基于语料库的中国英语专业学生MAKE类连接发展模式研究
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摘要
本研究旨在探讨英语专业学生议论文中MAKE五种类连接的发展模式,即v+n/pron类连接, v+part类连接, v+n+prep类连接,v+n/pron+c类连接和v+adj+that/of类连接。本文的理论基础是中介语对比理论和母语迁移。
本研究使用的语料选自WECCL(中国学习者英语笔语语料库)和LOCNESS两个语料库。其中学习者语料由英语专业一至三年级学生的议论文作文构成,本族语语料是美国大学生写的议论文。在收集语料时,考虑了文体,年级和作文长度这三个变量。语料分析包括五个步骤:标注,提取检索行,检索并提取数据,分类,利用卡方检验和Z值比较它们之间的差异。
本研究的主要发现包括以下几个方面:首先,从数量上来看,随着学习者水平的提高,v+n/pron类连接的使用的
频率和百分比呈下降趋势。但是从质量上来看,和本族语者相比,学习者随水平的提高更能准确地使用这种类连接。这表明高年级的英语专业学生更有能力恰当地使用这种类连接。
其次,英语专业学生有过度使用一些与母语相关的类连接的倾向,如:v+n/pron+c类连接中的“使某人成为/感到/变得…”结构。该结构在各年级所有类连接中占50%以上。然而,随着他们水平的提高,该类连接的使用呈逐渐减少趋势。这表明学习者的母语对类连接的习得有负迁移的作用,但随着学习者水平的提高,对汉语思维的依赖越少。
再次,尽管一年级学生和本族语者都很少使用v+adj+that/of类连接,但并不意味着他们在这方面的水平能力是一样的。前者可能是目标语的水平有限,而后者是在相关表达时他们有更多的选择。此外,二、三年级的学生在此类连接中较多使用that从句,以此来证明他们已经掌握了较为复杂的句法结构。
最后,类连接的习得受多种因素影响,如作文题目,母语迁移,母语和目标语的差异,学习者的注意程度,类连接结构本身的复杂程度,以及测试焦虑等等。所有这些因素共同作用,导致了本研究现有的结果。
本研究的发现对英语教学具有一定的启示:首先,英语教师在类连接教学过程中可以使用教学检索软件,让学生接触到更多真实的语言材料,以此来提高类连接使用的有效性。其次,在英语教学过程中,教师和学生应当特别注意那些易受母语思维干扰的类连接结构。最后,教师和学生都应多注意一些与母语无相似之处的复杂的类连接。
和其他任何研究一样,本研究也存在三点不足,需要在以后的相关研究中克服并加以改进。首先,本研究中的语料来源于几个题目下的议论文,而同一题目的各个年级的作文篇数不等,因此有些类连接的使用难免受题目影响,这可能在一定程度上会影响到该研究结果的可靠性。未来研究需要相同题目下足够的语料来减少跟题目相关的影响。其次,本研究对MAKE类连接的分类不可避免地带有一定的主观性,这也可能会一定程度上影响研究结果。第三,由于时间和篇幅限制,只对v+n/pron+c类连接作为一个整体进行了研究,没有对该类连接的各个补语成分进行具体的研究,鉴于此,未来的研究就该类连接的各个补语成分进行,以便把该研究推向更深、更广的境地。
This study was conducted to explore the developmental patterns of MAKE in terms of five categories of colligations (v+n/pron, v+part, v+n+prep, v+n/pron+c, v+adj+that/of) used by Chinese English majors (CEMs) in their argumentative writing. The theoretical foundations employed in this study involve Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis (CIA) and L1 transfer.
The data employed in this study come from two corpora: Written English Corpus of Chinese Learners (WECCL) as a learner corpus, and The Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays (LOCNESS) as a reference corpus. The learner corpus in this study is made up of three sub-corpora which are all argumentative writings by CEMs from Grade One to Three. The reference corpus involves argumentative writings by American university students. Three control variables: genre, grade and length were taken into account when the data were selected. The data analysis consists of five steps: tagging the selected data, extracting the concordances, retrieving the data, categorizing the data and comparing them with Chi-square test and Z-score.
The major findings yielded from the study are as follows:
The first finding is that quantitatively, the pattern in terms of frequency and percentage in v+n/pron colligation in English majors’argumentative writings decreases gradually with their increased proficiency, but qualitatively, they tend to use this colligation properly compared with native speakers. This shows that the advanced learners become more competent in using this colligation despite the lower frequency.
The second finding is that CEMs have a preference or inclination to overuse some L1-related colligations like“make sb. become/feel/get…”in v+n/pron+c colligation which takes up more than 50% across three grades. However, they tend to employ smaller number of this colligation as they progress to higher grade. This indicates learners’L1 has a negative transfer to their acquisition of colligations but they are inclined to reduce their dependence on Chinese way of thinking as their language proficiency improves.
The third finding is that though both learners in GD1 and native speakers use v+adj+that/of colligation less, it does not mean that they are equally proficient in this aspect. The former most probably have an incomplete knowledge of the target language and the latter have more options to resort to when they try to express themselves. In addition, learners in GD2 and GD3 are more inclined to use“that-clause”compared with native speakers in this colligation to demonstrate their mastery of complex syntactical structure.
The last finding is that the acquisition of colligation is influenced by many factors, such as topic effect, L1 transfer, the difference between L1 and L2, learners’awareness or consciousness of the colligation, the complexity of the colligation itself, test anxiety and so on. Therefore, it is these factors working together that lead to the result of the colligations in this study.
The findings in this study offer some implications for the teaching and learning of English for Chinese English majors:
Firstly, English teachers can employ concordancing software to improve the effectiveness of using colligation.
Secondly, special attention should be paid to L1 interference in teaching and learning colligation knowledge.
Finally, both teachers and students should be more aware of some complex colligations which have no equal equivalents in their mother tongue.
The present study has its own limitations and requires improvement in furture related studies.
Firstly, all the data in this study are selected from argumentative writings within several topics. However, the number of compositions under the same topic in each grade is not the same. This might produce the topic effect. To some extent, it would affect the objectiveness of the results. Furture research needs a larger corpus to provide sufficient writings with the same topic so as to reduce the topic effect.
Secondly, the categorization of the colligations of MAKE is inevitably subjective, which may to some extent have an influence on the objectiveness of the findings.
Lastly, due to the limited time and the size of corpora, v+n/pron+c colligation in this study is conducted as a whole rather than respectively. Future related studies can investigate each complement in detail to deepen and broaden the study.
本研究使用的语料选自WECCL(中国学习者英语笔语语料库)和LOCNESS两个语料库。其中学习者语料由英语专业一至三年级学生的议论文作文构成,本族语语料是美国大学生写的议论文。在收集语料时,考虑了文体,年级和作文长度这三个变量。语料分析包括五个步骤:标注,提取检索行,检索并提取数据,分类,利用卡方检验和Z值比较它们之间的差异。
本研究的主要发现包括以下几个方面:首先,从数量上来看,随着学习者水平的提高,v+n/pron类连接的使用的
频率和百分比呈下降趋势。但是从质量上来看,和本族语者相比,学习者随水平的提高更能准确地使用这种类连接。这表明高年级的英语专业学生更有能力恰当地使用这种类连接。
其次,英语专业学生有过度使用一些与母语相关的类连接的倾向,如:v+n/pron+c类连接中的“使某人成为/感到/变得…”结构。该结构在各年级所有类连接中占50%以上。然而,随着他们水平的提高,该类连接的使用呈逐渐减少趋势。这表明学习者的母语对类连接的习得有负迁移的作用,但随着学习者水平的提高,对汉语思维的依赖越少。
再次,尽管一年级学生和本族语者都很少使用v+adj+that/of类连接,但并不意味着他们在这方面的水平能力是一样的。前者可能是目标语的水平有限,而后者是在相关表达时他们有更多的选择。此外,二、三年级的学生在此类连接中较多使用that从句,以此来证明他们已经掌握了较为复杂的句法结构。
最后,类连接的习得受多种因素影响,如作文题目,母语迁移,母语和目标语的差异,学习者的注意程度,类连接结构本身的复杂程度,以及测试焦虑等等。所有这些因素共同作用,导致了本研究现有的结果。
本研究的发现对英语教学具有一定的启示:首先,英语教师在类连接教学过程中可以使用教学检索软件,让学生接触到更多真实的语言材料,以此来提高类连接使用的有效性。其次,在英语教学过程中,教师和学生应当特别注意那些易受母语思维干扰的类连接结构。最后,教师和学生都应多注意一些与母语无相似之处的复杂的类连接。
和其他任何研究一样,本研究也存在三点不足,需要在以后的相关研究中克服并加以改进。首先,本研究中的语料来源于几个题目下的议论文,而同一题目的各个年级的作文篇数不等,因此有些类连接的使用难免受题目影响,这可能在一定程度上会影响到该研究结果的可靠性。未来研究需要相同题目下足够的语料来减少跟题目相关的影响。其次,本研究对MAKE类连接的分类不可避免地带有一定的主观性,这也可能会一定程度上影响研究结果。第三,由于时间和篇幅限制,只对v+n/pron+c类连接作为一个整体进行了研究,没有对该类连接的各个补语成分进行具体的研究,鉴于此,未来的研究就该类连接的各个补语成分进行,以便把该研究推向更深、更广的境地。
This study was conducted to explore the developmental patterns of MAKE in terms of five categories of colligations (v+n/pron, v+part, v+n+prep, v+n/pron+c, v+adj+that/of) used by Chinese English majors (CEMs) in their argumentative writing. The theoretical foundations employed in this study involve Contrastive Interlanguage Analysis (CIA) and L1 transfer.
The data employed in this study come from two corpora: Written English Corpus of Chinese Learners (WECCL) as a learner corpus, and The Louvain Corpus of Native English Essays (LOCNESS) as a reference corpus. The learner corpus in this study is made up of three sub-corpora which are all argumentative writings by CEMs from Grade One to Three. The reference corpus involves argumentative writings by American university students. Three control variables: genre, grade and length were taken into account when the data were selected. The data analysis consists of five steps: tagging the selected data, extracting the concordances, retrieving the data, categorizing the data and comparing them with Chi-square test and Z-score.
The major findings yielded from the study are as follows:
The first finding is that quantitatively, the pattern in terms of frequency and percentage in v+n/pron colligation in English majors’argumentative writings decreases gradually with their increased proficiency, but qualitatively, they tend to use this colligation properly compared with native speakers. This shows that the advanced learners become more competent in using this colligation despite the lower frequency.
The second finding is that CEMs have a preference or inclination to overuse some L1-related colligations like“make sb. become/feel/get…”in v+n/pron+c colligation which takes up more than 50% across three grades. However, they tend to employ smaller number of this colligation as they progress to higher grade. This indicates learners’L1 has a negative transfer to their acquisition of colligations but they are inclined to reduce their dependence on Chinese way of thinking as their language proficiency improves.
The third finding is that though both learners in GD1 and native speakers use v+adj+that/of colligation less, it does not mean that they are equally proficient in this aspect. The former most probably have an incomplete knowledge of the target language and the latter have more options to resort to when they try to express themselves. In addition, learners in GD2 and GD3 are more inclined to use“that-clause”compared with native speakers in this colligation to demonstrate their mastery of complex syntactical structure.
The last finding is that the acquisition of colligation is influenced by many factors, such as topic effect, L1 transfer, the difference between L1 and L2, learners’awareness or consciousness of the colligation, the complexity of the colligation itself, test anxiety and so on. Therefore, it is these factors working together that lead to the result of the colligations in this study.
The findings in this study offer some implications for the teaching and learning of English for Chinese English majors:
Firstly, English teachers can employ concordancing software to improve the effectiveness of using colligation.
Secondly, special attention should be paid to L1 interference in teaching and learning colligation knowledge.
Finally, both teachers and students should be more aware of some complex colligations which have no equal equivalents in their mother tongue.
The present study has its own limitations and requires improvement in furture related studies.
Firstly, all the data in this study are selected from argumentative writings within several topics. However, the number of compositions under the same topic in each grade is not the same. This might produce the topic effect. To some extent, it would affect the objectiveness of the results. Furture research needs a larger corpus to provide sufficient writings with the same topic so as to reduce the topic effect.
Secondly, the categorization of the colligations of MAKE is inevitably subjective, which may to some extent have an influence on the objectiveness of the findings.
Lastly, due to the limited time and the size of corpora, v+n/pron+c colligation in this study is conducted as a whole rather than respectively. Future related studies can investigate each complement in detail to deepen and broaden the study.
引文
Altenberg, B. & Granger, S. (2001). The grammatical and lexical patterning of MAKE in native and non-native student writing. Applied Linguistics, 22, 173-195.
Bahns, J. & Eldaw, M. (1993). Should we teach EFL students collocations? System 21:101-114.
Benson, M., Benson, E. & Ilson, R. (1997). The BBI Dictionary of English word Combinations. Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company.
Bright, J. & G. McGregor. (1970). Teaching English as a second language: Theory and Techniques for the Secondary Stage. London: Longman.
Cao, Y. (2006). A Contrastive study of the semantic prosody and colligation in two news corpora. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Dalian Maritime University.
Carter, R. and McCarthy, M.(eds.).(1988). Vocabulary and language teaching [M]. London: Longman.
Channell, J. (1981). Applying semantic theory to vocabulary teaching. English language Teaching Journal, 35:115-122.
Chi, M. A., Wong, P. K. & Wong, C. M. (1994). Collocational problems amongst ESL learners: A corpus-based study. In L. Flowerdew & A.K.Tong (eds.). Entering text(pp. 157-165). Hongkong: University of Science and Technology.
Chong X. J. (2007). A corpus-based empirical study of Chinese EFL students’qualitative knowledge of high-frequency verb--Make. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Northwest Normal University.
Cobb, T. (2003). Analyzing late Interlanguage with learner corpora: Quebec replications of three European studies. Canadian Modern Language Review 59:393-423.
Deng, Y. C. (2004). Collocational patterns of delexical verbs in Chinese EFL learner s’writing. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Dalian Maritime University.
Diana Lea, (2003). Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English.[Z] Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. London: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (1999). Understanding second language acquisition. Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press.
Firth, J. R. (1957). Modes of meaning. In Papers in Linguistics(pp. 96-196). London: Oxford University Press.
Gao, L. (2006). A Corpus-based empirical study on Chinese EFL learners’development of using common verbs in colligation. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Shanghai JiaoTong University.
Gitsaki, C. (1999). Second language lexical acquisition: A study of the development of collocational knowledge. Bethesda: Internet Scholars Publications.
Granger, S. (1998). The Computerized learner Corpus: a versatile source of data for SLA research. In S. Granger (ed.) Learner English on Computer. London and NewYork: Longman.
Granger, S (2002). Computer learner corpora, second language acquisition and foreign language teaching. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Hoey, M. (2000). A world beyond collocation: New perspectives on vocabulary teaching. In M. Lewis (ed.). Teaching collocation: 224-243. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and second language proficiency. Applied linguistics 19: 24-44.
Hunston, S. & Francis, G. (1998). Verbs observed: A Corpus-driven pedagogic grammar [J]. Applied Linguistics 19, 1:45-72.
James, C. (2001). Errors in language learning and use: Exploring error analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan.
Lewis, M. (2000). Learning in the lexical approach. In M. Lewis (ed.). Teaching collocation (pp.155-185). Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Li, C & S. Thompson. (1981). Mandarin Chinese: A Functional reference grammar [M]. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Mitchell, T. F. (1971). Linguistic“going on”: Collocations and other lexical matters arising on the linguistic record, Archivum Linguisticum 2: 35-69.
Nattinger, J. R & DeCarrico, J. S. (1992). Lexical phrases and language learning. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nesselhauf, N. (2003). The use of collocations by advanced learners of English and some implications for teaching. Applied Linguistics 24: 223-242.
Newman, A. (1988). The Contrastive analysis of Hebrew and English dress and cooking collocations: some linguistic and pedagogic parameters. Applied linguistics 9: 293-305.
Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ortega, L. (2003). Syntactic complexity measures and their relationship to L2 proficiency: A research synthesis of college-level L2 writing. Applied Linguistics 4: 492-518.
Pu, J. Z. (2000). Learner behavior of verbs: A corpus-based research on Chinese college
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Bahns, J. & Eldaw, M. (1993). Should we teach EFL students collocations? System 21:101-114.
Benson, M., Benson, E. & Ilson, R. (1997). The BBI Dictionary of English word Combinations. Amsterdam: John Benjamin Publishing Company.
Bright, J. & G. McGregor. (1970). Teaching English as a second language: Theory and Techniques for the Secondary Stage. London: Longman.
Cao, Y. (2006). A Contrastive study of the semantic prosody and colligation in two news corpora. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Dalian Maritime University.
Carter, R. and McCarthy, M.(eds.).(1988). Vocabulary and language teaching [M]. London: Longman.
Channell, J. (1981). Applying semantic theory to vocabulary teaching. English language Teaching Journal, 35:115-122.
Chi, M. A., Wong, P. K. & Wong, C. M. (1994). Collocational problems amongst ESL learners: A corpus-based study. In L. Flowerdew & A.K.Tong (eds.). Entering text(pp. 157-165). Hongkong: University of Science and Technology.
Chong X. J. (2007). A corpus-based empirical study of Chinese EFL students’qualitative knowledge of high-frequency verb--Make. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Northwest Normal University.
Cobb, T. (2003). Analyzing late Interlanguage with learner corpora: Quebec replications of three European studies. Canadian Modern Language Review 59:393-423.
Deng, Y. C. (2004). Collocational patterns of delexical verbs in Chinese EFL learner s’writing. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Dalian Maritime University.
Diana Lea, (2003). Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English.[Z] Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. London: Cambridge University Press. Ellis, R. (1999). Understanding second language acquisition. Shanghai Foreign Languages Education Press.
Firth, J. R. (1957). Modes of meaning. In Papers in Linguistics(pp. 96-196). London: Oxford University Press.
Gao, L. (2006). A Corpus-based empirical study on Chinese EFL learners’development of using common verbs in colligation. Unpublished M. A. thesis, Shanghai JiaoTong University.
Gitsaki, C. (1999). Second language lexical acquisition: A study of the development of collocational knowledge. Bethesda: Internet Scholars Publications.
Granger, S. (1998). The Computerized learner Corpus: a versatile source of data for SLA research. In S. Granger (ed.) Learner English on Computer. London and NewYork: Longman.
Granger, S (2002). Computer learner corpora, second language acquisition and foreign language teaching. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Hoey, M. (2000). A world beyond collocation: New perspectives on vocabulary teaching. In M. Lewis (ed.). Teaching collocation: 224-243. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and second language proficiency. Applied linguistics 19: 24-44.
Hunston, S. & Francis, G. (1998). Verbs observed: A Corpus-driven pedagogic grammar [J]. Applied Linguistics 19, 1:45-72.
James, C. (2001). Errors in language learning and use: Exploring error analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Lado, R. (1957). Linguistics across cultures: Applied linguistics for language teachers. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan.
Lewis, M. (2000). Learning in the lexical approach. In M. Lewis (ed.). Teaching collocation (pp.155-185). Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Li, C & S. Thompson. (1981). Mandarin Chinese: A Functional reference grammar [M]. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Mitchell, T. F. (1971). Linguistic“going on”: Collocations and other lexical matters arising on the linguistic record, Archivum Linguisticum 2: 35-69.
Nattinger, J. R & DeCarrico, J. S. (1992). Lexical phrases and language learning. [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nesselhauf, N. (2003). The use of collocations by advanced learners of English and some implications for teaching. Applied Linguistics 24: 223-242.
Newman, A. (1988). The Contrastive analysis of Hebrew and English dress and cooking collocations: some linguistic and pedagogic parameters. Applied linguistics 9: 293-305.
Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ortega, L. (2003). Syntactic complexity measures and their relationship to L2 proficiency: A research synthesis of college-level L2 writing. Applied Linguistics 4: 492-518.
Pu, J. Z. (2000). Learner behavior of verbs: A corpus-based research on Chinese college
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