无线传感器网络在地下矿井环境监测中的应用：以赞比亚矿井为例
|
摘要
随着外商投资的扩大,赞比亚地下矿山的不断被开发及商业化。这直接导致了矿工工作环境的恶化。为了改善他们的工作环境,在采矿行业建立更加严格的监管及评估标准势在必行。学术界的专家们,政府官员们和私营企业主越来越关注这个问题,并把矿井环境的改善及其危害的减轻当作首要目标。经过通力合作后,矿井的通风设备及安全条件等已取得极大的进步,但是,矿难的步伐并没有因此停下,尤其是在赞比亚。因此,在监督方面的更高的计划要求及行动迫在眉睫。
本文探索了无线传感网络(WSNs)在地下矿山环境监测中应用的可能性。本文的目标是利用新兴科技解决全球范围内的共同问题—矿工工作环境的恶化。本文所提供的所有观点已经经过可行性及特征验证,并针对矿井环境改善而研究了低功率无线网络科技。正如本段开头所述,无线传感器网络作为一个新兴现代地下环境监测工具,有着无可比拟的优越性。它流动性强,灵活性高,易测量,易安装,在紧急事件如矿山爆炸或塌陷的时候能被快速展开运作。而且,它的自我修复,自我组织,多路径传播和监测度高等特性使它成为解决地下或密闭空间的高度安全性及紧急事件的能手。本文深刻阐述了无线传感器网络在地下矿山环境监测方面的巧妙运用,希望通过这些研究能帮助解决世界的又一难题。
本文的第一部分是关于之前进行的一次实地考察的分析及讨论。为了评估赞比亚目前地下矿山的环境监测方法,本文挑选出赞比亚铜带省6家矿产企业作为调查对象。研究结果表明赞比亚矿产企业都是利用人工监测或有线传感器去监测地下环境,而且由于这些方法的有效性极低,在过去五年内矿难经常发生。而且进一步的调查显示,其中4家企业的安全及环境部门非常乐意接受无线传感器网络的使用以便改善地下矿井环境。
本文的第二部分是寻求如何在地下环境中建立电波的传播模型。由于地下环境特性的限制,很难将无线传感器网络充分应用及扩展。经过对地下环境的无线传播特性调查后(包括现有传播模型的检查及其限制的确定),本文设计了两种模型。第一种是将传感器埋在地下,这需充分考虑到土壤及岩石对电波传播的影响。第二种是将传感器放置在开放空间里,如矿井通道等,这需要考虑到波的衍射,如在地下通道的穿梭矿车有可能会影响正在传播的波。
Zambian underground mines are becoming more mechanized and extensive with the coming in of foreign investors, this has in turn resulted in the deterioration of the working environment for the miners. In order to improve the underground mine working environment, more stringent monitoring and assessment standards need to be designed, formulated and applied to the mining industry. The main goal of some professionals in academic circles, the government and the private sector has been to bring improvement in the underground mine environment and mitigate its hazards. As a result of their efforts, there has been tremendous professional progress and improvement in the area of mine ventilation and safety. It is however unfortunate that mine disasters have continued to occur throughout the world and Zambia in particular. It is for this reason that, a need has been felt for further advances in plans and designs for monitoring underground mine environments.
In this thesis we explore the potential of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in the context of underground mine environmental monitoring. Our goal is to confront an emerging technology with a concrete problem of world-wide dimensions, the safety of miners working in hostile underground environments. The work presented in this thesis has investigated the feasibility, characteristics and potential applications of low power wireless networking technology, particularly aimed at improving underground mine safety. Following an initial review, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) were identified as having many desirable attributes as a modern underground environmental monitoring tool. WSNs are mobile, flexible, and easily scalable, installation time is reduced and there is scope for rapid deployment in case of an emergence such as a mine explosion or roof rock fall. The self-healing, self-organizing, multiple pathway redundancy, and highly scalable nature of WSNs are particularly advantageous for underground, or confined space, high-integrity safety and emergency applications. The study and potential use of WSNs in an underground mine is a novel aspect of this thesis.
In the first part of the thesis we present and discuss the results of a field survey we carried out, whose aim was to assess the current underground mine environmental monitoring methods in Zambia. The research covered 6 mining companies on the Copperbelt province of Zambia. Our study revealed that the mines in Zambia, uses manual monitoring methods or wired sensors to monitor environmental conditions underground. The study also revealed that the current methods are not very effective and a number of accidents that could have been avoided were recorded in the past five years. The safety departments and the environmental departments which were our targeted respondents in all the 4 out of the 6 mines that participated unanimously welcomed the idea of introducing WSNs as monitoring tools for environmental conditions in underground mines. We then presented a WSN for underground mine environmental monitoring framework and discussed the challenges of implementing such a framework.
The second part of the thesis is devoted to wave propagation modeling in underground environments. The nature of the underground environment makes it difficult for the Wireless underground Sensor networks applications to be fully implemented and appreciated. We investigated wireless propagation characteristics in underground environments and this involved examining existing propagation models and identifying their limitations. We then designed two models, the first one concerns sensors that are buried underground. Our proposed model takes into account most of the soil or rock properties that affects wave propagation. The second model concerns sensors that are underground but in open spaces such as mine tunnels. Our proposed model revealed that wave diffraction due to the obstacles such as shuttle cars in underground mines have an effect on the propagated wave.
本文探索了无线传感网络(WSNs)在地下矿山环境监测中应用的可能性。本文的目标是利用新兴科技解决全球范围内的共同问题—矿工工作环境的恶化。本文所提供的所有观点已经经过可行性及特征验证,并针对矿井环境改善而研究了低功率无线网络科技。正如本段开头所述,无线传感器网络作为一个新兴现代地下环境监测工具,有着无可比拟的优越性。它流动性强,灵活性高,易测量,易安装,在紧急事件如矿山爆炸或塌陷的时候能被快速展开运作。而且,它的自我修复,自我组织,多路径传播和监测度高等特性使它成为解决地下或密闭空间的高度安全性及紧急事件的能手。本文深刻阐述了无线传感器网络在地下矿山环境监测方面的巧妙运用,希望通过这些研究能帮助解决世界的又一难题。
本文的第一部分是关于之前进行的一次实地考察的分析及讨论。为了评估赞比亚目前地下矿山的环境监测方法,本文挑选出赞比亚铜带省6家矿产企业作为调查对象。研究结果表明赞比亚矿产企业都是利用人工监测或有线传感器去监测地下环境,而且由于这些方法的有效性极低,在过去五年内矿难经常发生。而且进一步的调查显示,其中4家企业的安全及环境部门非常乐意接受无线传感器网络的使用以便改善地下矿井环境。
本文的第二部分是寻求如何在地下环境中建立电波的传播模型。由于地下环境特性的限制,很难将无线传感器网络充分应用及扩展。经过对地下环境的无线传播特性调查后(包括现有传播模型的检查及其限制的确定),本文设计了两种模型。第一种是将传感器埋在地下,这需充分考虑到土壤及岩石对电波传播的影响。第二种是将传感器放置在开放空间里,如矿井通道等,这需要考虑到波的衍射,如在地下通道的穿梭矿车有可能会影响正在传播的波。
Zambian underground mines are becoming more mechanized and extensive with the coming in of foreign investors, this has in turn resulted in the deterioration of the working environment for the miners. In order to improve the underground mine working environment, more stringent monitoring and assessment standards need to be designed, formulated and applied to the mining industry. The main goal of some professionals in academic circles, the government and the private sector has been to bring improvement in the underground mine environment and mitigate its hazards. As a result of their efforts, there has been tremendous professional progress and improvement in the area of mine ventilation and safety. It is however unfortunate that mine disasters have continued to occur throughout the world and Zambia in particular. It is for this reason that, a need has been felt for further advances in plans and designs for monitoring underground mine environments.
In this thesis we explore the potential of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in the context of underground mine environmental monitoring. Our goal is to confront an emerging technology with a concrete problem of world-wide dimensions, the safety of miners working in hostile underground environments. The work presented in this thesis has investigated the feasibility, characteristics and potential applications of low power wireless networking technology, particularly aimed at improving underground mine safety. Following an initial review, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) were identified as having many desirable attributes as a modern underground environmental monitoring tool. WSNs are mobile, flexible, and easily scalable, installation time is reduced and there is scope for rapid deployment in case of an emergence such as a mine explosion or roof rock fall. The self-healing, self-organizing, multiple pathway redundancy, and highly scalable nature of WSNs are particularly advantageous for underground, or confined space, high-integrity safety and emergency applications. The study and potential use of WSNs in an underground mine is a novel aspect of this thesis.
In the first part of the thesis we present and discuss the results of a field survey we carried out, whose aim was to assess the current underground mine environmental monitoring methods in Zambia. The research covered 6 mining companies on the Copperbelt province of Zambia. Our study revealed that the mines in Zambia, uses manual monitoring methods or wired sensors to monitor environmental conditions underground. The study also revealed that the current methods are not very effective and a number of accidents that could have been avoided were recorded in the past five years. The safety departments and the environmental departments which were our targeted respondents in all the 4 out of the 6 mines that participated unanimously welcomed the idea of introducing WSNs as monitoring tools for environmental conditions in underground mines. We then presented a WSN for underground mine environmental monitoring framework and discussed the challenges of implementing such a framework.
The second part of the thesis is devoted to wave propagation modeling in underground environments. The nature of the underground environment makes it difficult for the Wireless underground Sensor networks applications to be fully implemented and appreciated. We investigated wireless propagation characteristics in underground environments and this involved examining existing propagation models and identifying their limitations. We then designed two models, the first one concerns sensors that are buried underground. Our proposed model takes into account most of the soil or rock properties that affects wave propagation. The second model concerns sensors that are underground but in open spaces such as mine tunnels. Our proposed model revealed that wave diffraction due to the obstacles such as shuttle cars in underground mines have an effect on the propagated wave.
引文
[1]Infoplease, Zambia:http://www.infoplease.com/country/profiles/zambia.html
[2]About.com, geography and map of Zambia: http://geography.about.com/library/cia/blczambia.htm.
[3]Zambia Central Statistics Office (2006). www.zamstats.gov.zm
[4]Metorex limited, country profile, Zambia: http://www.metorexgroup.com/ir_cp_zambia.html
[5]http://www.zambianwatchdog.com/2011/03/10/zambia-mining-a-global-case-study-of-mismanagement/
[6]Countries of the world, Zambian economy 2011: http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/zambia/zambia_economy.html.
[7]Maimbolwa Mulikelela, Chinese investments bring hope to Zambian people: http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=7&id=1266827882
[8]Infomine, mine intelligence and technology, commodities, copper: http://www.infomine.com/
[9]Kanduza David, How safe is mining in Zambia,2005: http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=8&id=1178031526
[10]Reuters Africa, http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE70506920110106
[11]Reuters, ABC news, Officials say 19 dead in a Zambian mine accident: http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/04/20/1349977.htm
[12]Miningmx, Chambishi mine:http://www.miningmx.com/wts/434284.htm
[13]Mines communities, Zambia miners paying the price,2006: http://www.minesandcommunities.org//article.php?a=501&highlight.
[14]Simutanyi Neo. Copper Mining in Zambia:The Developmental Legacy of Privatization. Institute for security studies,2008, Paper 165: http://www.iss.co.za/pgcontent.php?UID=22500
[15]Michelo P, Bratveit M and Moen B E, Occupational injuries and fatalities in copper mining in Zambia. Journal of Occupational Medicine,2009,59(0):191-194.
[16]Glatthaar W. E. F. L, Annual Report on the Medical Services of Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd. British Journal of Industrial Medicine,1973,30(0): 301-303
[17]Hayumbu P, Robins T G and Key-Schwartz R. Cross-Sectional Silica Exposure Measurements at Two Zambian Copper Mines of Nkana and Mufulira. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,2008,5(2):86-90.
[18]Li M and Liu Y. Underground Coal Mine Monitoring with Wireless Sensor Networks. ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks (TOSN),2009,5(2):Article 10.
[19]Ilyas M and Mahgoub I, Compact wireless and wired sensing systems. Handbook of sensor networks:Boca Raton London New York, Washington, D.C, CRC press, 2006.
[20]Raghavendra C S and Znati T. Wireless sensor networks. New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow, Kluwer Academic Publishers,2004.
[21]Zhao F and Guibas L J. Wireless Sensor Networks:An information Processing Approach, London, Morgan Kaufman Publishers,2004.
[22]Li M and Liu Y. Underground Structure Monitoring with Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on information processing in Sensor Networks, Hong Kong,2007,69-78.
[23]Bogena H R, Huisman J A, Meier H, Rosenbaum U and Weuthen A. Hybrid Wireless Underground Sensor Networks:Quantification of Signal Attenuation in Soil, extreme signal loss, Vadose Zone Journal,2009,8(3):755-761.
[24]Akyildiz I F and Stuntebeck E P. Wireless underground sensor networks:Research challenges. Ad Hoc Networks (Elsevier) Journal,2006,4(6):669-686.
[25]Labrador M A and Wightman P M. Topology Control in Wireless Sensor Networks with a companion simulation tool for teaching and research, USA, Springer Science+ Business Media,2009.
[26]Bischoff R, Meyer J and Feltrin G. Wireless Sensor Network Platforms, Encyclopedia of Structural Health Monitoring, Online book, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,2009.
[27]Culler D, Estrin D and Srivastava M. Overview of sensor networks. IEEE Journal of Computing,2004,37(0):41-49.
[28]Rubinstein M G, Moraes I M, Campista M E M et al. A Survey on Wireless Ad Hoc Networks. Journal of Mobile and Wireless Communications Systems,2006, 211(0):1-33
[29]Buratti C, Conti A, Dardari D and Verdone R. An Overview on Wireless Sensor Networks Technology and Evolution. Journal of Sensors,2009,9(0):6869-6896.
[30]Karl H and Willig A. Protocols and Architecture for Wireless Sensor Networks, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons,2005.
[31]Soe K T. Increasing lifetime of target tracking wireless sensor networks. World Academy of Science Engineering and Technology,2008,32(32):440-446.
[32]Akyildiz I F, Su W, Sankarasubramaniam Y and Cayirci E. Wireless sensor networks:a survey, Computer Networks (Elsevier) Journal,2002,38(4):393-422.
[33]Stavrou E, Wireless Sensor Networks pt 1,2005, Available online http://webhosting.devshed.com/c/a/Web-Hosting-Articles/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-pt-1-Introduction/1/
[34]Ding G, Bhargava B, Sahinoglu Z et al. Reliable broadcast in ZigBee networks, In Proceedings of the Second IEEE International Conference on Sensors and Ad Hoc Communications and Networks (IEEE SECON 2005), Santa Clara, California, USA,2005,510-520.
[35]Geer D (2005). Users Make a Beeline for ZigBee sensor Technology. Journal of Computer,2005,38(12):16-19
[36]Baronti P, Pillai P, Chook V W C, Chessa S, Gotta A and Hu Y F. Wireless sensor networks:A survey on the state of the art and the 802.15.4 and ZigBee standards. Journal of Computer Communications,2007,30(0):1655-1695.
[37]Khanh T L, Next Generation Wireless, Designing a ZigBee-ready IEEE 802.15.4-compliant radio transceiver, available online, www.rfdesign.com.
[38]Kosmerchock S. Wireless Sensor Network Topologies. TP000,2010 Available online:www.stevekos.com.
[39]Haenselmann T. Sensor networks, An online FDL'ed Textbook on Sensor Networks,2006.
[40]Lewis F L. Wireless Sensor Networks, Smart Environments:Technologies, Protocols, and Applications ed, New York, D.J. Cook and S.K. Das, John Wiley, 2004.
[41]Goff E J. Exploring the Protocol Stack of Wireless Sensor Networks, Lecture notes, 2010 Available online: http://www.thecourse.us/Students/Wireless_Sensor_Networks.htm
[42]Glaser J, Weber D, Madani S A and Mahlknecht S. Power Aware Simulation Framework for Wireless Sensor Networks and Nodes. EURASIP Journal on Embedded Systems,2008,2008(3):1-16.
[43]Madani S A, Mahlknecht S and Glaser J. CLAMP:cross layer management plane for low power wireless sensor networks, In Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Frontiers of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan, December 2007.
[44]Perrig A, Stankovic J and Wagner D. Security in wireless sensor networks. Journal of Communications of the ACM,2004,47(6):53-57.
[45]Thein M C M and Thein T. A Framework for Secure and Survivable Wireless Sensor Networks. The Annals of "Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati Fascicle I. Economics and Applied Informatics.2009,0(0):243-253
[46]Tiusanen J. Wireless Soil Scout prototype radio signal reception compared to the attenuation model, Journal of Precision Agriculture,2009,10(5):372-381.
[47]Vuran M C and Akyildiz I F. Channel Modeling and Analysis for Wireless Underground Sensor Networks in Soil Medium. Journal of Physical Communication,2010,3(4):245-254.
[48]Iskander M F and Yun Z. Propagation Prediction Models for Wireless Communication Systems, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,2002,50(3):662-673.
[49]Romer K and Mattern F. The design space of wireless sensor networks, Wireless Communications, IEEE,2004,11(6):54-61.
[50]Howard A, Mataric M and Sukhatme G.S. Self deployment algorithm for mobile sensor networks. Autonomous Robots Special Issue on Intelligent Embedded Systems,2002,13(2):113-126.
[51]Grossglauser G S, Tse M and Little D.N.C. Mobility Increases the Capacity of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks. IEEE Transactions on Networking,2002,10(4):477-482.
[52]Bansal N and Liu Z. Capacity, Delay and Mobility in Wireless Ad-Hoc Networks, In Proceedings of the 22ndAnnual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications, IEEE Societies, (INFOCOM 2003), San Franciso, CA, USA, March 2003,2(0):1553-1563.
[53]Demirbas M. Scalable Design of Fault-Tolerance for Wireless Sensor Networks. PhD Dissertation, The Ohio State University, USA,2004, Available online.
[54]Liu H, Nayak A and Stojmenovic I. Fault Tolerant Algorithms/Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks. Handbook of Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks, Springer-Verlag, London,2009.
[55]Zhang W, Xue G and Misra S. Fault-Tolerant Relay Node Placement in Wireless Sensor Networks:Problems and Algorithms, In Proceedings of the 26th IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications. (INFOCOM'2007). Anchorage, Alaska, USA, May 2007,1649-1657.
[56]Hoblos G, Staroswieckie M and Aitouch A. Optimal design of fault tolerance sensor networks, In the Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Control Application, Anchorage, Alaska, USA, September 2000,467-472.
[57]Cardei M and Wu J. Energy-efficient coverage problems in wireless ad-hoc sensor networks, Journal of Computer Communications,2006,29(4):413-420.
[58]Li W and Shen L. Energy Conservation in Large-Scale Sensor Networks through Wakeup Mechanism and Clustering Aggregation, In Proceedings of the International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing, (WiCom 2007), Shanghai, China, September 2007,2679-2683.
[59]Ke W, Basu P, Ayyash S A et al. Attribute Based Hierarchical Clustering in Wireless Sensor Networks. MCL technical report,2003.
[60]Bandyopadhyay S and Coyle E J. An Energy Efficient Hierarchical Clustering Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the 22ndAnnual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications, IEEE Societies, (INFOCOM 2003). San Franciso, CA, USA, March 2003,3(0):1713-1723.
[61]Xin G, Yang W H and Degang B. EEHCA:Energy efficient hierarchical clustering algorithm for wireless sensor networks. China, Information Technology Journal, 2008,7(2):245-252.
[62]Xia D and Vlajic. Near-Optimal Node Clustering In Wireless Sensor Networks for Environment monitoring, In Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Advanced Net-working and Applications (AINA'07), Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, May 2006,1825-1829.
[63]Li X Y, Wan P and Frieder O. Coverage in Wireless Ad-hoc Sensor Networks. IEEE Transactions on Computers,2002,52(6):753-764
[64]Meguerdichian S, Koushanfar F, Potkonjak M et al. Coverage Problems in Wireless Ad-hoc Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications, IEEE Societies (INFOCOM'2001), Anchorage Alaska, USA, April 2001,3(0):1380-1387.
[65]Carle J, Gallais A and Simplot-Ry D. Preserving Area Coverage in Wireless Sensor Networks by using Surface Coverage, In Proceedings of the 10th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications, (ISCC 2005), Murcia, Cartagena, Spain, June 2005,347-352.
[66]Wang X, Xing G, Zhang Y et al. Integrated Coverage and Connectivity Configuration in Wireless Sensor Networks. Journal of ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks (TOSN),2005, 1(1):36-72.
[67]Krohn A, Beig M, Decker C et al. Increasing Connectivity in Wireless Sensor Network using Cooperative Transmission, In Proceedings of the International Conference on Networked Sensing Systems, Chicago, IL, USA, May 2006.
[68]Park V D and Carson M S. A Highly Adaptive Distributed Routing Algorithm for Mobile Wireless Networks, In Proceedings of the 16th Annual Joint Conference Of The IEEE Computer And Communications Societies (INFOCOM'97), Kobe, Japan, April 1997,3(0):1405-1413.
[69]Wan J, Chen W, Xu X et al. An Efficient Self-healing Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Future Generation Communication and Networking, Hainan Island, China, December 2008,98-101.
[70]Bharathidasan A, Anand V and Ponduru S (2003). Sensor Networks:An Overview. IEEE Potentials,2003,22(0):20-23.
[71]Bulusu N, Estrin D, Girod L et al. Scalable Coordination for wireless sensor networks:Self-Configuring Localization Systems, In Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Communication Theory and Applications (ISCTA 2001), Ambleside, Lake District,UK, July 2001.
[72]Vlajic N and Xia D. Wireless Sensor Networks:To Cluster or Not To Cluster, In Proceedings of the International Symposium on a World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks (WoWMoM'06), Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY, July 2006, 259-268.
[73]Boutaba R and Aoun B (2006). Clustering in WSN with Latency and Energy Consumption Constraints. Journal of Network and Systems Management,2006, 14(3):415-439.
[74]Handy M J, Haase M and Timmermann D. Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarch with Deterministic Cluster Head Selection, In Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Mobile and Wireless Communications Networks, MWCN, Stockholm, Sweden, September 2002,368-372.
[75]Kumarawadu P, Dechene D J, Luccini M et al. Algorithms for Node Clustering in Wireless Sensor Networks:A Survey, In Proceedings of the Information and Automation for Sustainability conference (ICIAFS 2008), Colombo, Sri Lanka, December 2008,295-300.
[76]Heinzelman W R, Chandrakasan A and Balakrishnan H. Energy-Efficient Communication Protocol for Wireless Micro sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the IEEE Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii, USA, January 2000.2(0):
[77]Bo W, Han-ying H and Wen F. An Improved LEACH Protocol for Data Gathering and Aggregation in Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer and Electrical Engineering, Phuket, Thailand, December, 2008,398-401.
[78]Jian-wu Z, Ying-ying J, Ji-ji Z et al. A Weighted Clustering Algorithm Based Routing Protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Computing, Communication, Control, and Management, Guangzhou, China, August 2008,599-602.
[79]Chatterjee M, Das S K and Turgut D (2002). An On-Demand Weighted Clustering Algorithm (WCA) for Ad hoc Networks. Journal of Cluster Computing,2002, 5(2):193-204.
[80]Ghazvini M H F, Vahabi M, Fadlee M et al. Optimizing Energy Consumption in Hierarchical Clustering Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Conference on Telecommunications, Penang, Malaysia, May 2007,550-555.
[81]Hussain S and Matin A W. Hierarchical cluster-based routing in wireless sensor networks, In Proceedings of the IEEE/ACM 5th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (IPSN), Nashville, TN, USA, April 2006.
[82]Ye M, Li C, Chen G et al. EECS:Energy Efficient Clustering Scheme in Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the IEEE International Performance Computing and Communications Conference (IPCCC). Phoenix, Arizona, April 2005,535-540.
[83]Wen C Y and Sethares W A. Automatic Decentralized Clustering for Wireless Sensor Networks. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking, 2005,5(0):686-697.
[84]He Y, Yoon W S and Kim J H. Multi-Level Clustering Architecture for Wireless Sensor Networks. Information Technology Journal,2006,5(1):188-191.
[85]Jasani H, Makki K and Pissinou N. Challenges and Opportunities for Engineering Education, Research and Development, In Proceedings of the 2nd LACCEI International Latin American and Caribbean Conference for Engineering and Technology (LACCEI'2004) On Wireless Sensor Networks,, Miami, Florida, USA, June 2004.
[86]The IDL group Zambia:Agriculture Dataset, An Assessment of Trends in the Zambian Agriculture Sector,2002, available online, http://www.odi.org.uk/projects/03-food-security-forum/docs/Zambia.pdf.
[87]Burrell J, Brooke T and Beckwith R. Vineyard computing:sensor Networks in agricultural production. Journal of Pervasive Computing, IEEE,2004,3(1):38-45.
[88]Arampatzis T H, Lygeros J and Manesis S. A Survey of Applications of Wireless Sensors and Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the 13th Mediterranean Conference on Control and Automation, Limassol, Cyprus, June,2005,719-724.
[89]Ilac Mission, Agriculture programme, www.ilac.org.do/Agriculture.aspx
[90]Nader G, Tate K, Atwill R et al. Water quality monitoring, within the rangeland community,1995, Available online: animalscience.ucdavis.edu/extension/.../water_quality_monitoring.pdf.
[91]Central statistics office, Zambia, Living Conditions (1991-2006), http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/lcm.php#04
[92]IRIN, Zambia:Mining companies accused of environmental negligence,2008 http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76144
[93]Central Board of Health Zambia, environment, http://www.cboh.gov.zm/environment
[94]Underwater sensor network lab, Overview, http://uwsn.engr.uconn.edu/overview.html
[95]ICT center, Autonomous catamaran and sensor node on Lake Wivenhoe research.ict.csiro.au/mobile/research/labs/au..
[96]Mail and Gurdian online, Thirty bridges collapse in Zambia,2004 http://www.mg.co.za/article/2004-04-13-thirty-bridges-collapse-in-zambia
[97]Stajano F, Hoult N, Wassell I et al. Smart Bridges, Smart Tunnels:Transforming Wireless Sensor Networks from Research Prototypes into Robust Engineering Infrastructure.Journal of Adhoc Networks,2010,8(8):872-888.
[98]Science daily, Technology To Monitor Bridge Safety Is Available, Science news, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070803183511.htm
[99]Decentlad, Technology, http://www.decentlab.com/index.php?id=2
[100]Real Gap, Wildlife research, http://www.realgap.co.uk/South-Africa-Wildlife-Research-Volunteers
[101]Vladimir D, Stephen A. E, David W. M et al. Wildlife and Environmental Monitoring using RFID and WSN Technology, In Proceedings of the 7th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys 2009), Berkeley, California, November,2009,371-372.
[102]Handcock R N, Swain D L, Bishop-Hurley G J et al. Monitoring Animal Behavior and Environmental Interactions Using Wireless Sensor Networks, GPS Collars and Satellite Remote Sensing, Journal of Sensors,2009,9(0):3586-3603.
[103]Green Diary, Masai Mara witnesses death of over 15,000 wildbeests http://www.greendiary.com/entry/masai-mara-witnesses-death-of-over-15000-wildbeests/.
[104]Stuntebeck E P, Pompili D and Melodia T. Wireless Underground Sensor Networks using Commodity Terrestrial Motes, In Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE workshop on wireless mesh networks, Reston Virginia, USA, September,2006, 112-114.
[105]Delroth E A, Hedlund U, Blomberg A et al. Airway inflammation in iron ore miners exposed to dust and diesel exhaust. European Respiratory Journal,2006, 27(0):714-719.
[106]Kucuker H. Occupational fatalities among coal mine workers in Zonguldak, Turkey, 1994-2003. Occupation Medicine (London),2006,56(2):144-146.
[107]Terazawa K, Takatori T, Tomii S et al. Methane asphyxia. Coal mine accident investigation of distribution of gas. American Journal Forensic Medical Pathology, 1985,6(3):211-214.
[108]Chen W, Stempelmann K, Rehn S et al. Biological responses of workplace particles and their association with adverse health effects on miners. Journal of Environmental Monitoring,2004,6(0):967-972.
[109]Tsela A S. Radon monitoring in air, water and soil. Available online: http://irpa.sfrp.asso.fr/irpa10/pdf/E04.pdf
[110]Miller H B, Sinkala T, Renger R F et al. Identifying antecedent conditions responsible for the high rate of mining injuries in Zambia. International journal of occupational and environmental health,2006,12(4):329-339.
[111]Scheepers P T J, Micka V, Muzyka V et al. Exposure to Dust and Particle-associated 1-Nitropyrene of Drivers of Diesel-powered Equipment in Underground Mining. Annals of occupational Hygiene,2003,47(5):379-388.
[112]Hao L, Wang Q, Su Y et al. CUT-based Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks in Coal Mine, In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Applications, (ICPCA 2008), Alexandria, Egypt, October 2008,851-856.
[113]Lusakatimes.com, Zambia:Copper demand increases exploration activities,2008, www.lusakatimes.com/?p=3827
[114]Birch M E and Noll J D. Submicrometer elemental carbon as a selective measure of diesel particulate matter in coal mines. Journal of Environmental Monitoring,2004, 6(0):799-806.
[115]Noll J D and Birch E. Evaluation of the SKCs DPM cassette for monitoring diesel particulate matter in coal mines. Journal of Environmental Monitoring,2004, 6(0):973-978.
[116]Janisko S and Noll J D. Near Real Time Monitoring of Diesel Particulate Matter in Underground Mines, In Proceedings of the 12th U.S./North American Mine Ventilation Symposium, Reno, Nev. (USA), June 2008,509-513.
[117]Noll J D, Patts L and Grau R. The effects of ventilation controls and environmental cabs on diesel particulate matter concentrations in some limestone mines, In Proceedings of the 12th U.S./North American Mine Ventilation Symposium. Reno, Nev. (USA), June 2008,463-468.
[118]NIOSHI mining, Dust Monitoring and Control Highlights http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/highlights/programareahighlights9.htm
[119]Mathew W T, Gonzalez J A, Gonzalez R R et al. Field testing of a prototype heat stress monitor:system performance and applicability to commercial mining in Australia, Natick, MA:USARIEM Technical report T99-7,1999.
[120]Gillies A D S, Mayes T I, Wu H W et al. The Development of a Real Time Airflow Monitoring and Control System, In Proceedings of the 1st Mine Environmental and Ventilation Symposium, Dhanbad, India,2000,255-264.
[121]Mohanty P K. Application of wireless sensor network technology for miner tracking and monitoring hazardous conditions in underground mines,1995, Available online:http://www.msha.gov/regs/comments/06-722/AB44-COMM-95.pdf.
[122]Kennedy G A. High resilience wireless mesh networking characteristics and safety applications within underground mines. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Exeter: Devon, UK,2006.
[123]Real time and Multimedia Systems Lab, http://rtml.ece.cmu.edu/
[124]Bandyopadhyay L K, Chaulya S K, Mishra P K et al. Wireless information and safety system for mines. Journal of Scientific and Industrial research,2009, 68(0):107-117.
[125]Niu X G, Huang X, Zhao Z et al. The design and evaluation of a wireless sensor network for mine safety monitoring, In Proceedings of the IEEE Global Telecommunications Conference, Washington DC, USA,2007,1291-1295.
[126]Guang-zhu C, Zhen-cai Z, Gong-bo Z et al. Sensor deployment strategy for chain-type wireless underground mine sensor network. Journal of China University of Mining and Technology,2008,18(4):561-566.
[127]Chehri A, Fortier P, and Tardif P M. Deployment of Ad-Hoc Sensor Networks in Underground Mines, In Proceedings of the 6th IASTED International Multi-Conference on Wireless and Optical Communications:Conference on Communication Systems and Applications, Conference on Optical Communication Systems and Networks, Conference on Wireless Networks and Emerging Technologies, Banff, Alberta, Canada, July 2006.
[128]Travelblog, The coppermine office, http://www.travelblog.org/Photos/1683268
[129]Zambia development Agency, Chinese investment in Zambia, http://www.zda.org.zm/246-chinese-investments-zambia
[130]Broome M. Mopani copper mines plc, Environmental impact statement Synclinorium rock hoisting and Ventilation shafts project, African Mining Consultants Ltd,2010, Available online:www.amc.co.zm
[131]Great north road, Mufulira mine report,2006 http://www.greatnorthroad.org/boma/Mufulira_Mine_Report.
[132]Miningweekly.com, Mopani coppermines plc, http://www.miningweekly.com, 2004
[133]Chad wick J. Reports on the tremendous mining potential of Nkana and Mufulira's metallurgical gems. Mining magazine,2002, Available online: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-83486233.html.
[134]McGowan R R, Roberts S and Boyce A J. Origin of the Nchanga copper-cobalt deposits of the Zambian Copperbelt. Mineralium Deposita,2006,40(6-7):617-638.
[135]Konkola copper mines PLC, Corporate profile, Company overview, Avaialable online:ww.kcm.co.zm
[136]Whyte R M, Schoeman N and Bowes K G. Processing of Konkola copper concentrates and Chingola refractory ore in a fully integrated hydrometallurgical pilot plant circuit. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2001,101(8):427-436.
[137]Dymond A. Undermining development? A report on Copper mining in Zambia, SCIAF,2007, Available online:http://www.actsa.org/Pictures/UpImages/pdf
[138]Davis F D. User acceptance of information technology system characteristics, user perceptions and behavioral impacts. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 1993,38(3):475-487.
[139][139] Sharit J and Zsaja S J. Aging, computer based task performance and stress: Issues and challenges, Journal of Ergonomics,1994,37(0):559-577.
[140][140] Fuerst W L and Cheney P H (1982), Factors affecting the perceived utilization of computer based support systems. Decision sciences,1982,17(3):329-356.
[141]Li L, Vuran M C and Akyildiz I F. Characteristics of Underground Channel for Wireless Underground Sensor Networks, In proceedings of the 6th Annual Mediterranean Ad Hoc Networking Workshop (Med-Hoc-Net '07), Corfu, Greece, June,2007.
[142]Silva A R and Vuran M C. Empirical evaluation of wireless underground-to-underground communication in wireless underground sensor networks, In Proceedings of the 5th IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Systems (DCOSS'09), Marina del Rey, Calif, USA, June 2009,231-244.
[143]Peplinski N R, Ulaby F T and Dobson M C (1995). Dielectric properties of soils in the 0.3-1.3-ghz range. IEEE Transaction On Geoscience and Remote Sensing,1995, 33(3):803-807.
[144]Topp G, Davies J and Annan A. Electromagnetic determination of soil water content:measurements in coaxial transmission lines. Journal of Water Resources Research,1980,16(3):574-582.
[145]Valera A, Tan H P and Xiaoping M. Underground Wireless Communications for Monitoring of Drag Anchor Embedment Parameters:A Feasibility Study, In Proceedings of the 24th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Application. Perth, Australia, April 2010,713-720.
[146]Akyildiz I F, Suna Z and Vuran M C. Signal propagation techniques for wireless underground communication networks. Physical Communication,2009,2(0):167-183.
[147]Mehmet L L, Vurany C and Akyildiz I F. Characteristics of Underground Channel for Wireless Underground Sensor Networks. Journal of Physical Communication, 2009,2(3):167-183.
[148]Stuber G. Principles of Mobile Communication. Kluwer Academic Publishers, IEEE Canadian Review,2001.
[149]Erick Weisstein's world of physics, Fresnel equations, http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/FresnelEquations.html
[150]Microwave encyclopedia, Propagation, http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/propagation.cfm
[151]Van Dam R L, Borchers B and Hendrickx J M H. Methods for prediction of soil dielectric properties:a review, In Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering, Orlando, Florida, USA, April 2005,188-197.
[152]Nguyen B L, Geels A M, Bruining J and Slob E C. Calibration Measurements of Dielectric Properties of Porous Media. SPE Journal,1999,4(4):353-359.
[153]Snowden D P, Morris G C, van Lint V A J. Measurement of the dielectric constant of soil. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear science,1985,32(6):4312-4314
[154]Wensink W A. Dielectric properties of wet soils in the frequency range 1-3000 MHz. Geophysical Prospecting,1993,41 (6):671-696.
[155]Martinez A and Byrnes A P, Modeling Dielectric-constant Values of Geologic Materials:An Aid to Ground-penetrating Radar Data Collection and Interpretation, Current Research in Earth Sciences. Geological Survey, Bulletin247,part 1,2001.
[156]Emslie A G, Lagace R L and Strong P F. Theory of the Propagation of UHF Radio Waves in Coal Mine Tunnels. IEEE Transactions on Antennas Propagation,1975, AP-23(0):192-205.
[157]Sun Z and Akyildiz I F. Channel Modeling of Wireless Networks in Tunnels, In Proceedings of the IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM '08), New Orleans, USA, November 2008,1-5.
[158]Wang S. Radio Wave Attenuation Character in the Confined Environments of Rectangular Mine Tunnel. Journal of Modern applied science,2010,4(2):65-70.
[159]Lienard J M M, Stefanut P and Degauque P. Modeling and Understanding MIMO propagation in Tunnels. Journal of communications,2009,4(4):241-247.
[160]Zhang Y P, Zheng G X and Sheng J H. Radio Propagation at 900 MHz in Underground Coal Mines. IEEE transactions on antennas and propagation,2001, 49(5):757-762.
[161]Masson E (2009). Radio Wave Propagation in Arched Cross Section Tunnels-Simulations and Measurements. Journal of communications,2009,4(4):276-283.
[162]Nerguizian C, Despins C L, Affes S and Djadel M (2005). Radio-Channel Characterization of an Underground Mine at 2.4 GHz. IEEE transactions on wireless communications,2005,4(5):2441-2453.
[163]Ndoh M and Delisle G Y. A modern approach to complex propagation problems in confined media, International journal of numerical modeling:Electronic networks and devices,2003,16(6):535-555.
[164]Okumura Y, Ohmori E, Kawano T and Fukuda K (1968). Field strength variability in VHF and UHF land mobile service. Rev. Electronics and Communication. Lab, 1968,16(9-10)(0):825-873.
[165]Low K. Comparison of urban propagation models with CW measurements: Frontiers of Technology, From pioneers to the 21st Century, In Proceedings of the 42nd VTS Conference IEEE Vehicular Technology Society, Denver, Colorado, May 1992,2(0):936-942.
[166]Wireless communication, Propagation models, http://people.seas.harvard.edu/～jones/es 151/prop_models/propagation.html.
[167]Balanis C A, Fundamental Parameters and Definitions for Antennas, http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/46/04700363/0470036346.pdf
[168]Rappaport T S. Wireless Communications Principles and Practice. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. NJ,1996.
[169]Andersen J B, Rappaport T S and Youshida S. Propagation Measurement and Models for Wireless Communications Channels. IEEE Communication Magazine, 1995,33(1):42-49.
[170]Walfisch J and Bertoni H L. A theoretical model of UHF propagation in urban environments. IEEE Transactions on antennas and propagation, AP,1988, 36(12):1788-1796.
[171]Filiposka S, Trajanov D and Vuckovick M. Performances of clustered ad hoc networks on 3D terrains, In Proceedings of the 2nd International conference on simulation tools and techniques,2009
[172]Sarkar T K, Ji Z, Kim K, Medouri A, palma M S. A survey of Various Propagation models for mobile communication. IEEE Antennas and Propagation magazine, 2003,45(3):51-82.
[173]Bandyopadhyay L K, Mishra P K et al. radio frequency communication systems in underground mines, http://www.ursi.org/Proceedings/ProcGA05/pdf/CP4.5(0771).pdf
[174]Yick J, Mukherjee B and Ghosal D. Wireless sensor network survey. Journal of Computer Networks,2008,52(0):2292-2330
[2]About.com, geography and map of Zambia: http://geography.about.com/library/cia/blczambia.htm.
[3]Zambia Central Statistics Office (2006). www.zamstats.gov.zm
[4]Metorex limited, country profile, Zambia: http://www.metorexgroup.com/ir_cp_zambia.html
[5]http://www.zambianwatchdog.com/2011/03/10/zambia-mining-a-global-case-study-of-mismanagement/
[6]Countries of the world, Zambian economy 2011: http://www.theodora.com/wfbcurrent/zambia/zambia_economy.html.
[7]Maimbolwa Mulikelela, Chinese investments bring hope to Zambian people: http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=7&id=1266827882
[8]Infomine, mine intelligence and technology, commodities, copper: http://www.infomine.com/
[9]Kanduza David, How safe is mining in Zambia,2005: http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=8&id=1178031526
[10]Reuters Africa, http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE70506920110106
[11]Reuters, ABC news, Officials say 19 dead in a Zambian mine accident: http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2005/04/20/1349977.htm
[12]Miningmx, Chambishi mine:http://www.miningmx.com/wts/434284.htm
[13]Mines communities, Zambia miners paying the price,2006: http://www.minesandcommunities.org//article.php?a=501&highlight.
[14]Simutanyi Neo. Copper Mining in Zambia:The Developmental Legacy of Privatization. Institute for security studies,2008, Paper 165: http://www.iss.co.za/pgcontent.php?UID=22500
[15]Michelo P, Bratveit M and Moen B E, Occupational injuries and fatalities in copper mining in Zambia. Journal of Occupational Medicine,2009,59(0):191-194.
[16]Glatthaar W. E. F. L, Annual Report on the Medical Services of Nchanga Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd. British Journal of Industrial Medicine,1973,30(0): 301-303
[17]Hayumbu P, Robins T G and Key-Schwartz R. Cross-Sectional Silica Exposure Measurements at Two Zambian Copper Mines of Nkana and Mufulira. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,2008,5(2):86-90.
[18]Li M and Liu Y. Underground Coal Mine Monitoring with Wireless Sensor Networks. ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks (TOSN),2009,5(2):Article 10.
[19]Ilyas M and Mahgoub I, Compact wireless and wired sensing systems. Handbook of sensor networks:Boca Raton London New York, Washington, D.C, CRC press, 2006.
[20]Raghavendra C S and Znati T. Wireless sensor networks. New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow, Kluwer Academic Publishers,2004.
[21]Zhao F and Guibas L J. Wireless Sensor Networks:An information Processing Approach, London, Morgan Kaufman Publishers,2004.
[22]Li M and Liu Y. Underground Structure Monitoring with Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on information processing in Sensor Networks, Hong Kong,2007,69-78.
[23]Bogena H R, Huisman J A, Meier H, Rosenbaum U and Weuthen A. Hybrid Wireless Underground Sensor Networks:Quantification of Signal Attenuation in Soil, extreme signal loss, Vadose Zone Journal,2009,8(3):755-761.
[24]Akyildiz I F and Stuntebeck E P. Wireless underground sensor networks:Research challenges. Ad Hoc Networks (Elsevier) Journal,2006,4(6):669-686.
[25]Labrador M A and Wightman P M. Topology Control in Wireless Sensor Networks with a companion simulation tool for teaching and research, USA, Springer Science+ Business Media,2009.
[26]Bischoff R, Meyer J and Feltrin G. Wireless Sensor Network Platforms, Encyclopedia of Structural Health Monitoring, Online book, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd,2009.
[27]Culler D, Estrin D and Srivastava M. Overview of sensor networks. IEEE Journal of Computing,2004,37(0):41-49.
[28]Rubinstein M G, Moraes I M, Campista M E M et al. A Survey on Wireless Ad Hoc Networks. Journal of Mobile and Wireless Communications Systems,2006, 211(0):1-33
[29]Buratti C, Conti A, Dardari D and Verdone R. An Overview on Wireless Sensor Networks Technology and Evolution. Journal of Sensors,2009,9(0):6869-6896.
[30]Karl H and Willig A. Protocols and Architecture for Wireless Sensor Networks, Chichester, John Wiley & Sons,2005.
[31]Soe K T. Increasing lifetime of target tracking wireless sensor networks. World Academy of Science Engineering and Technology,2008,32(32):440-446.
[32]Akyildiz I F, Su W, Sankarasubramaniam Y and Cayirci E. Wireless sensor networks:a survey, Computer Networks (Elsevier) Journal,2002,38(4):393-422.
[33]Stavrou E, Wireless Sensor Networks pt 1,2005, Available online http://webhosting.devshed.com/c/a/Web-Hosting-Articles/Wireless-Sensor-Networks-pt-1-Introduction/1/
[34]Ding G, Bhargava B, Sahinoglu Z et al. Reliable broadcast in ZigBee networks, In Proceedings of the Second IEEE International Conference on Sensors and Ad Hoc Communications and Networks (IEEE SECON 2005), Santa Clara, California, USA,2005,510-520.
[35]Geer D (2005). Users Make a Beeline for ZigBee sensor Technology. Journal of Computer,2005,38(12):16-19
[36]Baronti P, Pillai P, Chook V W C, Chessa S, Gotta A and Hu Y F. Wireless sensor networks:A survey on the state of the art and the 802.15.4 and ZigBee standards. Journal of Computer Communications,2007,30(0):1655-1695.
[37]Khanh T L, Next Generation Wireless, Designing a ZigBee-ready IEEE 802.15.4-compliant radio transceiver, available online, www.rfdesign.com.
[38]Kosmerchock S. Wireless Sensor Network Topologies. TP000,2010 Available online:www.stevekos.com.
[39]Haenselmann T. Sensor networks, An online FDL'ed Textbook on Sensor Networks,2006.
[40]Lewis F L. Wireless Sensor Networks, Smart Environments:Technologies, Protocols, and Applications ed, New York, D.J. Cook and S.K. Das, John Wiley, 2004.
[41]Goff E J. Exploring the Protocol Stack of Wireless Sensor Networks, Lecture notes, 2010 Available online: http://www.thecourse.us/Students/Wireless_Sensor_Networks.htm
[42]Glaser J, Weber D, Madani S A and Mahlknecht S. Power Aware Simulation Framework for Wireless Sensor Networks and Nodes. EURASIP Journal on Embedded Systems,2008,2008(3):1-16.
[43]Madani S A, Mahlknecht S and Glaser J. CLAMP:cross layer management plane for low power wireless sensor networks, In Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Frontiers of Information Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan, December 2007.
[44]Perrig A, Stankovic J and Wagner D. Security in wireless sensor networks. Journal of Communications of the ACM,2004,47(6):53-57.
[45]Thein M C M and Thein T. A Framework for Secure and Survivable Wireless Sensor Networks. The Annals of "Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati Fascicle I. Economics and Applied Informatics.2009,0(0):243-253
[46]Tiusanen J. Wireless Soil Scout prototype radio signal reception compared to the attenuation model, Journal of Precision Agriculture,2009,10(5):372-381.
[47]Vuran M C and Akyildiz I F. Channel Modeling and Analysis for Wireless Underground Sensor Networks in Soil Medium. Journal of Physical Communication,2010,3(4):245-254.
[48]Iskander M F and Yun Z. Propagation Prediction Models for Wireless Communication Systems, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,2002,50(3):662-673.
[49]Romer K and Mattern F. The design space of wireless sensor networks, Wireless Communications, IEEE,2004,11(6):54-61.
[50]Howard A, Mataric M and Sukhatme G.S. Self deployment algorithm for mobile sensor networks. Autonomous Robots Special Issue on Intelligent Embedded Systems,2002,13(2):113-126.
[51]Grossglauser G S, Tse M and Little D.N.C. Mobility Increases the Capacity of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks. IEEE Transactions on Networking,2002,10(4):477-482.
[52]Bansal N and Liu Z. Capacity, Delay and Mobility in Wireless Ad-Hoc Networks, In Proceedings of the 22ndAnnual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications, IEEE Societies, (INFOCOM 2003), San Franciso, CA, USA, March 2003,2(0):1553-1563.
[53]Demirbas M. Scalable Design of Fault-Tolerance for Wireless Sensor Networks. PhD Dissertation, The Ohio State University, USA,2004, Available online.
[54]Liu H, Nayak A and Stojmenovic I. Fault Tolerant Algorithms/Protocols in Wireless Sensor Networks. Handbook of Wireless Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks, Springer-Verlag, London,2009.
[55]Zhang W, Xue G and Misra S. Fault-Tolerant Relay Node Placement in Wireless Sensor Networks:Problems and Algorithms, In Proceedings of the 26th IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications. (INFOCOM'2007). Anchorage, Alaska, USA, May 2007,1649-1657.
[56]Hoblos G, Staroswieckie M and Aitouch A. Optimal design of fault tolerance sensor networks, In the Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Control Application, Anchorage, Alaska, USA, September 2000,467-472.
[57]Cardei M and Wu J. Energy-efficient coverage problems in wireless ad-hoc sensor networks, Journal of Computer Communications,2006,29(4):413-420.
[58]Li W and Shen L. Energy Conservation in Large-Scale Sensor Networks through Wakeup Mechanism and Clustering Aggregation, In Proceedings of the International Conference on Wireless Communications, Networking and Mobile Computing, (WiCom 2007), Shanghai, China, September 2007,2679-2683.
[59]Ke W, Basu P, Ayyash S A et al. Attribute Based Hierarchical Clustering in Wireless Sensor Networks. MCL technical report,2003.
[60]Bandyopadhyay S and Coyle E J. An Energy Efficient Hierarchical Clustering Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the 22ndAnnual Joint Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications, IEEE Societies, (INFOCOM 2003). San Franciso, CA, USA, March 2003,3(0):1713-1723.
[61]Xin G, Yang W H and Degang B. EEHCA:Energy efficient hierarchical clustering algorithm for wireless sensor networks. China, Information Technology Journal, 2008,7(2):245-252.
[62]Xia D and Vlajic. Near-Optimal Node Clustering In Wireless Sensor Networks for Environment monitoring, In Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Advanced Net-working and Applications (AINA'07), Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, May 2006,1825-1829.
[63]Li X Y, Wan P and Frieder O. Coverage in Wireless Ad-hoc Sensor Networks. IEEE Transactions on Computers,2002,52(6):753-764
[64]Meguerdichian S, Koushanfar F, Potkonjak M et al. Coverage Problems in Wireless Ad-hoc Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the Conference of the IEEE Computer and Communications, IEEE Societies (INFOCOM'2001), Anchorage Alaska, USA, April 2001,3(0):1380-1387.
[65]Carle J, Gallais A and Simplot-Ry D. Preserving Area Coverage in Wireless Sensor Networks by using Surface Coverage, In Proceedings of the 10th IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications, (ISCC 2005), Murcia, Cartagena, Spain, June 2005,347-352.
[66]Wang X, Xing G, Zhang Y et al. Integrated Coverage and Connectivity Configuration in Wireless Sensor Networks. Journal of ACM Transactions on Sensor Networks (TOSN),2005, 1(1):36-72.
[67]Krohn A, Beig M, Decker C et al. Increasing Connectivity in Wireless Sensor Network using Cooperative Transmission, In Proceedings of the International Conference on Networked Sensing Systems, Chicago, IL, USA, May 2006.
[68]Park V D and Carson M S. A Highly Adaptive Distributed Routing Algorithm for Mobile Wireless Networks, In Proceedings of the 16th Annual Joint Conference Of The IEEE Computer And Communications Societies (INFOCOM'97), Kobe, Japan, April 1997,3(0):1405-1413.
[69]Wan J, Chen W, Xu X et al. An Efficient Self-healing Scheme for Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Future Generation Communication and Networking, Hainan Island, China, December 2008,98-101.
[70]Bharathidasan A, Anand V and Ponduru S (2003). Sensor Networks:An Overview. IEEE Potentials,2003,22(0):20-23.
[71]Bulusu N, Estrin D, Girod L et al. Scalable Coordination for wireless sensor networks:Self-Configuring Localization Systems, In Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Communication Theory and Applications (ISCTA 2001), Ambleside, Lake District,UK, July 2001.
[72]Vlajic N and Xia D. Wireless Sensor Networks:To Cluster or Not To Cluster, In Proceedings of the International Symposium on a World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks (WoWMoM'06), Buffalo-Niagara Falls, NY, July 2006, 259-268.
[73]Boutaba R and Aoun B (2006). Clustering in WSN with Latency and Energy Consumption Constraints. Journal of Network and Systems Management,2006, 14(3):415-439.
[74]Handy M J, Haase M and Timmermann D. Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarch with Deterministic Cluster Head Selection, In Proceedings of the IEEE International Workshop on Mobile and Wireless Communications Networks, MWCN, Stockholm, Sweden, September 2002,368-372.
[75]Kumarawadu P, Dechene D J, Luccini M et al. Algorithms for Node Clustering in Wireless Sensor Networks:A Survey, In Proceedings of the Information and Automation for Sustainability conference (ICIAFS 2008), Colombo, Sri Lanka, December 2008,295-300.
[76]Heinzelman W R, Chandrakasan A and Balakrishnan H. Energy-Efficient Communication Protocol for Wireless Micro sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the IEEE Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, Hawaii, USA, January 2000.2(0):
[77]Bo W, Han-ying H and Wen F. An Improved LEACH Protocol for Data Gathering and Aggregation in Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer and Electrical Engineering, Phuket, Thailand, December, 2008,398-401.
[78]Jian-wu Z, Ying-ying J, Ji-ji Z et al. A Weighted Clustering Algorithm Based Routing Protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Computing, Communication, Control, and Management, Guangzhou, China, August 2008,599-602.
[79]Chatterjee M, Das S K and Turgut D (2002). An On-Demand Weighted Clustering Algorithm (WCA) for Ad hoc Networks. Journal of Cluster Computing,2002, 5(2):193-204.
[80]Ghazvini M H F, Vahabi M, Fadlee M et al. Optimizing Energy Consumption in Hierarchical Clustering Algorithm for Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE International Conference on Telecommunications, Penang, Malaysia, May 2007,550-555.
[81]Hussain S and Matin A W. Hierarchical cluster-based routing in wireless sensor networks, In Proceedings of the IEEE/ACM 5th International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (IPSN), Nashville, TN, USA, April 2006.
[82]Ye M, Li C, Chen G et al. EECS:Energy Efficient Clustering Scheme in Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the IEEE International Performance Computing and Communications Conference (IPCCC). Phoenix, Arizona, April 2005,535-540.
[83]Wen C Y and Sethares W A. Automatic Decentralized Clustering for Wireless Sensor Networks. EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking, 2005,5(0):686-697.
[84]He Y, Yoon W S and Kim J H. Multi-Level Clustering Architecture for Wireless Sensor Networks. Information Technology Journal,2006,5(1):188-191.
[85]Jasani H, Makki K and Pissinou N. Challenges and Opportunities for Engineering Education, Research and Development, In Proceedings of the 2nd LACCEI International Latin American and Caribbean Conference for Engineering and Technology (LACCEI'2004) On Wireless Sensor Networks,, Miami, Florida, USA, June 2004.
[86]The IDL group Zambia:Agriculture Dataset, An Assessment of Trends in the Zambian Agriculture Sector,2002, available online, http://www.odi.org.uk/projects/03-food-security-forum/docs/Zambia.pdf.
[87]Burrell J, Brooke T and Beckwith R. Vineyard computing:sensor Networks in agricultural production. Journal of Pervasive Computing, IEEE,2004,3(1):38-45.
[88]Arampatzis T H, Lygeros J and Manesis S. A Survey of Applications of Wireless Sensors and Wireless Sensor Networks, In Proceedings of the 13th Mediterranean Conference on Control and Automation, Limassol, Cyprus, June,2005,719-724.
[89]Ilac Mission, Agriculture programme, www.ilac.org.do/Agriculture.aspx
[90]Nader G, Tate K, Atwill R et al. Water quality monitoring, within the rangeland community,1995, Available online: animalscience.ucdavis.edu/extension/.../water_quality_monitoring.pdf.
[91]Central statistics office, Zambia, Living Conditions (1991-2006), http://www.zamstats.gov.zm/lcm.php#04
[92]IRIN, Zambia:Mining companies accused of environmental negligence,2008 http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=76144
[93]Central Board of Health Zambia, environment, http://www.cboh.gov.zm/environment
[94]Underwater sensor network lab, Overview, http://uwsn.engr.uconn.edu/overview.html
[95]ICT center, Autonomous catamaran and sensor node on Lake Wivenhoe research.ict.csiro.au/mobile/research/labs/au..
[96]Mail and Gurdian online, Thirty bridges collapse in Zambia,2004 http://www.mg.co.za/article/2004-04-13-thirty-bridges-collapse-in-zambia
[97]Stajano F, Hoult N, Wassell I et al. Smart Bridges, Smart Tunnels:Transforming Wireless Sensor Networks from Research Prototypes into Robust Engineering Infrastructure.Journal of Adhoc Networks,2010,8(8):872-888.
[98]Science daily, Technology To Monitor Bridge Safety Is Available, Science news, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070803183511.htm
[99]Decentlad, Technology, http://www.decentlab.com/index.php?id=2
[100]Real Gap, Wildlife research, http://www.realgap.co.uk/South-Africa-Wildlife-Research-Volunteers
[101]Vladimir D, Stephen A. E, David W. M et al. Wildlife and Environmental Monitoring using RFID and WSN Technology, In Proceedings of the 7th ACM Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (SenSys 2009), Berkeley, California, November,2009,371-372.
[102]Handcock R N, Swain D L, Bishop-Hurley G J et al. Monitoring Animal Behavior and Environmental Interactions Using Wireless Sensor Networks, GPS Collars and Satellite Remote Sensing, Journal of Sensors,2009,9(0):3586-3603.
[103]Green Diary, Masai Mara witnesses death of over 15,000 wildbeests http://www.greendiary.com/entry/masai-mara-witnesses-death-of-over-15000-wildbeests/.
[104]Stuntebeck E P, Pompili D and Melodia T. Wireless Underground Sensor Networks using Commodity Terrestrial Motes, In Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE workshop on wireless mesh networks, Reston Virginia, USA, September,2006, 112-114.
[105]Delroth E A, Hedlund U, Blomberg A et al. Airway inflammation in iron ore miners exposed to dust and diesel exhaust. European Respiratory Journal,2006, 27(0):714-719.
[106]Kucuker H. Occupational fatalities among coal mine workers in Zonguldak, Turkey, 1994-2003. Occupation Medicine (London),2006,56(2):144-146.
[107]Terazawa K, Takatori T, Tomii S et al. Methane asphyxia. Coal mine accident investigation of distribution of gas. American Journal Forensic Medical Pathology, 1985,6(3):211-214.
[108]Chen W, Stempelmann K, Rehn S et al. Biological responses of workplace particles and their association with adverse health effects on miners. Journal of Environmental Monitoring,2004,6(0):967-972.
[109]Tsela A S. Radon monitoring in air, water and soil. Available online: http://irpa.sfrp.asso.fr/irpa10/pdf/E04.pdf
[110]Miller H B, Sinkala T, Renger R F et al. Identifying antecedent conditions responsible for the high rate of mining injuries in Zambia. International journal of occupational and environmental health,2006,12(4):329-339.
[111]Scheepers P T J, Micka V, Muzyka V et al. Exposure to Dust and Particle-associated 1-Nitropyrene of Drivers of Diesel-powered Equipment in Underground Mining. Annals of occupational Hygiene,2003,47(5):379-388.
[112]Hao L, Wang Q, Su Y et al. CUT-based Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks in Coal Mine, In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Applications, (ICPCA 2008), Alexandria, Egypt, October 2008,851-856.
[113]Lusakatimes.com, Zambia:Copper demand increases exploration activities,2008, www.lusakatimes.com/?p=3827
[114]Birch M E and Noll J D. Submicrometer elemental carbon as a selective measure of diesel particulate matter in coal mines. Journal of Environmental Monitoring,2004, 6(0):799-806.
[115]Noll J D and Birch E. Evaluation of the SKCs DPM cassette for monitoring diesel particulate matter in coal mines. Journal of Environmental Monitoring,2004, 6(0):973-978.
[116]Janisko S and Noll J D. Near Real Time Monitoring of Diesel Particulate Matter in Underground Mines, In Proceedings of the 12th U.S./North American Mine Ventilation Symposium, Reno, Nev. (USA), June 2008,509-513.
[117]Noll J D, Patts L and Grau R. The effects of ventilation controls and environmental cabs on diesel particulate matter concentrations in some limestone mines, In Proceedings of the 12th U.S./North American Mine Ventilation Symposium. Reno, Nev. (USA), June 2008,463-468.
[118]NIOSHI mining, Dust Monitoring and Control Highlights http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining/highlights/programareahighlights9.htm
[119]Mathew W T, Gonzalez J A, Gonzalez R R et al. Field testing of a prototype heat stress monitor:system performance and applicability to commercial mining in Australia, Natick, MA:USARIEM Technical report T99-7,1999.
[120]Gillies A D S, Mayes T I, Wu H W et al. The Development of a Real Time Airflow Monitoring and Control System, In Proceedings of the 1st Mine Environmental and Ventilation Symposium, Dhanbad, India,2000,255-264.
[121]Mohanty P K. Application of wireless sensor network technology for miner tracking and monitoring hazardous conditions in underground mines,1995, Available online:http://www.msha.gov/regs/comments/06-722/AB44-COMM-95.pdf.
[122]Kennedy G A. High resilience wireless mesh networking characteristics and safety applications within underground mines. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Exeter: Devon, UK,2006.
[123]Real time and Multimedia Systems Lab, http://rtml.ece.cmu.edu/
[124]Bandyopadhyay L K, Chaulya S K, Mishra P K et al. Wireless information and safety system for mines. Journal of Scientific and Industrial research,2009, 68(0):107-117.
[125]Niu X G, Huang X, Zhao Z et al. The design and evaluation of a wireless sensor network for mine safety monitoring, In Proceedings of the IEEE Global Telecommunications Conference, Washington DC, USA,2007,1291-1295.
[126]Guang-zhu C, Zhen-cai Z, Gong-bo Z et al. Sensor deployment strategy for chain-type wireless underground mine sensor network. Journal of China University of Mining and Technology,2008,18(4):561-566.
[127]Chehri A, Fortier P, and Tardif P M. Deployment of Ad-Hoc Sensor Networks in Underground Mines, In Proceedings of the 6th IASTED International Multi-Conference on Wireless and Optical Communications:Conference on Communication Systems and Applications, Conference on Optical Communication Systems and Networks, Conference on Wireless Networks and Emerging Technologies, Banff, Alberta, Canada, July 2006.
[128]Travelblog, The coppermine office, http://www.travelblog.org/Photos/1683268
[129]Zambia development Agency, Chinese investment in Zambia, http://www.zda.org.zm/246-chinese-investments-zambia
[130]Broome M. Mopani copper mines plc, Environmental impact statement Synclinorium rock hoisting and Ventilation shafts project, African Mining Consultants Ltd,2010, Available online:www.amc.co.zm
[131]Great north road, Mufulira mine report,2006 http://www.greatnorthroad.org/boma/Mufulira_Mine_Report.
[132]Miningweekly.com, Mopani coppermines plc, http://www.miningweekly.com, 2004
[133]Chad wick J. Reports on the tremendous mining potential of Nkana and Mufulira's metallurgical gems. Mining magazine,2002, Available online: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-83486233.html.
[134]McGowan R R, Roberts S and Boyce A J. Origin of the Nchanga copper-cobalt deposits of the Zambian Copperbelt. Mineralium Deposita,2006,40(6-7):617-638.
[135]Konkola copper mines PLC, Corporate profile, Company overview, Avaialable online:ww.kcm.co.zm
[136]Whyte R M, Schoeman N and Bowes K G. Processing of Konkola copper concentrates and Chingola refractory ore in a fully integrated hydrometallurgical pilot plant circuit. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 2001,101(8):427-436.
[137]Dymond A. Undermining development? A report on Copper mining in Zambia, SCIAF,2007, Available online:http://www.actsa.org/Pictures/UpImages/pdf
[138]Davis F D. User acceptance of information technology system characteristics, user perceptions and behavioral impacts. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 1993,38(3):475-487.
[139][139] Sharit J and Zsaja S J. Aging, computer based task performance and stress: Issues and challenges, Journal of Ergonomics,1994,37(0):559-577.
[140][140] Fuerst W L and Cheney P H (1982), Factors affecting the perceived utilization of computer based support systems. Decision sciences,1982,17(3):329-356.
[141]Li L, Vuran M C and Akyildiz I F. Characteristics of Underground Channel for Wireless Underground Sensor Networks, In proceedings of the 6th Annual Mediterranean Ad Hoc Networking Workshop (Med-Hoc-Net '07), Corfu, Greece, June,2007.
[142]Silva A R and Vuran M C. Empirical evaluation of wireless underground-to-underground communication in wireless underground sensor networks, In Proceedings of the 5th IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Systems (DCOSS'09), Marina del Rey, Calif, USA, June 2009,231-244.
[143]Peplinski N R, Ulaby F T and Dobson M C (1995). Dielectric properties of soils in the 0.3-1.3-ghz range. IEEE Transaction On Geoscience and Remote Sensing,1995, 33(3):803-807.
[144]Topp G, Davies J and Annan A. Electromagnetic determination of soil water content:measurements in coaxial transmission lines. Journal of Water Resources Research,1980,16(3):574-582.
[145]Valera A, Tan H P and Xiaoping M. Underground Wireless Communications for Monitoring of Drag Anchor Embedment Parameters:A Feasibility Study, In Proceedings of the 24th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Information Networking and Application. Perth, Australia, April 2010,713-720.
[146]Akyildiz I F, Suna Z and Vuran M C. Signal propagation techniques for wireless underground communication networks. Physical Communication,2009,2(0):167-183.
[147]Mehmet L L, Vurany C and Akyildiz I F. Characteristics of Underground Channel for Wireless Underground Sensor Networks. Journal of Physical Communication, 2009,2(3):167-183.
[148]Stuber G. Principles of Mobile Communication. Kluwer Academic Publishers, IEEE Canadian Review,2001.
[149]Erick Weisstein's world of physics, Fresnel equations, http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/FresnelEquations.html
[150]Microwave encyclopedia, Propagation, http://www.microwaves101.com/encyclopedia/propagation.cfm
[151]Van Dam R L, Borchers B and Hendrickx J M H. Methods for prediction of soil dielectric properties:a review, In Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering, Orlando, Florida, USA, April 2005,188-197.
[152]Nguyen B L, Geels A M, Bruining J and Slob E C. Calibration Measurements of Dielectric Properties of Porous Media. SPE Journal,1999,4(4):353-359.
[153]Snowden D P, Morris G C, van Lint V A J. Measurement of the dielectric constant of soil. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear science,1985,32(6):4312-4314
[154]Wensink W A. Dielectric properties of wet soils in the frequency range 1-3000 MHz. Geophysical Prospecting,1993,41 (6):671-696.
[155]Martinez A and Byrnes A P, Modeling Dielectric-constant Values of Geologic Materials:An Aid to Ground-penetrating Radar Data Collection and Interpretation, Current Research in Earth Sciences. Geological Survey, Bulletin247,part 1,2001.
[156]Emslie A G, Lagace R L and Strong P F. Theory of the Propagation of UHF Radio Waves in Coal Mine Tunnels. IEEE Transactions on Antennas Propagation,1975, AP-23(0):192-205.
[157]Sun Z and Akyildiz I F. Channel Modeling of Wireless Networks in Tunnels, In Proceedings of the IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM '08), New Orleans, USA, November 2008,1-5.
[158]Wang S. Radio Wave Attenuation Character in the Confined Environments of Rectangular Mine Tunnel. Journal of Modern applied science,2010,4(2):65-70.
[159]Lienard J M M, Stefanut P and Degauque P. Modeling and Understanding MIMO propagation in Tunnels. Journal of communications,2009,4(4):241-247.
[160]Zhang Y P, Zheng G X and Sheng J H. Radio Propagation at 900 MHz in Underground Coal Mines. IEEE transactions on antennas and propagation,2001, 49(5):757-762.
[161]Masson E (2009). Radio Wave Propagation in Arched Cross Section Tunnels-Simulations and Measurements. Journal of communications,2009,4(4):276-283.
[162]Nerguizian C, Despins C L, Affes S and Djadel M (2005). Radio-Channel Characterization of an Underground Mine at 2.4 GHz. IEEE transactions on wireless communications,2005,4(5):2441-2453.
[163]Ndoh M and Delisle G Y. A modern approach to complex propagation problems in confined media, International journal of numerical modeling:Electronic networks and devices,2003,16(6):535-555.
[164]Okumura Y, Ohmori E, Kawano T and Fukuda K (1968). Field strength variability in VHF and UHF land mobile service. Rev. Electronics and Communication. Lab, 1968,16(9-10)(0):825-873.
[165]Low K. Comparison of urban propagation models with CW measurements: Frontiers of Technology, From pioneers to the 21st Century, In Proceedings of the 42nd VTS Conference IEEE Vehicular Technology Society, Denver, Colorado, May 1992,2(0):936-942.
[166]Wireless communication, Propagation models, http://people.seas.harvard.edu/～jones/es 151/prop_models/propagation.html.
[167]Balanis C A, Fundamental Parameters and Definitions for Antennas, http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/46/04700363/0470036346.pdf
[168]Rappaport T S. Wireless Communications Principles and Practice. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. NJ,1996.
[169]Andersen J B, Rappaport T S and Youshida S. Propagation Measurement and Models for Wireless Communications Channels. IEEE Communication Magazine, 1995,33(1):42-49.
[170]Walfisch J and Bertoni H L. A theoretical model of UHF propagation in urban environments. IEEE Transactions on antennas and propagation, AP,1988, 36(12):1788-1796.
[171]Filiposka S, Trajanov D and Vuckovick M. Performances of clustered ad hoc networks on 3D terrains, In Proceedings of the 2nd International conference on simulation tools and techniques,2009
[172]Sarkar T K, Ji Z, Kim K, Medouri A, palma M S. A survey of Various Propagation models for mobile communication. IEEE Antennas and Propagation magazine, 2003,45(3):51-82.
[173]Bandyopadhyay L K, Mishra P K et al. radio frequency communication systems in underground mines, http://www.ursi.org/Proceedings/ProcGA05/pdf/CP4.5(0771).pdf
[174]Yick J, Mukherjee B and Ghosal D. Wireless sensor network survey. Journal of Computer Networks,2008,52(0):2292-2330