人瞩目的飞速发展,然而我国影视文化产业化发展严重滞后,这与我国的经济大国和历史悠久的文化大国身份十分不相称。本文正是基于此,运用产业竞争力相关理论比较分析了我国与美国影视文化产业的国际竞争力并且借助美国影视文化贸易的成功经验给我国影视文化产业的发展以及如何扩大我国影视出口贸易提出几点建议。
本文首先介绍了本论文的研究背景、研究意义和海内外的研究现状。在经济全球化和文化经济为导向的大背景下,文化贸易在国际贸易中占据重要地位,一国文化产业的强弱已成为衡量一国综合实力的重要因素。作为文化大国,中国应该依托其文化优势,把优秀的文化传播到世界各地。影视文化贸易可以说是一种传播文化的最直接的方式。美国作为世界上文化贸易尤其是影视文化贸易最发达的国家,有许多值得我们借鉴的宝贵经验。欧美各国对于美国影视产业的研究比较成熟,且已形成了科学的学科体系。随着中国加入WTO以及影视产业的不断发展,对美国影视产业的研究逐渐成为热点。一些大学和学者已经开始涉及这一领域并且出版了许多顾着浓郁这方面的著作和论文。
第二部分阐述了影视产业的基本概念与特征,以及影视产业在当今世界经济中所占地位。影视产业属于文化产业中的视听产业,是指在商品经济体制下,电影与电视产品在制作、放映及销售等生产或服务环节中形成相互竞争与合作的企业的集合。影视产业的主要特征有：高投入、进入门槛高、知识密集度高和外部效应大等特点。
第三部分详细介绍了美国影视文化产业的发展历程、现状及贸易状况并且分析了美国影视文化贸易成功的原因。伴随着1939年第一个电视台的建立,美国电视产业诞生了。经历了几十年的发展,美国电视产业走向成熟并已经成了世界领先的电视大国,其电视节目出口居各国之首。在国际经济活动中,美国电视产业扮演重要的角色,不仅是最大的出口者也是最大的投资者和合作者。自1893年,爱迪生发明了电影镜,创立了“黑色玛利亚”电影棚,美国电影产业走过了一个世纪多的风雨历程。尽管美国并不是世界上最大的电影生产国,但美国的电影出口量历年来稳居世界第一,好莱坞大片受到世界各国人民的喜爱。
美国影视文化产业的成功主要归因于：高度产业化、国际化经营和政府的大力支持。美国影视业有完整的产业结构和产业链,其产业结构包括派拉蒙、环球、华纳兄弟、20世纪福克斯、索尼、迪士尼六家主流制片公司和许多独立制片公司；产业链延伸至影视后产品的开发,包括道具、录像带、音乐磁带、外景地的旅游开发等与影视产业相关的演艺经纪和广告等相关产业。这些产业的收入是美国影视产业的主要收入。此外,美国影视贸易的成功与其充分的国际市场营销方式紧密相连,主要表现在美国影视公司通常采用独资或合资的方式进入他国市场；在作品的选材和制作环节上考虑到全世界观众的需求；拥有完整独立的全球发行体系。再者,美国政府给予文化产业大力支持,为文化产业创造良好的外部环境。美国政府不仅为文化产业提供大量资金支持在对外贸易中也极力降低文化贸易准入门槛,为本国文化产品走向世界扫清道路。
第四部分介绍了中国影视文化产业的发展历程、现状及贸易状况并且分析了中国影视文化贸易逆差形成的原因。中国电视产业形成于20世纪50年代,除了大跃进期间发展停滞外,一直以来发展迅速,目前全国已有三千个电台。电视节目出口起步较晚,1996年政府第一次举办了电视节目贸易展,吸引了许多国外买家。自此,中国电视节目开始正式走向世界。近几年,电视节目展览与年俱增,中国的电视节目出口量不断扩大。中国电影产业起源于1913年郑正秋编剧、张石川导演的中国第一部有故事情节的短片《难夫难妻》。由于战乱,中国电影产业的发展几近周折,中国电影贸易也经历了不同的发展时期。随着中国加入WTO,中国电影贸易发展迅速,其出口额大幅增长。
尽管中国影视文化产业近年来发展迅速,但在贸易方面存在一些问题：贸易逆差严重、贸易伙伴集中和产品形式单一以及产业化程度低等。这些问题产生的原因主要有以下几点：首先,中国影视文化产业缺乏国际竞争力。第一,中国影视文化产业起步晚,发展水平低,直至上世纪90年代初才开始兴起,目前不具备完善的产业性质。第二,影视文化产业的规模经济效应尚未形成。目前中国国内制作、发行等机构数量众多,但规模较小,不能充分利用资源。第三,制作发行体制不够完善,产品的制作与发行严重脱节。第四,专业人才储备不足,缺乏技术性人才、营销人才和具有市场意识和现代影视意识的编剧和导演。第五,国际市场营销观念和策略落后,国内许多影视公司不注重国际市场营销,国际市场营销的渠道不畅通。其次,中国影视文化产品难以满足市场需求。中国多数影视产品过于强调民族性,文化折扣过大。再者,中国影视文化产业缺乏完善的融资体制,目前还没有一个科学合理的影视文化资本平台。此外,政府支持力度不足也是中国影视文化产业落后的一方面原因。
第五部分运用迈克波特的钻石模型从需求状况、经营状况、融资渠道及体制、相关产业、产业政策和法制环境以及出口竞争力六个竞争因素出发,比较分析了中美两国影视文化产业的国际竞争力。在需求状况方面,中国作为世界人口大国观众数量居世界第一,市场需求庞大。美国仅次于中国,其观众数量居世界第二,但美国是世界上最大的电影和声像市场。
在经营状况方面,美国生产的电影虽然不是世界上最多的,但是其票房收入确是最多的(占世界票房收入的三分之二),而且影视后产品及相关产业的收入也占据世界之首。此外美国是世界上银幕密度最大的国家,中国的银幕密度仅是美国的二十分之一,远远无法满足市场需求。在融资渠道及体制方面,美国在整个制片、发行和销售过程中的资金应用一直是好莱坞产业结构的长远动力。美国影视产业有很多融资渠道,例如股票上市、证券销售、政府投资、金融财团的支持等。中国影视产业融资起步较晚,尚未能熟悉资本运营,缺少实践经验。2009年,中国影视业开始在资本市场上寻求资金支持,华谊兄弟、中国电影集团、上海电影集团等相继上市,为中国影视产业的发展开辟了新的篇章。
在相关产业方面,美国影视产业收入的三分之二来自相关产业,相关产业及后产品的开发已经相当成熟。中国影视产业的主要收入来自票房和广告赞助,具有很大商业价值的后产品开发等仍然处于起步阶段。进入新千年后,中国影视产业不断走向成熟,一些富有经验的制片商已经开始运用影视的再开发策略挖掘影视的潜在效益。
在产业政策和法制环境方面,美国政府为文化产业创造了宽松的外部环境和严格的法律保障。美国政府对文化产业采取多方投资和多种经营的方式,鼓励非文化部门和外来资金的投入。此外,美国政府对文化产业提供政策性支持,保护和规范文化产业。相对而言,中国在融资、制作等方面对影视产业限制过多,是产业的创造力和竞争力低于其他国家。目前,中国政府正在逐步改变这种现状,陆续出台了一系列促进影视产业发展的政策。在出口竞争力方面,美国影视文化贸易一直在全球文化贸易中占据领先地位,贸易顺差巨大。中国一直在影视文化贸易方面处于弱势,贸易逆差巨大,出口贸易额比美国相差近一百倍。从中美两国影视文化产业国际竞争力比较分析可以看出中国影视文化产业的国际竞争力还很低,与美国还存在巨大差距。在国际竞争力的几个比较要素中,中国除了在需求状况方面占据优势外,在其他几方面均处于劣势。
第六部分借鉴美国影视文化贸易的成功经验,本论文对我国影视文化贸易的发展提出以下几点建议。首先,提高整个影视文化产业国际竞争力。第一,通过组建大型影视制作企业,实现集团化发展。第二,优化产业化结构,建立多种盈利模式。第三,充分利用国际资源。第四,大力培养专业化人才
中国拥有深厚的文化底蕴,有些文化国人尚且无法完全了解,更不用说外国观众了,这就存在着文化折扣。降低影视产品的文化折扣是中国影视业走向世界的重要手段。第一,尽量出口文化折扣低的影视作品。第二,出口外国观众熟知的文化产品。第三,本土化与国际化相结合。
影视后产品的开发在整个影视产业链中最为重要,因为影视后产品的收入存在无限的潜力。大力发展影视后产品将会提高整个影视业的收入。此外,影视产业的成功离不开政府的大力支持。这就需要政府增加对影视文化产业的政府补贴,对影视产品出口实行减免税以提高其出口竞争力以及扩大影视产业的投融资渠道。
总之,作为一个文明古国,中国应该发挥其文化优势努力成为文化强国。而影视产业的产业化进程直接关系到文化强国的建设。最近几年,中国影视产业发展迅速,将成为国民经济新的增长点。然而,总体来说,中国影视文化产业化水平还很低远不及发达国家。因此,找出阻碍中国影视文化产业发展的问题所在并予以解决对影视产业国际化进程有巨大的促进作用。
In the context of economic globalization and China's accession into WTO, cultural trade develops rapidly and changes traditional economic model, becoming an essential factor in promoting economic growth and heightening international competitiveness. In many developed countries, the developing speed of cultural industry exceeds traditional manufacturing industries and cultural industry as a sunrise industry is a leader and pillar in economic development. Even for many developing countries, the cultural industry becomes new economic growth point. Film and television industry as the most international media industry its proportion in international trade is not only related to the development of cultural industry but also plays an essential role in economic growth throughout the country. Video products as a typical cultural product not only brings huge economic benefits for the exporter but also spread a country's values by its vivid form and content leading the development of related industries.
The United States makes remarkable success in film and television trade controlling 75% of the production of television programs and seizing more than 50% of global film screening time though its film production accounting for 6.7% of the world's total. The trade volume of American video products makes up 45% of the world's total for a long time. Although Chinese economy accomplished resounding achievement after 30 years of reform and opening up, the development of film and television industry is seriously backward which is not commensurate with China's identity as the historic country with five thousand civilization. Basing on the above, this paper compares the international competitiveness between China and the US by using the theory of industrial competitiveness, implements America's successful experience in film and television trade to China and puts forward suggestions to expanding film and television trade.
In the first part, the paper introduces the background and significance of this paper and the current research status in both home and abroad. Under the background of economic globalization and the advent of cultural orientation era, cultural trade holds a significant position in international trade and its strength plays an important role in measuring a country's comprehensive strength. As the country of profound culture, China should rely on cultural advantages and spread the culture to the world. Film and television trade will be the most effective way to broadcast culture between different countries. America as the most advanced country in cultural trade especially in film and television trade has much excellent experience for China to learn. American film and television industry was studied maturely by European countries and has formed a scientific system. With China's accession to WTO and the development of film and television industry, the study on American film and television industry is a hotspot. Some universities and scholars have engaged in this field and have published many books and theses.
In the second part, the paper introduces the concept and characteristics of the film and television industry as well as its position in world economy. Film and television industry belongs to video industry in cultural industry and is the integration of the competition and cooperation of making, screening and distributing film and television products. Comparing to other industry, film and television industry is specialized in several characteristics:higher capital investment; knowledge concentration and high entrance conditions; cultural discount in international trade; profound external effect.
The third section elaborates the film and television industry in the United States including the history, current situation and trade conditions, and analyzes the causes of the success of American film and television industry. Television industry in American began with the opening of the nation's first television station in 1939. With several decades of developments, American television industry is matured and becomes the leader around the world. In international commercial activities, American television industry plays an important role. It is not only a greatest importer but also the biggest investor and collaborator in world market. In 1893, Edison invented the Kinetoscope and created "Black Maria". Since then, American film has the history of over 100 years. Although America is not the biggest film producer in the world, it is the largest exporter and Hollywood blockbusters win great popularity around the world.
The success of American film and television trade is caused by several reasons:high degree of industrialization, international marketing methods, and government support. The film industrial structure is composed by six major film companies and many independent film companies of different sizes. The television industrial structure is mainly composed by five major TV networks. On the other hand, American film and industry chain is expanded to spinoff industry including video, VCD, music record, the auction of garments and properties, tourist development of film and television location and the related industries like broker agency, advertising and film channels etc., which are main sources of the income of film and television industry. International marketing is another factor of the success of American film and television trade. Firstly, American film companies often enter other markets by joint ventures. Secondly, Hollywood tries to meet the needs of audiences around the world. When promoting new films, Hollywood will contrive different trailers to different countries. Thirdly, the US has complete independent global distribution systems for film and television industry. Meanwhile, the United States Government creates a favorable external environment for developing cultural industry not only provides financial support but also seeks protection in world market:
The third section introduces the film and television industry in China including the history, current situation and trade conditions, and analyzes the causes of the trade deficit of Chinese film and television industry. Communications in China were founded in the early 1950s and developed rapidly in the following year except the Great Leap Forward. Presently, there are total 3000 television stations across the country. Chinese television programs formally entering world market started late. In 1996 the government held the first TV programs trading fair which intrigued much attraction from overseas and the foreign media reviewed that it indicated Chinese TV programs entered into global market formally. In recent years, the exhibitions for trading television programs are increasing year by year and the trade volume goes up steadily. As to film industry, the Chinese film industry didn't commence until 1913 when Zheng Zhengqiu and Zhang Shichuan shot the first Chinese movie "The Difficult Couple". Chinese film industry was halted by wars for several times and its trade also experienced different periods. Since China's accession to WTO, Chinese film industry has developed rapidly and the trade volume increases largely year by year.
Although Chinese film and television industry develops rapidly these years, the trade situation is less than satisfactory:huge trade deficit, over-concentration of trade partners and product type, and low industrialization. The reasons that cause the trade deficit are as follows. First of all, Chinese film and television industry is deficient in international competitiveness. As a latecomer flourished in 1990s, Chinese film and television industry is relatively in a low level and have not been completely industrialized. Besides, Chinese film and television industry has not formed economics of scale. The large number of producing and distributing institutions are small size and yet cannot fully use the resources and equipments, let alone reinvestment and scale-up. Furthermore, the production and distribution system of film and television industry is not in perfect with the gap between production and distribution. In addition, the professional talents are in shortage, especially specialized technicians, marketing talents, and the playwright and director with market and modern sensitivity. Presently, the industry lacks international marketing concept and strategies and the marketing channel is not smooth. Secondly, the film and television products are dissatisfied with the market demand, most of which take much emphasis on nationality and are with huge cultural discount. Thirdly, Chinese film and television industry lacks the proper investment and financing system and do not have a reasonable capital platform. Last but not the least, government's insufficient support is also a big hindrance for developing film and television industry.
In the fifth part, by using Michael Porter's diamond thesis the paper compares the industrial competitiveness between China and the United States in several aspects: demand conditions, operating conditions, financing channels, related industries, industrial policy and legal environment and export competitiveness. In aspect of demand conditions, China as the most populous country has the largest audience and the market demand is considerable. America, only second to China, has the second largest audiences but it is the largest market for film and video.
As to operating conditions, America is the largest film exporter and the leader of box office revenue, taking up two-thirds of the world's total box office revenue and the income of the spinoffs is also in the lead position. Besides, the screen density in America is the highest in the world, which is 20 times than Chinese. Due to lack of screens, the market demand cannot be satisfied by large number of audience. In financing channels, American film producing, distributing and marketing are supported by large amount of funds, which is the momentum of Hollywood's development. A series of financing tactics such as stocks, securities play a crucial role in film development. Without the development of complex financing methods and the intervention of capital market, Hollywood film industry cannot be so successful. In China, film and television financing started late and has little experience about capital management. In 2009, the Chinese film industry has also begun to seek financing from the capital market. Huayi Brothers Media went public in Shenzhen Stock Exchange in Oct 2009 and becomes the first film company listed in China's stock market. After Huayi Brothers, China Film Group, Shanghai Film Group and Bona International Film Group and Enlight Media have also announced their plans in the stock market in the next few years.
In aspect of industrial policy and legal environment, the US advocates liberal economic policies providing economic base and policy support for cultural industry. The government mainly provides easy external environment and strict legal protection. The US takes diversified investments and operation way, encouraging foreign investment and the investment from non-cultural sectors. Besides, the US government does not neglect policy support for cultural industry. In comparison, Chinese policies on film and television industry have to be further improved. The original policies and regulations were inadequacy:too many restrictions on financing, production and other aspects of film and television industry. As a result, the creativity and the competitiveness of Chinese cultural industries are not a patch on other countries. Presently, Chinese government is to reform this situation, putting forward a series of related policies to specify policies for developing film and television industry. When comes to export competitiveness, the United Stated is among the minority that can keep constant trade surplus and strong international competitiveness in global film and television market. Comparatively, Chinese film and television products make up a small part in world film and television market and falls far behind the US in export, nearly 100 times less than the US.
In aspect of related industries, two thirds of the income of American film and television industry is from related industries. The development of the related industries and spinoffs is quite mature in the US. In China, the income of film industry mostly depends on box office, while the most commercially valuable products-spinoffs are still underdeveloped. After entering the 21st century, the film and television industry develops rapidly. Some experienced Producers adopt the strategy of developing film-related products to explore the social and economic value of the film and television industry. According to the above analysis, it is obvious that competitiveness of China's film and television industry is in a low level. There is a huge gap between China and the US in the development of film and television industry. Among the above competitive elements, China only has obvious advantage in demand conditions but other elements is still locating at the first step, especially in financing, industrial policy and legal environment.
Finally, drawing on American successful experience in film and television industry the paper gives some suggestions on Chinese film and television industry, such as improving the international competitiveness of the entire film and television industry, reducing cultural discount, developing film spinoffs and enhancing government support. There are several ways in improving the international competitiveness. Firstly, the industry should compose large-scale companies to improve its international competitiveness. Secondly, the film and television industry should optimize industry structure and establish diversified revenue model. Besides, taking full advantage of international resources and cultivating professional talents are another effective way in improving the international competitiveness of film and television industry.
As China has profound culture, some cultures cannot be even totally understood by Chinese audiences let alone foreign audiences, which results in cultural discount. Reducing cultural discount is essential in expanding international market for Chinese film and television products. Firstly, it is necessary to export products with low culture discount. Secondly, the industry can export products with foreign audiences' familiar culture. Thirdly, when the local culture cannot be total understood by overseas consumers, the combination of localization and internationalization is undoubtedly an effective strategy.
In film industry chain, developing spinoffs is the most effective way to explore the value of film industry to the maximum extent as the income of spinoffs is limitless. Chinese filmmakers perceived the necessity of exploring spinoffs and paid more attention to develop spinoffs in recent years. In addition, government support is the key factor contributing to the success of American film and television industry. Chinese government can take several measures like subsiding, reducing or exempting tariffs on exported film and television products and expanding investment channels for film and television industry.
In conclusion, as a country of ancient civilization, China should exert its cultural advantage and tries to be a power nation in cultural industry. While the industrialization process of film and television industry is directly related to build a strong cultural industry. In recent years, film and television industry is developing rapidly and will certainly be a new growth point of national economy in the future. However, in China, the film and television industry is still in a low level and falls far behind the world's advanced level. Therefore, it is crucial to find out the reasons that impeding the developing proceedings of Chinese film and television industry and resolve these block, and promote the international competitiveness of the film and television industry.
引文
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① Marti n Geiselmann (2006). "Chinese Film History-A Short Introduction" (PDF). The University of Vienna-Sinologie Program.
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②鲍玉珩,洪俊浩.美国文化产业的形状与发展[J].电影评介,2007(16)
①韩永进.“文化产业”概念的正式提出及其背景.2001-2002中国文化产业蓝皮书,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2002
①韩永进.“文化产业”概念的正式提出及其背景.2001-2002中国文化产业蓝皮书,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2002
②李嘉珊,郑湫璐.从需求驱动看中国文化产业成为新经济增长点[J].国际贸易.2009(5).
①韩俊伟.国际电影与电视节目贸易[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2008
① McDonald, Joe. China Bans'Simpsons'From Prime-Time TV. Associated Press:August 13, 2006
①韩俊伟.国际电影与电视节目贸易[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2008
① Marti n Geiselmann (2006). "Chinese Film History-A Short Introduction" (PDF). The University of Vienna-Sinologie Program.
①韩骏伟,胡晓明.国际文化贸易[M].广州：中山大学出版社,2009.
[1]David Throsby. Economics and Cultures, Cambridge University Press,2001, 17-321997,323-339
[2]James Heibrun. The Economies of Art and Culture, Cambridge University Press, 2001
[3]Michael Curtin, Jane Shattuc. The American Television Industry (International Screen Industries), British Film Institute,2009.
[4]Michael E, Porter. Competitive Advantage of Nations, Free Press,1998.
[5]Scott. A. J. The Culture Economy of Cities, International of Urban and Regional Research, Volume21.
[6]Tino Balio. The American Film Industry, University of Wisconsin Press,1985.
[7]韩俊伟.国际电影与电视节目贸易[M].北京：中国传媒大学出版社,2008.
[8]韩骏伟,胡晓明.国际文化贸易[M].广州：中山大学出版社,2009.
[9]弘石.关于中国电影产业发展进程中若干问题的思考[J].当代电影,2006(6).
[10]华凌磊.全球背景下的好莱坞电影及中国电影发展对策研究[J].湖南大众传媒职业技术学院学报,2006(5).
[11]黄会林,俞虹等.受众与影视品牌战略发展的民族化思考-北京电影学、电视观众基本情况调查分析[J].现代传播,2004(1).
[12]金冠军,郑涵.全球化视野：传媒产业经济比较研究.学林出版社,2003.
[13]李安中.中美电影跨世纪交往[J].电影艺术,2004(6).
[14]李怀亮.国际文化贸易概论[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2006.
[15]李怀亮.国际电影贸易格局与中国电影产业对策[J].文艺研究,2002(5).
[16]李嘉珊,郑湫璐.从需求驱动看中国文化产业成为新经济增长点[J].国际贸易,2009(5).
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[19]唐韵.中国电影出口蓄势待发：挺进世界电影出口大国行列[J].中国文化报,2004(12).
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[26]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States
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