中国工业行业技术创新和创新效率差异研究
详细信息    本馆镜像全文|  推荐本文 |  |   获取CNKI官网全文
摘要
本文研究的问题是,中国38个工业行业技术刨新和创新效率在1990—1999年期间的差异、差异的影响、变化及其形成原因。对这些问题的探索,有助于从“行业结构”的角度,来客观评价20世纪90年代中国工业技术进步特点,制定合理的创新政策,促进技术创新,提高技术创新效率,推动中国工业发展,提升其国际竞争力,进而为国民经济持续发展提供坚实的物质技术基础;也有助于从新的角度来研究工业技术进步问题,丰富技术创新研究的相关内容。
     本文主要采用理论与实证分析相结合的方法,综合运用创新经济学、产业经济学和统计学的相关理论,分别从技术创新投入、产出,以及“工业行业技术比较创新指数(IRCIE)”角度分析了中国38个工业行业技术创新水平和创新效率的差异。在本文中,技术刨新投入主要使用R&D经费和R&D人员来衡量,技术创新产出用新产品销售收入来代表。技术创新效率是指技术创新产出除以创新投入,这样就可以计算出两种技术创新效率:第1类技术创新效率(新产品销售收入/R&D经费)和第2类技术创新效率(新产品销售收入/R&D人员)。为了直观地反映出38个行业在技术创新效率方面的差异情况,本文提出了一种新的创新效率指标IRCIE。IRCIE是指某个行业的技术创新效率与工业平均技术创新效率的比值,用以反映某个工业行业技术刨新效率超出或低于工业平均创新效率的程度,即IRCIE大于1或小于1分别代表该行业的创新资源配置效率高于或低于工业平均水平。与技术创新效率相对应,IRCIE也可以分为两种:第1类IRCIE和第2类IRCIE。
     论文数据来源于国家统计局和科技部编纂的《中国科技统计年鉴》(1991—2000),扣除数据缺失的其他矿采选业和武器弹药业,研究样本包括煤炭采选业、石油和天然气采选业等6个采掘行业,食品加工业、食品制造业等29个制造行业,以及电力蒸汽热水的生产及供应业等3个公用事业行业,共计38个工业行业。
     通过统计分析和理论研究,本文结论如下:
     (1)20世纪90年代,中国工业行业技术创新之间存在着明显差异。使用不同的衡量指标,对这种差异状况及其变化趋势的揭示程度也是不相同的。与技术创新投入指标相比,工业行业在技术创新产出方面的差异程度更大;与R&D人员指标相比,工业行业在R&D经费方面的差异也要更大一些。例如,在1990—1999年,交通运输设备制造业、电气机械及器材制造业、电子及通信设备制造业、专用设备制造业等10个行业,集中了全部工业行业创新产出(新产品销售收入)总量的82.249%,全部工业R&D人员总量的67.685%和R&D经费总量的74.288%。就工业行业技术创新方面的差异变化而言,38个工业行业创新投入方面的差异在缩小,而创新产出方面的差异却在扩大。综合技术创新投入和产出两个方面的指标,制造业的技术创新水平明显高于采掘行业和公用事业行业。
     (2)中国工业行业的技术创新效率(IRCIE)也存在着差异,这种差异在10年间早现出缩小的趋势。技术创新效率比较高的行业,包括烟草加工、交通运输设备、电子及通信设备、普通机械等15个制造行业;煤炭采选业、造纸及纸制品业、化学原料及化学制品制造业、电力蒸汽热水的生产及供应业等23个行业的技术创新效率比较低。在整个20世纪90年代,第1、2类IRCIE总体上呈增长态势的行业基本上是两类IRCIE均小于1的那些行业,而两类IRCIE均大于1的行业基本上没有发生变化或有所下降。这两个方面的综合作用使得工业行业间的技术创新效率差异呈现出缩小趋势。
     (3)总体而言,中国工业行业技术创新(投入和产出)方面的差异程度高于创新效率
    
     (IRCI巳)方面的差异程度。中国38个工业行业技术创新和创新效率的关系可以分为4种类
    型:第一种类型的技术创新水平和创新效率都很高,包括交通运输设备制造业、电于及通信
    设备制造业、普通机械制造业、橡胶制品业等门个行业:第二种类型的技术创新水平和创
    新效率都很低,包括木材加工及竹藤棕草制品业、有色金属冶炼及压延加工业、造纸及纸制
    品业、印刷业记录媒介复制等7个制造业,以及全部6个采掘行业和3个公用事业,共计
    16个工业行业;第三种类型的技术创新效率较高,技术创新水平较低,包括饮料制造业。
    烟草加工业、服装及其他纤维制品制造业、皮革毛皮羽绒及其制造业等4个行业:而石油加
    工及炼焦业、化学原料及化学制品制造业、非金属矿物制品业等7个行业则属于第四种类型;
    技术创新水平较高,但技术创新效率却较低。
     (4)中国工业行业的技术创新能力对其产值结构和就业结构具有显著影响。行业的技
    术创新能力越强,那么,它在整个工业中的产值比重和就业比重就越大。但是工业行业技术
    创新效率的影响却非常有限。在全部38个工业行业中,技术创新效率对产值结构和就业结
    构变化具有明显影响的行业仅占 23.68%(9/38),其余近 80%的工业行业,其创新效率与
    工业结构的变化没有明显的关系。也就是说,20世纪90年代的中国工业技术进步只不过在
    “数量规模”上影响着工业结构变化,对工业结构“质量改善”的作用尚不明显。这说明,
    中国工业结构正处于转换阶段,还没有进入“知识密集型”的工业化阶
Drawing on China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology (1990-1999),this dissertation,from the view of differences among industries in technical innovation and its efficiency,probes into the characteristics of technical progress in China industry 1990s,and makes some suggestions to promote technical progress,enhance innovation efficiency and finally to upgrade industrial structure.
    The paper is made up of three parts. Part one,including introduction,chapter 1,2 and 3,is concerned with basic theory and approach. Chapter 1 discusses definition and nature of innovation,and reviews literatures about technical innovation and its efficiency. How to comment and choose index to measure technical innovation was the main content of chapter 2. Moreover,chapter 2 also reveals what kinds of industries are more robust in technical actions. Based on revealed comparative advantage index,chapter 3 puts forward a new index to evaluate differences among industries in innovation efficiency:revealed comparative innovation efficiency index of industry (IRCIE),with which we examine the differences of China industry in innovation efficiency. As a result,we find a tendency that difference of innovation efficiency among industries 1990s has been reducing.
    Part two consists of chapters 4 to 7,which mostly emphasize empirical analysis on technical innovation and its efficiency. Chapter 4 researches the relationships between technical innovation and its efficiency,and considers what impacts technical innovation has on industry development. The factors to change technical innovation and its efficiency are discussed from chapter 5 to 7. Chapter 5 discusses two kinds of learning in both knowledge creation and technical innovation:learning inward and learning outward of firm,and concludes there is a large gap between China and foreign countries in knowledge density of industries. For Chinese industries,learning outward of firms have more significant effects on IRCIE than learning inward of ones. To a great extent,those industries which IRCIE are high depend on technical knowledge outside of firms,on the other hand,ones based on learning inward are low in IRCIE. Chapter 6,from the view of industry evolution,discusses what kinds of
    
    
    market structure could be beneficial to IRC IE,and tests whether it is effective on Schumpeterian Hypothesis in Chinese industries. We draw a conclusion that competitive market structure measured by concentration ratio of four or eight firms tends to enhance IRCIE of industries during China 1990s. Because market structure of industry in China is determined by many factors besides concentration,it is not easy to judge the relationships between structure and innovation. Institutional conditions,as one of important factors,could not directly reflect how they affect technological innovation and its efficiency. Chapter 7 provides a method to analyze the influences of institutional factors on innovation and IRCIE,and chooses financing structure of innovation,openness and firm system,etc. as representative system conditions. In China there are three main sorts of sources of financing for innovation of large and medium-sized enterprises:government funds,enterprises funds and bank funds. Our findings show that source
    s of financing for innovation run differently,though both government funds and bank funds have negative effects on IRCIE,it is only bank funds that significantly influence on IRCIE. On the other hand,enterprise funds have not significantly positive effect on IRCIE. In the term of openness,the higher gross output value of joint ventures as a percent of total in industry is,the higher IRCIE of industry is. As a whole,the IRCIE of joint ventures is much higher than one of state-owned enterprise. As approach of innovation systems has been advocating,if institutional environments were perfect,it should be beneficial to technical innovation and IRCIE
    Part there,namely chapter 8,the last of the dissertation,discusses how to promote technical innovation,how to enhance innovation efficiency in order to upg
引文
国家统计局、科学技术部,《中国科技统计年鉴》(1991—1999),中国统计出版社.
    中国社会科学院工业经济研究所,《中国工业发展报告》(1996—2001),经济管理出版社.
    国家统计局科技统计司,《中国科学技术四十年:1949—1989》(统计资料),中国统计出版社,1990年。
    江泽民,《论科学技术》,中央文献出版社,2001年。
    周叔莲,《中国经济的两个根本转变》,经济管理出版社,1997年。
    周叔莲,《可持续的社会主义与中国经济》,经济管理出版社,2000年。
    周叔莲、张冀湘,《重建社会主义企业》,中国社会科学出版社,1990年。
    周叔莲、郭克莎.《中国工业增长与结构变动研究》,经济管理出版社,2000年。
    周叔莲、裴叔平,《中国工业发展战略问题研究》,天津人民出版社.1985年
    吕政,《论中国工业增长与结构调整》,经济科学出版社,2001年。
    金碚,《产业组织经济学》,经济管理出版社,1999年。
    金碚,《中国工业国际竞争力—一理论、方法与实证研究》,经济管理出版社,1997年。
    郭克莎,《差距与赶超:中国工业与世界先进水平的比较研究》,中国城市出版社,2001年。
    郭克莎,《中国:改革中的经济增长》,上海:三联出版社、上海人民出版社.1996年.
    陈佳贵、金碚、黄速建,《中国国有企业改革与发展研究》,经济管理出版社,2000年
    江小涓,《体制转轨中的增长、绩效与产业组织变化——对中国若干行业的实证研究》,上海三联书店、上海人民出版社,1995年。
    江小涓,《经济转轨时期的产业政策——对中国经验的实证分析与前景展望》,上海三联书店、上海人民出版社,1996年。
    朱之鑫.《国家统计报表制度主要指标解释:2000年》,中国统计出版社,2000年。
    苏金明、傅荣花、周建斌、张莲花,《统计软件SPSS for Windows 实用指南》,电子工业出版社,2000年。
    柯惠新、黄京华、沈浩,《调查研究中的统计分析方法》,北京广播学院出版社,1992年。
    国家科委综合计划司,《经济合作与发展组织科学技术指标:研究与发展发明与竞争》(第二号),科学技术文献出版社,1989年。
    朱丽兰,《海外技术创新读本》,新华出版社,2000年。
    宋健,《现代科学技术基础知识》,科学出版社,中共中央党校出版社,1994年。
    路甬祥,《创新与未来面向知识经济时代的国家创新体系》,科学出版社,1998年。
    胡志坚.《国家创新系统:理论分析与国际比较》,社会科学出版社,2000年。
    马建堂,《结构与行为:中国产业组织研究》,中国人民大学出版社,1993年。
    贾蔚文、马驰、汤世国,《技术创新——科技与经济一体化发展的道路》,中国经济出版社,1994年。
    冯之浚,《国家创新系统的理论与政策》,经济科学出版社,1999年。
    王慧炯、徐肇祥,《企业进步:政策/机构》,中国发展出版社,1996年。
    王春法,《技术创新政策:理论基础与工具选择》,经济科学出版社,1998年。
    王春法,《经济全球化背景下的科技竞争之路》,经济科学出版社,2000年。
    王缉慈,《创新的空间:企业集群与区域发展》,北京大学出版社,2001年。
    李京文、郑玉歆、薛天栋《中国生产率变动趋势之研究》,社会科学文献出版社,1993年。
    李京文、钟学艺,《中国生产率分析前言》,社会科学文献出版社,1998年。
    陈禹、谢康,《知识经济的测度理论与方法》,中国人民大学出版社,1998年。
    吴贵生,《技术创新管理》,清华大学出版社,2000年。
    
    
    柳卸林.《企业技术创新管理》,科举技术文献出版社,1997年。
    柳卸林.《技术创新经济学》,中国经济出版社,1993年。
    柳卸林.《21的世纪中国技术创新系统》,北京大学出版,2000年。
    曾国屏,李正风,《世界各国的创新系统》,山东教育出版社.1999年。
    魏后凯.《市场竞争、经济绩效与产业集中——对改革开放以来中国制造业集中的实证研究》,中国社会科学院博士学位论文,2001年。
    何荣天.《产业技术进步论》,经济科学出版社,2000年。
    陈伟,《创新管理》,科学出版社,1996年。
    严基河,《现代企业研究开发与技术创新》,经济管理出版社,1997年。
    王明友,《知识经济与技术创新》,经济管理出版社,1999年。
    夏国藩,《技术创新与技术转移》,航空工业出版社,1993年。
    邓力群、马洪、武衡,《当代中国的科学技术事业》,当代中国出版社.1991年。
    蔡永生,《中国工业科技发展战略研究》,中国劳动出版社,1998年。
    高建,《中国企业技术创新分析》,清华大学出版社,1997年。
    史清琪、尚勇,《中国产业技术创新能力研究》,中国轻工业出版社,2000年。
    姜均露.《经济增长中科技进步作用测算——理论与实践》,中国计划出版社,1998年。
    武春友、戴大双、苏敬勤,《技术创新扩散》.化学工业出版社.1997年。
    李平,《技术扩散及实证研究》,山西经济出版社,1999年。
    鲁明鸿.《国际直接投资区位决定因素》,南京大学出版社,2000年。
    研究组,《中国科技发展报告(2000):科技全球化及中国面临的挑战》,社会科文献出版社.2000年。
    外国经济学说研究会编,《现代国外经济学论文选》(第十辑),商务印书馆,1986年。
    肖元真,《全球科技创新发展大趋势》,科学出版社,2000年。
    罗国勋,《二十一世纪:中国中小企业的发展》,社会科学文献出版社,1999年。
    杨治,《产业经济学导论》,中国人民大学出版版,1985年。
    戴伯勋、沈宏达,《现代产业经济学》,经济管理出版社,2001年。
    苏东水,《产业经济学》,高等教育出版社,2000年。
    W.W.罗斯托,《这一切是怎么开始的——现代经济的起源》,商务印书馆,1997年。
    W.W.罗斯托,《经济增长的阶段:非共产党宣言》,中国社会科学出版社,2001年。
    W.W.罗斯托,《从起飞进入持续增长的经济学》(修订本),四川人民出版社,2000年。
    OECD,《以知识为基础的经济》(修订版),机械业出版社.1997年。
    OECD,欧盟统计局,《研究与发展调查手册》,新华出版社,2000年。
    OECD,欧盟统计局,《技术创新调查手册》,新华出版社,2000年。
    OECD,欧盟统计局,《专利指标使用手册》,新华出版社,2000年。
    D.E.司托克斯,《基础科学与技术创新》,科学出版社,1999年。
    乔根森.《生产率:战后美国经济增长》,中国发展出版社,2001年。
    E.罗伊·温特劳布,《经济数学》,经济科学出版社,1998年。
    C.A.蒂斯德尔,《科技政策研究》,中国展望出版社,1985年。
    S.T.帕金森,《工业新产品开发——英国和德意志联邦共和国机床工业的比较》.机械工业出版社,1988年。
    H.钱纳(?)、S.鲁宾逊、M.塞尔奎因,《工业化和经济增长的比较研究》,上海三联书店、上海人民出版社,1995年。
    Michael L. Tushman and Charles A. O' ReillyⅢ.《创新制胜——领导组织的变革与振兴实践指南》,清华大学出版社,1998年。
    Mark Dodgson and Roy Rothwell,《创新聚集——产业创新手册》,清华大学出版社,2000年。
    
    
    Sheehan, P. J., Pappas, N., Tikhomirova, G. and Sinclair, G.《澳大利亚与知识经济:对科技促进经济增长的一种评价》,机械工业出版社,1997年。
    F.M.谢勒,《技术创新——经济增长的原动力》,新华出版社,2001年。
    约瑟夫·熊彼特,《经济发展理论——对于利润、资本、信贷、利息和经济周期的考察》。商务印书馆,1990年。
    约瑟夫·熊彼特.《资本主义、社会主义和民主》,商务印书馆,1979年。
    约翰·伊特维尔、默里·米尔盖特、彼得·纽曼,《新帕尔格雷夫经济学大辞典》,经济科学出版社,1996年。
    达莫达尔·N·古亚拉提,《经济计量学精要》机械工业出版社。2000年。
    迈克尔·德托佐斯,《美国制造如何从渐次衰弱到重振雄风》,科学技术文献出版社,1998年。
    安纳利·萨克森宁,《地区优势:硅谷和128公路地区的文化与竞争》,上海远东出版社,1999年。
    吉川弘之,《日本制造——日本制造业变革的方针》,上海远东出版社,1998年。
    理查德·R.纳尔逊、悉尼·G.温特,《经济变迁中的演化理论》,商务印书馆,1997年。
    理查德·R·纳尔森,《经济增长的源泉》,中国经济出版社.2001年。
    西蒙·库兹涅茨,《各国的经济增长》,商务印书馆,1999年。
    梅韦尔·G.琼斯,《现代经济增长理论导引》,商务印书馆。1999年。
    阿瑟·刘易斯,《经济增长理论》,商务印书馆,1996年。
    埃里克·冯·希普尔,《技术创新的源泉》.科学技术文献出版社,1997年。
    金指 基,《熊彼特经济学》,北京大学出版社,1996年。
    德布雷森,《技术创新经济分析》,辽宁人民出版社,1998年。
    阿特拜克,《把握创新》,清华大学出版社.1999年。
    巴顿,《知识与创新》.新华出版社,2000年。
    金麟洙,《从模仿到创新:韩国技术学习的动力》,新华出版社,1998年。
    克里斯托弗—弗里德里克·冯·布朗,《创新之战》,机械工业出版社.1999年。
    达尔·尼夫.《知识经济》,珠海出版社,1998年。
    彼得.德鲁克,《后资本主义社会》.上海译文出版社,1998年。
    欧内斯特·曼德尔,《资本主义发展的长波——马克思主义的解释》,商务印书馆,1998年。
    迈尔—莱布尼茨,《人·科学·技术》,三联书店出版社,1992年。
    V.奥斯特罗姆、D.菲尼、H.皮希特,《制度分析与发展的反思》,商务印书馆,1992年。
    皮埃尔·布迪厄、华康德,《实践与反思》,中央编译出版社.1998年。
    泰勒尔,《产业组织理论》,中国人民大学出版社,1997年。
    多纳德·海、德里克·莫瑞斯,《产业经济学与组织》,经济科出版社,2001年。
    刘易斯·卡布罗,《产业组织学导论》,人民邮电出版社,2002年。
    植草 益等,《日本的产业组织》,经济管理出版社,2000年。
    丹尼斯·卡尔顿.杰夫里·佩罗夫,《现代产业组织》,上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,1998年。
    周叔莲、王伟光,“科技创新与产业结构优化升级”,《管理世界》,2001年第5期。
    周叔莲、王伟光,“论工业化与信息化的关系”,《中国社会科学院研究生院学报》,2001年第3期。
    唐晓华、王伟光、马晓平,“经济转型期的企业技术创新障碍分析”。《中国工业经济》,2001年第8期。
    王洛林、江小涓,“大型跨国公司投资对中国产业结构、技术进步和经济国际化的影响”,《中国工业经济》,2000年第4、5期。
    沈坤荣、耿强,“外国直接投资、技术溢出与内生经济增长”,《中国社会科学》, 2001年第5期。
    刘元春,“国有企业宏观效率论——理论及其验证”,《中国社会科学》,2001年第5期。
    王昌林、许江萍、李宏宇,“我国80年代以来技术创新政策分析”,《中国科技论坛》,2000年第5期。
    张宗庆,“技术创新研究的综合化趋势”,《中外社会科学》,2000年第6期。
    
    
    连燕华.“关于技术创新政策体系的思考”,《科学学与科学技术管理》,1999年第4期。
    中国企业家调查系统,“企业创新:现状、问题及对策”,《管理世界》,2001年第4期。
    王大洲、关士续.“我国国有大中型企业技术创新与制度创新现状分析”,《中国软科学》,2000年第4期。
    俞文华.“加入WTO对我国若干技术创新支持政策的冲击及其政策含义”《科研管理》,2001年第2期。
    张长春,“2000年我国利用外商直接投资形式分析”,《中国工业经济》,2000年第5期。
    王永生,“企业规模与技术创新——对日本的考察”,《中国社会科学院研究生院学报》,1999年第3期。
    刘国新、万军康,“市场结构对技术创新的影响分析”,《管理工程学报》,1997年第6期,第11卷增刊。
    戚聿东.“中国产业集中度与经济绩效关系的实证分析”,《管理世界》,1998年第4期。
    鲁成,“关于我国技术创新研究的思考”,《中国软科学》,2000年第3期。
    钟鸣,“日本正在制定国家产业技术战略”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第5期。
    王林、韩冰,“美国先进技术发展计划:现状与趋势”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第5期。
    古月新,“美国2001财年R&D重点领域”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第2期。
    冯涛,“日本政府推进创新的举措及几点思考”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第7期。
    陈冰.“印度政府对科技经费管理的做法”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第9期。
    袁世升.“韩国发布(特定研究开发计划2000年实施计划)”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第5期。
    田野,“日本科技基础性工作现状及其支持方法”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第12期。
    关欣,“美国小型企业投资研究计划”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第2期。
    梁洪波、许长江,“意大利企业特点及中小企业的技术创新模式”,《全球科技经济瞭望》,2000年第11期。
    王伟光.“结构性过剩经济中的企业竞争行为”。《管理世界》,2001年第1期。
    王伟光,“成功的创新企业和创新产品的成功”,《经济管理》,2001年第11期。
    王伟光,“基于新政府范式的技术创新政策”,《学习与探索》,2002年第2期。
    王伟光,“技术创新障碍:一种产业组织学的方法”。《学习与探索》,2000年第3期。
    王伟光.“知识管理:一种新管理范式”,《社会科学辑刊》,2000年第1期。
    英文部分
    Abernathy, W. J., Clark, K. B. and Kantrow, A. M. (1983) Industrial Renaissance, New York, Basic Books.
    Acs, Zoitan J. and David B. Audretsch (1991), Innovation and Technological Change: An Overview, in Acs, Zolten J. and David B. Audretsch (eds.), Innovation and Technological Change: An International Comparison, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf.
    Aghion. E, and Howitt, P. (1992) 'A model of growth through creative destruction', Econometrica, Vol.60,323-351.
    Alcorta, L. and Peres, W. (1998) 'Innovation systems and technological specialization in Latin America and Caribbean Research Policy, Vol.26,No.7-8,857-881.
    Andreu. R. and Ciborra, C. (1996)'Core capabilities and information technology: an organizational learning approach', in Moingeon, B. and Edmondson, A (eds), Organizational Learning and Competitive Advantage, London, Sage, 121-38.
    A?ming Zhang, Yimin Zhang and Ronald Zhao, (2001) 'Impact of ownership and competition on the productivity of Chinese enterprises', Journal of Comparative Economics, Vol.29, 327-346.
    Antonelli, C. (1999) 'The evolution of the industrial organization of the production of knowledge', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol.23,243-260.
    Antonello Zanfei. (2000) 'Transnational Firms and the changing organisation of innovative activities', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol.24, 515-542.
    Archibugi, D. and Michle, J. (1997) Tehnology. globalisation and economic performance, Cambridge University Press.
    Archibugi, D. and Michle, J. (1997) 'Technological globalisation and national systems of innovation: an
    
    introduction', in Daniele Archibugi and Jonathan Michle. Technology; globalisation and economic performance, Cambridge University Press, 1-23.
    Arthur. W. B. (1989) 'Competing technologies, increasing returns, and lock-ins by historical events". Economic Journal, Vol.99. 116-131.
    Arthur. W. B. (1994) Increasing Returns and Path Dependence in the Economy, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press
    Audretsch, D.B. and Feidman. Maryann P. (1996) "R&D spillovers and the geography of innovation and production', The American Economic Review, Vol.86 No.3, 630-640.
    Audretsch, D. B. (1989) The Market and the stale. London: Harvester Wheatslrcaf
    Azzam, A. and Rosenbaum, D. (2001) 'Differential efficiency. Market structure and price'. Applied Economics. Vol.33. 1351-1357.
    Barro, R. J. and Sala-I-Martin, (1995) "Technological diffusion, convergence and growth, Journal of economic growth. Vol.2. 1-26.
    Bartholomew, S. (1997) "National systems of biotechnology innovation: Complex interdependence in the global system', Journal of International Business Studies, Vol.28. No 2. Second Quarter. 241-66.
    Basberg. Bjorn, L.. (1987) 'Patents and the measurement of technological change: a survey of the literature", in: Freeman Christopher (Ed.) Output measurement in science and technology: Essays in Honor of Yvan Fabian, North Holland, Amsterdam.
    Baumol, W. J., Nelson. R. and Wolff, E. N. 1994. Convergence of Productivity, Oxford. Oxford University Press
    Bell, M and Pavitt, K. (1997) 'Technological accumulation and Industrial growth: contrasts between developed and developing countries', in Daniele Archibugi and Jonathan Michle. Technology globalisation and economic performance, Cambridge University Press.
    Blanc, H. and Sierra, C. (1999) 'The internationalization of R&D by multinationals: a trade-ff between external and internal proximity", Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol.23. 187-206.
    Breschi, S., Malerba F.and Orsenigo, L. (2000) "Technological Regimes and Schumperterian Patterns of Innovation', The Economic Journal, Vol.110, 388-410.
    Breschi, S. and Malerba, F. (1997) 'Sectoral Innovation Systems: Technological Regimes, Sehumpeterian
    Dynamics, and Spatial Boundaries', in Charles Edgquist (ed.), System of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organizations, Chapter six, London and Washington: Printer, 130-156.
    Bresnahan, T.F. and Greenstein, S. (2001) 'The economic contribution of information technology: towards comparative and user studies', Journal of Evolutional Economics, Vol .11, No. 1. 95-118.
    Broadberry, S. N. (1994) 'Technological leadership and productivity leadership in manufacturing since the Industrial revolution: implications for the convergence debate", The Economic Journal, Vol. 104. 291-302.
    Cantwell, J. (1989) Technological innovation and multinational corporation. Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell.
    Carlsson, B. and Eliasson, G. (1994) , "The nature and importance of economic competence', Industrial and Corporate Change, Vol.3, No. 1, 687-711.
    Carlsson, B. and Jacobsson, S. (1997) 'Diversity creation and technological systems: A technology policy perspective", Edquist. C. (ed.). (1997) Systems of innovation-Technologies, institutions, and organization, London: Pinter. 266-94.
    Carlsson, B. and Stankiewicz. R. (1991) 'On the nature, function, and composition of technological systems", Journal of Evolutional Economics. Vol.1, No.2, 9. 3-118
    Casell, F. and Coleman, W. (May 2001) "Cross-country technology diffusion: the case of computers', The American Economic Review, Vol.91 No.2. 328-335.
    Coe, David T., and Helpman, E. (1995) 'International R&D Spillovers', European Economic Review, Vol.39,
    
    859-87.
    Cohendet. P., Kern. F., Mehmanpazir, B., and Mumer, F. (1999) 'Knowledge coordination, competence creation and integrated networks in globalised firms", Cambridge Journal of Economics. Vol.23, 225-241.
    Cheng. Leonard K. and Wu, Changqi (2001) 'Determinants of the perfonnance of foreign invested enterprises in China", Journal of Comparative Economics, Vol.29, 346-365.
    Cheng, L. (1987) 'Optimal trade and technology policies: dynamic linkages', International economic review, Vol.28, 291-314.
    Chiao, Chaoshin, (2001) 'The relationship between R&D and physical investment of firms in science-based industries',. Applied Economics. Vol.33. 23-35.
    Chou, C. and Shy, O. (1991) 'A model of technology gap, product cycle, and the process of catching up between the North and the South", Economic record, Vol.67, 217-26.
    Christopher T. Hill and James M. Utterback edited, (1979) Technological innovation for a dynamic economy, Pergamon Press.
    Chuang, Yih-Chyi and Lin. Chi-Mei (1999) 'Foreign direct investment, R&D and spillover efficiency: evidence from Taiwan's manufacturing firms'. The Journal of Development Studies, Vol.35 No.4, 117-137
    Chung, S. (2001) 'The learning curve and the yield factor: the case of Korea's semiconductor industry". Applied Economics, Vol.33, 473-483.
    Cohen. S.I. (2001) Microeconomic Policy, Routledge, London and New York.
    Currie. D., Levine, P., Pearlman, J. and Chui, M. (1999) 'Phases of imitation and innovation in a North-South endogenous growth model', Oxford Economics Papers, Vol.51, No.1, 60-88.
    d'Aspremont, C., and Jacquemin, A. (1988) 'Cooperative and noncooperative R&D in a duopoly with spillovers", American economic review. Vol.78. 1113-1117.
    Dahmen. E. (1988) ' "Development Blocks" in industrial economics", Scandinavian Economic History Review. Vol.35. No. 1,3-14.
    Dalum. B., Johnson. B. and Lundvall, B.-A. (1992) 'Public policy in the learning society', in B.-A.
    Denny, M., Bernstein, J., Fuss. M. Nakamura, S., and Waverman, L. (1992) 'Productivity in manufacturing Industries. Canada. Japan and the United States, 1953-86: was productivity slowdown reversed?' Canadian Journal of Economics, Vol.25, No.3, 584-603.
    de Mello, L. R. (1997) 'Foreign direct investment in developing countries and growth: A selective survey". The Journal of Development Studies, Vol.34. No. 1, 1-34.
    de Mello. L. R. (1999) 'Foreign direct investment-led growth: Evidence from time series and panel data" Oxford Economic Papers, Vol.51, 133-151.
    de Mello. L. R. Jr. (1995) 'Vintage capital accumulation: endogenous growth conditions", Journal of Macroecanomics, Vol.17, 103-16.
    Dienckx. I. And Cool, K. (1989) 'Asset stock accumulation and sustainability of competitive advantage". Management Science, vol.35. No. 12, 1504-1513.
    Dodgson. M. and Bessant, J. (1996) Effective innovation policy, International Thomson Business Press.
    Doh, Jonathan P. (2000) 'Entrepreneurial privatization strategies: order of entry and local partner collaboration as sources of competitive advantage',Academy of Management Review, Vol.25 No.3, 551-571.
    Dosi. G. and Orsenigo, L. (1988) 'Coordination and transformation. An overview of structures, behaviours and change in evolutionary environments', in Dosi, G., Freeman, C.. Nelson, R., Silverberg. G. and Soete. L..Technical Change and Economic Theory, London. Printer, 13-38.
    Dosi, G. (1988) "The nature of innovative process' In: Dosi G et al. (eds) Technological change and economic theory, Pinter Publishers, London.
    
    
    Dosi, G and Nelson, R. (1994) 'An introduction to evolutionary theories in economies', Journal of evolutional economics, Vol.4, No.3, 153-72.
    Dosi, G. (1991) 'perspectives on evolutionary theory', Science and public policy, Vol. 18, No.6.
    Drake, K. 'Industrial competitiveness in the knowledge-based economy: the new role of government', in OECD Proceedings: Industrial competitiveness in the knowledge-based economy, the new role of governments, 1997,17-53.
    Dunning, J. H. (1993) The Globalization of Business, London: Routhledge.
    Edmond, C. (2001) 'Some Panel Cointegration Models of International R&D Spillovers' Journal of Macroeconomics, Winter, Vol.23 No. 1,241-260.
    Edquist, C. (ed) (1997) Systems of innovation: Technologies, insturtions and organizations, Chapter one, London and Washington: Pinter.
    Edquist, C. (1997) 'Systems of innovation approaches: Their emergence and characteristics', in Charles Edquist (ed.). Systems of innovation: Technologies, institutions ami orgarzations. Chapter one, London and Washington: Pinter, 1-35.
    Ehrnberg, E. and S. Jacobsson (1997) 'Technological discontinues and incumbents performance: an analytical framework', in Edquist, C. (ed.) Systems of innovation-Teclmologies ,institutions, ami organization, London: Pinter.pp.318-336.
    El-Agraa, Ali M. (1997) 'UK competitiveness policy vs. Japarese Industrial policy'. The Economic Journal, Vol.107,1504-1517.
    Ericsson J. and Irandoust, M. (2001) 'On the causality between foreign direct investment and output: a comparative study', The International Trade Journal, Vol. 15, No . Spring, 1-26.
    Fine, B. (2000) 'Endogenous growth theory: a critical assessmes. Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol.24,245-265.
    Fisher, F.M. and Temin, P. (1973) 'Returns to scale in research and development: what does the Schumpeterian hypotheses imply?' Journal of Political Economy, Vol.81,56-70
    Fransman, M. (1997) 'Is national technology policy obsolete in a globalised world? The Janpanese response', in Daniele Archibugi and Jonathan Michle, Technology, globalismon and economic performance, Cambridge University Press, 50-82.
    Frantzen, D. (2000) 'Innovation, International technological diffision and the changing influence of R&D on productivity', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol.24 No.2, 199210.
    Freeman, C. and Soete, L. (1997) The economics of industrial movation, 3rd ed, The MTT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
    Freeman, C. (1995) 'The "national System of Innovation" in Historical Perspective', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 19, No. 1, 5-24.
    Freeman, C. (1987) Technology Policy and Economic Performanes Lessons from Japan, London: Pinter.
    George, K.D. Joll, C. and Lynk, E.L. (1992) Industrial Organisanes Competition ,Growth and Structural Change, 4th Edtion, Routledge, London and New York.
    Gerski, P. A. (January 1992) 'Vertical relations between firms and industrial policy' The Economic Journal, Vol.102,138-147.
    Gompers, P. and Lerner, J. (2001) 'The venture capital revolunm . Journal of Economics Perspectives, Vol.15 No.2, 145-168.
    Gomulka, S. (1990) The theory of technological change and economic growth, Routledge: London and New York.
    Grossman, G. M. and Helpman, E. (1991) Innovation and growth in the global economy, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
    
    
    Graham. Edward M. (1979) 'Technological innovation and the dynamics of the U.S. comparative advantage in international trade", in Christopher T. Hill and James M. Utterback edited, Technological innovation for a dynamic economy, Pergamon Press, 118-160.
    Hamel. G. and Prahalad. C.K. (1990) 'The core competence of the corporation'. Harvard Business Review, May-June. Vol. 68. No. 3.
    Hecht. J. (2001) "Classical labour-displacing technological change: the case of the US insurance industry', Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol.25. 517-537.
    Henrekson. M. and Jakonsson, Uif. (2001) 'Where Schumpeter was nearly right-the Swedish model and Capitalism. Socialism and Democracy', Journal of Evolutionary Economics, Vol.11. 331-358.
    Hicks. J.R., (1963) The theory of wages, 2nd edn, Macmillan, London.
    Hill. Christopher T.(1979) 'Technological innovation: Agent of growth and change', in Christopher T. Hill and James M. Utterback. Technological innovation for a dynamic economy, Pergamon Press. 1-39.
    Hu, A.Guangzhou (2001) 'Ownership, government R&D. private R&D, and productivity in Chinese industry', Journal of Comparative Economics. Vol.29,No. 1,136-157.
    Jorgenson. Dale W. (2001) 'Information technology and U.S. economy', The American Economic Review, Vol.91 No.1. 1-32.
    Krugman. P. (1987) . 'Trade, accumulation and uneven development'. Journal of development economics, Vol.8, 149-161.
    Motta, M. (1996) 'Research joint ventures in an international economy', Ricerche economics, Vol.50, 293-315.
    Kaimen. M. I. and Schwartz, N. L. (1982) ,Market Structure and Innovation, Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
    Kathuria. V. (2001) ' Foreign firms, technology transfer and knowledge spillovers to Indian manufacturing firms: a stochastic frontier analysis', Applied Economics, Vol.33, 625-642.
    Kim. L. (1993) 'National System of Industrial Innovation: Dynamics of Capability Building in Korea', in Richard R.Nelson (ed.) National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Analysis, Chapter H, New York and Oxford: Oxford Universily Press, 357-83.
    Kline. S. J. (1985) 'Innovation is not a linear process'. Research Management. Vol.28. No.4.
    Klein. Burton H. (1979) 'The slowdown in productivity advances: a dynamic explanation', in Christopher T. Hill and James M. Utterback edited. Technological innovation for a dynamic economy, Pergamon Press, 66-117.
    Klein. Burton H. (1977) Dynamic Economics, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
    Klepper. S. (1996) Entry. exit, growth, and innovation over the product life cycle". The American Economic Review. Vol.86 No.3.
    Kodama. F. (1992) 'Technology fusion and the new R&D'. Harvard Business Review. Vol.70. No.4, 32-35.
    Klepper. S. (1996) "Entry, exit, growth, and innovation over the product life cycle'. The American Economic Review, Vol.86 No.3. 562-583.
    Krugman. P. R. (1991) 'Increasing returns and economic geography'. Journal of Political Economy. Vol. 99. 48-99.
    Lach. S. and Rob. R. (1996) 'R&D investment and Industry dynamics". Journal of Economics and Management Strategy. Vol.5, 217-49
    Lach. S. and Schankerman. M. (1989) 'Dynamics of R&D and physical investment in the scientific sector', Journal oi Political Economics, Vol.97, 880-904.
    Langlois. Richard N. (2001) 'Knowledge, consumption, and endogenous growth', Journal of Evolutionary Economics. Vol. 11. 77-93.
    Leahy. D. and Neary. J. P. (1999) , R&D spillovers and the case for Industrial policy in an open economy", Oxford
    
    economics papers, Vol.51. No. 1. 40-59.
    Leahy, D., and Mean. J.P (1997) "Public policy towards R&D in oligopolistic industries'. American economic review, Vol.87, 642-662
    Lee, S.H. (2000) 'Insutulional Environments and Diversification Strategy of Emerging Market Firns'. The Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics, Vol. 11, 165-185.
    Levin. R.C., Cohen, W.M. and Mowery, D.C. (1985) 'R&D appropnability, opportunity and market structure: new evidence on some Schtumpeterian hypotheses', American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings. Vol.75, No.2. 20-24.
    Linder, Staffan B. (1961) An essay on trade and transformation, Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell.
    Lipsey, Richard G. and Carlaw. K. (1988) 'Technology policy: basic concepts' in A Structuralist Assessment of Technology Policies-Taking Schumpeter Seriously on Policy, Chapter 1, Ontario: Industry Canada, Research Publications Program, working paper Number 25,October, 1-33, Reference.
    Lotz. P. (1993) 'Demand as a driving force in medical innovation". International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Cure. Vol. 2, No. 9, 174-188.
    Lucas, R. (1988) 'On the mechanics of economic development". Journal of monetary economics. Vol.22, 3-22.
    Lundvell, B. A. (ed.). (1992) National systems of innovation: Towards a theory of innovation and interactive learning. London: Frances Pinter.
    Lyons, B. Matravest, C and Moffatt, P. (2001) 'Industrial concentration and market integration in the European Union", Economica. Vol.68. 1-26.
    Lundvall, B.-A. (ed.). (1992) National systems of innovation: Towards a theory of innovation and interactive learning. London: Pinter.
    Lundvall. B.-A. (1992) Introduction", in Bent-Ake Lundvall (ed.). National systems of innovation: Towards a theory of innovation and interactive learning. Chapter 1. London: Pinter Publishers, pp. 1-19.
    Malerba, F. and Orsenigo. L. (1990) 'Technological regimes and patterns of innovation: a theoretical and empirical investigation of the Italian case", In A. Heertje and M. Perhnan (eds). Evolving technologies and market structure, Ann Arbor: Michigan University Press.
    Malerba, F. and Orsenigo. L. (1993) "Technological regimes and firm behaviour'. Industrial and Corporate Change, Vol.2. No. 1. 45-71.
    Malerba, F. and Orsenigo. L. (1994) 'Schumpeterian patterns of innovation', Cambridge Journal Economics, Vol.19, No. 1,47-66.
    Malerba. F. and Orsenigo, L. (1997) "Schumpeterian patterns of innovation', in Daniele Archibugi and Jonathan Michle. Technology, globalisation and economic performance, Cambridge University Press, 241-267.
    Markusen, James R. (1997) 'Foreign direct investment, country characteristics and lessons for policy', in Industrial competitiveness in the knowledge-based economy: The new role of governments, OECD Proceedings.
    Maskell, P. and Malmberg, A. (1999) 'Localised learning and industrial competitiveness", Cambridge Journal of Economics, V01. 23, 167-185.
    Mckelvey, M. (1997) 'Using evolutional theory to defines systems of innovation', in Edquist, C. (ed.), 1997.
    Systems of innovation-Technologies, institutions, and organization, London: Pinter. 200-222.
    Mckelvey, M. (1998) ' Evolutional innovations: learning, entrepreneurship, and the dynamics of the firm", Journal of Evolutional Economics. Vol.8, 157-175.
    Mckelvey. M. (1996) 'Technological discontinuities in genetic engineering in Pharmaceuticals? Finn jumps and lock-in in systems of innovation", Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, Vol.82. 107-116.
    Mckelvey, M. and Texier, F. (2000) "Surviving technological discontinuities through evolutionary systems of innovation: Ericsson and mobile telecommunication', in Saviotti and B. Nooteboom (eds). Technology and
    
    knowledge: from the firm to innovation systems, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 227-248.
    Metcalfe. J.S., (1992) . The economic foundations of technology policy: Equilibrium and evolutional perspectives. Mimeo, University of Manchester.
    Ministry of International Trade and Industry. (1992) Issues and Trends in Industrial Scientific Technology: Towards Techno-globalism. Tokyo: Ministry of International Trade and Industry, September 1992.
    Morita, H. (2001) 'Choice of technology and labour market consequences: an explanation of U.S.-Japanese differences", The. Economic Journal, Vol. 111. January 29-50.
    Mullen, John K. (2001) 'Long-run technical change and multifactor productivity growth in US manufacturing", Applied Economics, Vol.33. 301-308.
    Nelson, R., (1993) 'A retrospective'. In: Nelson (ed.), National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Analysis. Oxford University Press, New York.
    Nelson. R.R., Peck. M. J. and Kalachek. E.D. (1967) Technology, economic growth and public policy, Washington DC: Brookings Institution
    Nelson RR (1989) 'Capitalism as an engine of progress", In: Carlsson B. (ed) Industrial dynamics, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston.
    Nelson. Richard R. (1992) 'National innovation system: A retrospective on a study'. Industrial and Corporate Change, Vol.1 No.2, 347-74.
    Nelson. R., (1993) 'A retrospective , In: Nelson (ed.), National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Analysis, Oxford University Press, New York.
    Nelson. Richard R. (1996) 'The evolution of comparative or competitive advantage: a preliminary report on a study" Industrial and Corporate Change, Vol. 1 No.5. 597-617.
    Nelson. Richard R. and Winter, Sidney G. (1982) An Evolutional theory of economic change, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    Nelson. R. R. (1993) National Innovation Systems-A comparative Analysis, Oxford. Oxford University Press.
    Niosi, J.. Saviotti. P. Bellon, B. and Crow, M. (1993) 'National Systems of Innovation: In Search of A Workable Concept", Technology In Society. Vol.15, No.2, 207-27.
    Nordhaus, William D. (1997) "Traditional productivity estimates are asleep at the (technological) switch'. The Economic Journal, Vol. 107, 154 8-15 5 9.
    Nonaka. I. (1994) 'A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation'. Organisation Science, Vol. 5. 4-37.
    Nonaka, I. And Takeuchi,H. (1995) The Knowledge-Creating Company, How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation, Oxford University Press.
    Nolan. P. (1996) 'Large firms and industrial reform in former planned economies: the case of China', Cambridge Journal of Economic. Vol.20, No.1. 1-29.
    O'Sullivan, M. (2000) 'The innovative enterprise and corporate governance'. Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol.24. 393-416.
    Oughton. C. (1997) 'Competitiveness policy in the 1990s', The Economic Journal, Vol.107, 1486-1503.
    Patel. P. and Pavitt, K. (1991) 'Large linns in the production of world's technology: An important case of non-globalisaton'. Journal of International Business Studies. Vol.22, No. 1. 1-21.
    Patel, P. and Pavitt, K. (1994) "National innovation systems: why they are import, and how they might be measured and compared'. Economics of Innovation and New Technology, Vol.3. 77-95.
    Pavitt. K.., Robson, M.and Townsend, J. (1987) The size distribution of innovating firms in the UK, 1945-1983', Journal Industrial Economy. Vol.35. 297-316.
    Pavitt. K.. and Patel, P. (1988) "The international distribution and determinants of technological activities', Oxford Review of Economic Policy. Vol.4. 35-55.
    
    
    Pinanta, M. "Technology', Growth ami Employment :Do National Systems Matter?', in Daniele Archibugic, Jeremy Howells and Jonathan Michie (ed.) Innovation Policy in a Global Economy, Cambridge University press, 1999,49-64,
    Porter, M. E. (1990) The Competitive Advantages of Motions, London/Basingstoke, Macmillan.
    Porter. M.E. (1990) 'The competitive advantage of nations". Harvard Business Review, Vol.68, No.2,), 73-93.
    Prahalad, C. K. and hamel, G. (1990) "The core competence of the corporation'. Harvard Business Review, No. 3, 79-91.
    Redding, S. (1999) 'Dynamic comparative advantage and the welfare effects of trade'. Oxford economics papers, Vol.51, No. 1,15-39.
    Rothwell, R. and Zegveld, W. (1981) Industrial innovation and public policy: preparing for the 1980s and 1990s,Greenwood Press Westport. Connecticut.
    Romer, P. (1990) 'Endogenous technological change'. Journal of Political Economy. Vol.98, 71-102.
    Rosenberg. N. and Frischtak, C. (1985) International technology transfer, New York: Praeger.
    Rothwell, R. and Zegveld, W. (1985) Reindustrialization and technology, Longman Group Limited.
    Robert, W. and Kash. Don E. (1999) The complexity challenge: technological innovation for the 21st century, PINTER,London and New York.
    Ruttan, Vernon W. (1997) 'Induced innovation, evolutionary theory and path dependence: sources of technical change', The Economic Journal, Vol.107, 1520-1529.
    Scherer, F. M. (1965) 'Firm size, market structure, opportunity and the output of Patented Inventions', American Economic Review. Vol.55.
    Sen, A.. (1996) Industrial Organization, Oxford University Press.
    Soete, Luc L. C. (1979) 'Firm size and inventive activity: the evidence reconsidered', European Economic Review, Vol.12.
    Soete, L.G.. (1981) 'A general test of technological gap trade theory'. Review World Economy, Vol. 117.
    Shy, O., Industrial Organization Theory and Application, The MIT Press, 1996.
    Spencer, B. J. (1986) 'What should strategic trade policy target?' in P. R. Krugman (ed.). Strategic trade policy and the new international economics, MIT press, Cambridge. MA, 69-89.
    Spence, M. (1984) 'Cost reduction, competition and industry performance'. Economica, Vol.52, 101-21.
    Segerstrom, P. S. (1991) 'Innovation, imitation, and economic growth', Journal of political economy, Vol.99, 807-827.
    SjOholm, F. (1999) 'Technology Gap. Competition and Spillovers from Direct Foreign Investment: Evidence from Establishment Data', The Journal of Development Studies, Vol.36 No.1, 53-73.
    Taylor, Christopher T. (2000) 'The impact of host country government policy on US multinational investment decisions', The World Economy, Vol.23 No.5, 635-647.
    Tybout, James R. (2000) 'Manufacturing firms in developing countries: how well do they do, and why?' Journal of Economic Literature, Vol.38,11-44.
    Teece, D. J. (1988) 'Technological change and the nature of the film', in Dosi, G. et al. (eds), Technical Change and Economic Theory, London, Pinter.
    Utterback, James M. (1979) 'The dynamics of product and process innovation in industry', in Christopher T. Hill and James M. Utterback edited. Technological innovation for a dynamic economy, Pergamon Press, 40-65.
    Vernon, R. (May 1966) "International investment and international trade in the product cycle', Quarterly Journal of Economics, and Vol.80. 190-207.
    Wright, G. (1997) 'Towards a more historical approach to technological change', The Economic Journal, Vol. 107, 1560-1566.

© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号

地址:北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编:100083

电话:办公室:(+86 10)66554848;文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新:66554700