大学英语写作教学的理论及实践研究
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摘要
作为我们日常生活中不可缺少的一种交流方式——写作,随着人类文明的产生演化和进步发展。同时,写作的产生也推动和促进了人类文明的不断进步和加强。随着改革开放的不断展开和深入,我国与国际各国的交流也日趋频繁与密切。西方世界的经济地位以及英语自身的特点,使得英语成为全球最广泛应用的国际语言。
英语写作水平,因其能全方面多角度立体的反应出学生总体英语水平,所以可以用作衡量学生英语总体水平的一个标尺。而且,一个学生的英语语法水平、英语思维方式以及中英文化底蕴,只要看看他的文章,便会很快得出一个全面、准确的结论。并且,培养和提高当今学生的英语写作水平对增强学生的社会竞争力是很有益的。
传统的大学英语写作课程包括写作基本理论、各种文体研究以及系统写作训练。当然,教学目的都是“增强学生英语写作能力、提高学生写作水平”。然而,教学却一直处于一种尴尬的状态中——教师不愿教、学生不愿学,教学成果也一直不尽如人意。
因此,应进一步加强英语写作教学的研究,从而改变目前这种教学的尴尬状态,从根本上提高学生整体英语写作水平。
建构主义,由著名瑞士心理学家皮亚杰(J. Piaget)于20世纪60年代提出,是认知理论的一个分支。建构主义认为1:“知识不是通过教师传授得到的,而是学习者在一定的情境即社会文化背景下,借助学习是获取知识的过程其他人的帮助,利用必要的学习材料,通过建构意义的方式获得。”“情境”,“协作”,“会话”和“意义建构”是建构主义学习环境的四大要素。英语写作这一课程的实践性很强,可以有效的运用建构主义理论指导其教学实践活动并促进学生的认知发展。
在认知语言学框架内的另一重要理论——图式理论,是认知心理学中用来解释理解心理过程的一种理论模式,首先由Kant在1781年提出,后经Bartlett和Rumelhart发展完善。Rumelhart认为2:“图式理论基本上是一种关于人的知识的理论,也就是说,它是关于知识是怎样被表征出来的,以及关于这种对于知识的表征如何以其特有的方式有利于知识的应用之理论。”如今,图式理论多用来指导英语接受性技能教学和研究——听力和阅读,但指导产出性技能教和研究——写作和口语教学,却不为常见。但是,图示理论在培养学生主动积极激活相关图式和构建新图式方面有不容忽视的效果。
因此,本文将“建构主义理论”和“图式理论”相结合应用于大学英语写作教学中。
本文首先综述了我们大学英语写作教学的教学及研究现状,找出大学生写作的主要问题并分析其成因,同时论述了写作的本质及进行写作教学的重要性。第二章为理论部分,对建构主义和图式理论的起源、内涵以及发展进行了论述分析。为了进一步说明如何将此二理论相结合应用于写作教学,作者于第三章阐述了二理论指导下的教学设计原则及其指导意义。第四章为实验部分,除了试验数据分析外,作者还举出了一个写作教案。第五章,作者在分析了本文优缺点的基础上,总结全文、重申论点。
As a way of communication, English writing is gradually getting more and more important than ever before. People need to express and describe their situations, their attitudes and their inner feelings vividly and idiomatically in English. They need to write with practical purposes, including application letters, letters of greetings and congratulations, thank-you letters, recommendation letters or writing about complaints. They also need to make comments on other people’s views in proper writing styles and accurate expressions. And, writing abilities are helpful and important to strengthen students’confidence in English learning and also necessary in learning English.
In this thesis, the author introduces the writing teaching-model with both Constructivism and Schema Theory serving as its educational though. The research was designed under the guide of this idea and thinking.
The thesis consists of five parts. Chapter one is the introductive part, which introduces the status quo of EFL writing teaching and studies in China, as well as the English writing theory. Chapter two is the literary review of Constructivism and Schema Theory, while chapter three discusses the principles of English writing teaching based on the two theories. In order to explain and test the efficiency of the English writing teaching model, the author carried on an experiment. And, chapter five is the last part, which summarizes the whole thesis and gives some suggestions for the further study.
英语写作水平,因其能全方面多角度立体的反应出学生总体英语水平,所以可以用作衡量学生英语总体水平的一个标尺。而且,一个学生的英语语法水平、英语思维方式以及中英文化底蕴,只要看看他的文章,便会很快得出一个全面、准确的结论。并且,培养和提高当今学生的英语写作水平对增强学生的社会竞争力是很有益的。
传统的大学英语写作课程包括写作基本理论、各种文体研究以及系统写作训练。当然,教学目的都是“增强学生英语写作能力、提高学生写作水平”。然而,教学却一直处于一种尴尬的状态中——教师不愿教、学生不愿学,教学成果也一直不尽如人意。
因此,应进一步加强英语写作教学的研究,从而改变目前这种教学的尴尬状态,从根本上提高学生整体英语写作水平。
建构主义,由著名瑞士心理学家皮亚杰(J. Piaget)于20世纪60年代提出,是认知理论的一个分支。建构主义认为1:“知识不是通过教师传授得到的,而是学习者在一定的情境即社会文化背景下,借助学习是获取知识的过程其他人的帮助,利用必要的学习材料,通过建构意义的方式获得。”“情境”,“协作”,“会话”和“意义建构”是建构主义学习环境的四大要素。英语写作这一课程的实践性很强,可以有效的运用建构主义理论指导其教学实践活动并促进学生的认知发展。
在认知语言学框架内的另一重要理论——图式理论,是认知心理学中用来解释理解心理过程的一种理论模式,首先由Kant在1781年提出,后经Bartlett和Rumelhart发展完善。Rumelhart认为2:“图式理论基本上是一种关于人的知识的理论,也就是说,它是关于知识是怎样被表征出来的,以及关于这种对于知识的表征如何以其特有的方式有利于知识的应用之理论。”如今,图式理论多用来指导英语接受性技能教学和研究——听力和阅读,但指导产出性技能教和研究——写作和口语教学,却不为常见。但是,图示理论在培养学生主动积极激活相关图式和构建新图式方面有不容忽视的效果。
因此,本文将“建构主义理论”和“图式理论”相结合应用于大学英语写作教学中。
本文首先综述了我们大学英语写作教学的教学及研究现状,找出大学生写作的主要问题并分析其成因,同时论述了写作的本质及进行写作教学的重要性。第二章为理论部分,对建构主义和图式理论的起源、内涵以及发展进行了论述分析。为了进一步说明如何将此二理论相结合应用于写作教学,作者于第三章阐述了二理论指导下的教学设计原则及其指导意义。第四章为实验部分,除了试验数据分析外,作者还举出了一个写作教案。第五章,作者在分析了本文优缺点的基础上,总结全文、重申论点。
As a way of communication, English writing is gradually getting more and more important than ever before. People need to express and describe their situations, their attitudes and their inner feelings vividly and idiomatically in English. They need to write with practical purposes, including application letters, letters of greetings and congratulations, thank-you letters, recommendation letters or writing about complaints. They also need to make comments on other people’s views in proper writing styles and accurate expressions. And, writing abilities are helpful and important to strengthen students’confidence in English learning and also necessary in learning English.
In this thesis, the author introduces the writing teaching-model with both Constructivism and Schema Theory serving as its educational though. The research was designed under the guide of this idea and thinking.
The thesis consists of five parts. Chapter one is the introductive part, which introduces the status quo of EFL writing teaching and studies in China, as well as the English writing theory. Chapter two is the literary review of Constructivism and Schema Theory, while chapter three discusses the principles of English writing teaching based on the two theories. In order to explain and test the efficiency of the English writing teaching model, the author carried on an experiment. And, chapter five is the last part, which summarizes the whole thesis and gives some suggestions for the further study.
引文
2 Rumelhart. Explorations in cognition [M]. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1975. P56.
3 Harris. Rethinking writing [M]. London: Athlone Press, 2000. P35.
4 Pennington M.C. and Cheung M. Factors shaping the introduction of process writing in Hong Kong secondary schools [J]. Language, Culture and Curriculum 8(1), 1995. P707.
5 Badger R. and White G. A process genre approach to teaching writing [J]. ELT Journal 34 (2), 2000. P154.
6 Freedman S. W., Greenleaf C. & Sperling, M. Response to student writing [M]. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1987. P78.
7 Harris. Rethinking writing [M]. London: Athlone Press, 2000. P25.
8 Harris. Rethinking writing [M]. London: Athlone Press, 2000. P78.
9 Badger R. and White G. A process genre approach to teaching writing [J]. ELT Journal 34 (2), 2000. P120.
10 Irmscher William F. The Holt guide to English: a contemporary handbook of rhetoric, language, and literature [M]. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972. P241.
11 Raimes. Techniques in teaching writing [M]. NY: Oxford University Press, 1983. P3.
12 P. David Pearson. Because Writing Matters: Improving Student Writing in Our Schools [M]. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972. P214.
13 Krashen. The power of reading: Insights from the research [M]. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited; Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2004. P54.
14 Eleanor Duckworth.“Tell me more”: listening to learners explain [M]. New York: Teachers College Press, 2001. P112.
15 Newby. Instructional technology for teaching and learning: designing instruction, integrating computers, and using media [M]. N.J.: Merrill, 1996. P34.
16 Douglas J. Simpson, Michael J.B. Jackson, Judy C. Aycock. John Dewey and the art of teaching: toward reflective and imaginative practice [M]. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2005. P390.
17 Jean Piaget. Memory and intelligence [M]. London : Routledge & K. Paul, 1973. P113.
18 Lerman, S.“Intersubjectivity in Mathematics Learning: A Challenge to the Radical Constructivist Paradigm?”[J]. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 27-2, 1996. P133.
19 L. S. Vygotsky. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes [M]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978. P32.
21 Jerome Bruner. Acts of meaning [M]. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990. P267.
22 Jonassen D.H. Thinking Technology [J]. Educational Technology (4), 1994. P34.
23 Bartlett, F. C. Remembering [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1932. P206.
24 Rumelhart, D. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce & W. F. Brewer. (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980. P251.
25 Nunan D. Second language teaching andlearning [M]. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1999. P201
26 Woddowson H.G. Learning purpose and Language [M]. Oxford, OxfordUniversity Press, 1983. P34.
27 Carrel P. L. and Eisterhold J. C. Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy [J]. Tesol Quartely 17(4), 1983. P553.
28 Smith, F. Understanding reading [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994. P14.
29 Jonnson, K. 1998. Schema theory. In: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics [M]. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998. P282.
30 Rumelhart D. and Brandford J. Schemata. In: Theoretical issues in Reading Comprehension [M]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Earlbaum,1980. P80.
31 Schifrin. Approaches to Discourse: Effects or prereading activities on EFL reading [M]. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. P103.
32 Cook G. Key Concepts in ELT: Schemas [J]. ELT Journal 5(1), 1997. P86.
33 Rumelhart D. and Brandford J. Schemata. In: Theoretical issues in Reading Comprehension [M]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Earlbaum, 1980. P34.
34 Cook G. Discourse in“Language Teaching: A scheme for Teacher Education”[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. P16.
37 Carrell P.L. Some Causes of Text-boundedness and Schema Interference in ESL Reading: Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1988. P89.
39 Sharp A. Psycholinguistics, materials and methods [M]. Lingnan University, 2005. P227.
40 Raths, L.E., Jonas, A., Rothstein, A., and Wassermann, S. Teaching for Thinking, Theory and Application [M]. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1967. P31.
41 Collins, A., Brown, J.S., & Newman, S. Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing and mathematics [J]. In L.B. Resnick, (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates, 1989. P157.
42 Mislevy R.J. Linking educational assessments: Concepts, issues, methods, and prospects [M]. Princeton, NJ: Policy Information Center, Educational Testing Service, 1993. P27.
43 Ibid. P34.
44 Skemp. The Psychology of Learning Mathematics [M]. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987. P67.
45 Carrell P. L. and Eisterhold J. C. Schema theory and ESL reading [J]. TESOL Quarterly 17(4), 1983. P553.
46 Carrell P. L. Some Causes of Text-boundedness and Schema Interference in ESL Reading: Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1988. P101.
47 Bransford J. Schema activation and schema acquisition. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading [M]. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1985. P385.
48 Carrell P. L. Psychology of Language [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. P84.
49 Rumelhart, D. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce & W. F. Brewer. (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980. P121.
50 Swales. Genre Analysis. CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge University Press, 1990. P4.
51 Swales. Genre Analysis. CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge University Press, 1990. P36.
52 Cooley. Exercise, hardiness and the stress-illness relationship [D]. University of Washington, Seattle, WA., 1985. P107.
53 Raimes. Techniques in teaching writing [M]. NY: Oxford University Press, 1983. P93.
54 Widdowson, H.G. Explorations in Applied Linguistics [M]. Oxford University Press, 1979. P176.
55余波著.剑桥雅思七超前版[M].北京:世界知识出版社, 2008. P53.
56 Cambridge IETS 6, Cambridge University Press, 2007. P26.
60 Raimes. Techniques in teaching writing [M]. NY: Oxford University Press, 1983. P36.
61 Rawlins. The Writer’s Way. Houghton Mifflin, 1999. P214.
[1] Badger R. and White G. A process genre approach to teaching writing [J]. ELT Journal 34 (2), 2000.
[2] Bartlett, F. C. Remembering [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1932.
[3] Bransford, J. Schema activation and schema acquisition. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading [M]. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1985.
[4] Cambridge IETS 6. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
[5] Carrell P. L. Psychology of Language [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.
[6] Carrell P. L. Some Causes of Text-boundedness and Schema Interference in ESL Reading: Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1988.
[7] Carrell P. L. and Eisterhold J. C. Schema theory and ESL reading [J]. TESOL Quarterly 17(4), 1983.
[8] Collins, A., Brown, J.S., & Newman, S. Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing and mathematics [J]. In L.B. Resnick, (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates, 1989.
[9] Cook G. Key Concepts in ELT: Schemas [J]. ELT Journal 5(1), 1997.
[10] Cook G. Discourse in“Language Teaching: A scheme for Teacher Education”[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
[11] Cooley. Exercise, hardiness and the stress-illness relationship [D]. University of Washington, Seattle, WA., 1985.
[12] Eleanor Duckworth.“Tell me more”: listening to learners explain [M]. New York:Teachers College Press, 2001.
[13] Douglas J. Simpson, Michael J.B. Jackson, Judy C. Aycock. John Dewey and the art of teaching: toward reflective and imaginative practice [M]. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2005.
[14] Freedman S. W., Greenleaf C. & Sperling, M. Response to student writing [M]. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1987.
[15] Harris. Rethinking writing [M]. London: Athlone Press, 2000.
[16] Irmscher William F. The Holt guide to English: a contemporary handbook of rhetoric, language, and literature [M]. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
[17] Jean Piaget. Memory and intelligence [M]. London : Routledge & K. Paul, 1973.
[18] Jerome Bruner. Acts of meaning [M]. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990.
[19] Jonassen D.H. Thinking Technology [J]. Educational Technology (4), 1994.
[20] Jonnson, K. 1998. Schema theory. In: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics [M]. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
[21] Krashen. The power of reading: Insights from the research [M]. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited; Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2004.
[22] Lerman, S.“Intersubjectivity in Mathematics Learning: A Challenge to the Radical Constructivist Paradigm?”[J]. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 27-2, 1996.
[23] L. S. Vygotsky. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes [M]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978.
[24] Mislevy R.J. Linking educational assessments: Concepts, issues, methods, and prospects [M]. Princeton, NJ: Policy Information Center, Educational Testing Service, 1993.
[25] Newby. Instructional technology for teaching and learning: designing instruction,integrating computers, and using media [M]. N.J.: Merrill, 1996.
[26] Nunan D. Second language teaching andlearning [M]. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1999.
[27] P. David Pearson. Because Writing Matters: Improving Student Writing in Our Schools [M]. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972.
[28] Pennington M.C. and Cheung M. Factors shaping the introduction of process writing in Hong Kong secondary schools [J]. Language, Culture and Curriculum 8(1), 1995.
[29] Raimes. Techniques in teaching writing [M]. NY: Oxford University Press, 1983.
[30] Raths, L.E., Jonas, A., Rothstein, A., and Wassermann, S. Teaching for Thinking, Theory and Application [M]. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1967.
[31] Rawlins. The Writer’s Way. Houghton Mifflin, 1999. P214.
[32] Rumelhart D. and Brandford J. Schemata. In: Theoretical issues in Reading Comprehension [M]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Earlbaum, 1980.
[33] Rumelhart, D. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce & W. F. Brewer. (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980.
[34] Schifrin. Approaches to Discourse: Effects or prereading activities on EFL reading [M]. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994.
[35] Sharp A. Psycholinguistics, materials and methods [M]. Lingnan University, 2005.
[36] Skemp. The Psychology of Learning Mathematics [M]. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987.
[37] Smith, F. Understanding reading [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994.
[38] Swales. Genre Analysis. CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
[39] Widdowson, H.G. Explorations in Applied Linguistics [M]. Oxford University Press, 1979.
[40] Woddowson H. G. Learning purpose and Language [M]. Oxford, OxfordUniversity Press, 1983.
[41]大学英语写作教程1.吉林出版集团有限责任公司. 2007.
[42]加侬著.建构主义学习设计:标准化教学的关键问题[M].宋玲译.北京:中国轻工业出版社, 2008年.
[43]路景菊著大学英语教学研究[M]长春:吉林大学出版社, 2007.
[44]彭建武著认知语言学研究[M]青岛:中国海洋大学出版社, 2005.
[45]邱东临蔡基刚主编大学英语教学探索与展望复旦大学出版社, 1999.
[46]严杰著写作教学与智力发展[M]长春:东北师范大学出版社, 1985.
[47]严明著大学英语跨文化交际能力培养研究[M]黑龙江人民出版社, 2004..
[48]余波著.剑桥雅思七超前版[M].北京:世界知识出版社, 2008.
[49]邹爱民著英语写作教学研究与实践[M]济南:山东友谊出版社, 1999.
[50]朱晓斌著写作教学心理学[M]杭州:浙江大学出版社, 2007.
3 Harris. Rethinking writing [M]. London: Athlone Press, 2000. P35.
4 Pennington M.C. and Cheung M. Factors shaping the introduction of process writing in Hong Kong secondary schools [J]. Language, Culture and Curriculum 8(1), 1995. P707.
5 Badger R. and White G. A process genre approach to teaching writing [J]. ELT Journal 34 (2), 2000. P154.
6 Freedman S. W., Greenleaf C. & Sperling, M. Response to student writing [M]. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1987. P78.
7 Harris. Rethinking writing [M]. London: Athlone Press, 2000. P25.
8 Harris. Rethinking writing [M]. London: Athlone Press, 2000. P78.
9 Badger R. and White G. A process genre approach to teaching writing [J]. ELT Journal 34 (2), 2000. P120.
10 Irmscher William F. The Holt guide to English: a contemporary handbook of rhetoric, language, and literature [M]. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972. P241.
11 Raimes. Techniques in teaching writing [M]. NY: Oxford University Press, 1983. P3.
12 P. David Pearson. Because Writing Matters: Improving Student Writing in Our Schools [M]. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972. P214.
13 Krashen. The power of reading: Insights from the research [M]. Westport, Conn.: Libraries Unlimited; Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2004. P54.
14 Eleanor Duckworth.“Tell me more”: listening to learners explain [M]. New York: Teachers College Press, 2001. P112.
15 Newby. Instructional technology for teaching and learning: designing instruction, integrating computers, and using media [M]. N.J.: Merrill, 1996. P34.
16 Douglas J. Simpson, Michael J.B. Jackson, Judy C. Aycock. John Dewey and the art of teaching: toward reflective and imaginative practice [M]. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2005. P390.
17 Jean Piaget. Memory and intelligence [M]. London : Routledge & K. Paul, 1973. P113.
18 Lerman, S.“Intersubjectivity in Mathematics Learning: A Challenge to the Radical Constructivist Paradigm?”[J]. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education 27-2, 1996. P133.
19 L. S. Vygotsky. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes [M]. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978. P32.
21 Jerome Bruner. Acts of meaning [M]. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1990. P267.
22 Jonassen D.H. Thinking Technology [J]. Educational Technology (4), 1994. P34.
23 Bartlett, F. C. Remembering [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1932. P206.
24 Rumelhart, D. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce & W. F. Brewer. (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980. P251.
25 Nunan D. Second language teaching andlearning [M]. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1999. P201
26 Woddowson H.G. Learning purpose and Language [M]. Oxford, OxfordUniversity Press, 1983. P34.
27 Carrel P. L. and Eisterhold J. C. Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy [J]. Tesol Quartely 17(4), 1983. P553.
28 Smith, F. Understanding reading [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994. P14.
29 Jonnson, K. 1998. Schema theory. In: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics [M]. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998. P282.
30 Rumelhart D. and Brandford J. Schemata. In: Theoretical issues in Reading Comprehension [M]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Earlbaum,1980. P80.
31 Schifrin. Approaches to Discourse: Effects or prereading activities on EFL reading [M]. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. P103.
32 Cook G. Key Concepts in ELT: Schemas [J]. ELT Journal 5(1), 1997. P86.
33 Rumelhart D. and Brandford J. Schemata. In: Theoretical issues in Reading Comprehension [M]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Earlbaum, 1980. P34.
34 Cook G. Discourse in“Language Teaching: A scheme for Teacher Education”[M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. P16.
37 Carrell P.L. Some Causes of Text-boundedness and Schema Interference in ESL Reading: Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1988. P89.
39 Sharp A. Psycholinguistics, materials and methods [M]. Lingnan University, 2005. P227.
40 Raths, L.E., Jonas, A., Rothstein, A., and Wassermann, S. Teaching for Thinking, Theory and Application [M]. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1967. P31.
41 Collins, A., Brown, J.S., & Newman, S. Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing and mathematics [J]. In L.B. Resnick, (Ed.), Knowing, learning and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates, 1989. P157.
42 Mislevy R.J. Linking educational assessments: Concepts, issues, methods, and prospects [M]. Princeton, NJ: Policy Information Center, Educational Testing Service, 1993. P27.
43 Ibid. P34.
44 Skemp. The Psychology of Learning Mathematics [M]. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1987. P67.
45 Carrell P. L. and Eisterhold J. C. Schema theory and ESL reading [J]. TESOL Quarterly 17(4), 1983. P553.
46 Carrell P. L. Some Causes of Text-boundedness and Schema Interference in ESL Reading: Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1988. P101.
47 Bransford J. Schema activation and schema acquisition. In H. Singer & R. B. Ruddell (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading [M]. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 1985. P385.
48 Carrell P. L. Psychology of Language [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000. P84.
49 Rumelhart, D. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce & W. F. Brewer. (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980. P121.
50 Swales. Genre Analysis. CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge University Press, 1990. P4.
51 Swales. Genre Analysis. CAMBRIDGE: Cambridge University Press, 1990. P36.
52 Cooley. Exercise, hardiness and the stress-illness relationship [D]. University of Washington, Seattle, WA., 1985. P107.
53 Raimes. Techniques in teaching writing [M]. NY: Oxford University Press, 1983. P93.
54 Widdowson, H.G. Explorations in Applied Linguistics [M]. Oxford University Press, 1979. P176.
55余波著.剑桥雅思七超前版[M].北京:世界知识出版社, 2008. P53.
56 Cambridge IETS 6, Cambridge University Press, 2007. P26.
60 Raimes. Techniques in teaching writing [M]. NY: Oxford University Press, 1983. P36.
61 Rawlins. The Writer’s Way. Houghton Mifflin, 1999. P214.
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