中国西部农村的教育费用与教育成就研究
|
摘要
在发展中国家,教育研究经常考察学校环境和家庭环境对孩子教育成就的影响,很少有研究去确定教育费用与教育成就之间的关系。本研究就以教育费用作为切入点,运用多元线性回归模型和PROBIT等计量模型,研究教育费用与孩子入学情况以及学习成绩之间的关系,以期望在此过程中发现隐藏在表面现象后面的本质性的特征及规律,为政府制定相关政策提供有价值的参考依据。
本研究由六个部分组成:第一章,引言。论述研究背景、研究意义、研究目标、研究方法、论文结构及资料来源。第二章,文献综述。介绍国内外关于教育费用和教育成就研究的理论、方法及成果。第三章,学费变化及其决定因素。重点叙述我国农村义务教育阶段学校收取学费的水平、构成、变化以及“一费制”收费的实施效果,同时还系统描述了经济发展与贫困程度与学费变化之间的关系,最后利用计量经济模型分析学费的决定因素。第四章,农村家庭教育支出状况及因素分析。包括农村家庭教育支出总量、分布及县级差异,深入探讨了家庭教育负担程度,同时还对家庭教育支出和学费水平进行比较,最后利用计量经济方法分析了家庭教育支出的决定因素。第五章,教育费用与孩子入学决策。详细介绍样本孩子入学状况,并利用计量方法研究家庭教育决策的影响因素。第六章,孩子学习成绩的影响因素分析。首先描述了孩子学习成绩的总体情况以及分布情况,然后运用回归模型讨论了影响孩子学习成绩的主要因素。第三章、第四章、第五章和第六章是相互独立又密切联系的四个部分。
通过研究,得出以下结论:(1)教育费用确实影响着教育成就。在当前减免学杂费的基础上,教育费用并不是引起农村孩子辍学的主要因素。另外增加教育费用有助于提高孩子的学习成绩,不过贫困的孩子还是会因为得不到更多的教育投入而影响学习成绩。因此,贫困是影响我国农村贫困地区孩子教育的重要因素,应极力改善贫困地区贫困的现状,增加农民收入,减轻农民教育负担,政策制定应更多地偏向于贫困家庭。(2)国家政策应采取地方偏向政策,对国定贫困县或其它较为贫困的地区在教育上给予更多的经费支持,对不同地区应采取不同的刺激教育需求的政策,以缩小地区差距,实现真正意义上的教育公平。(3)学校质量与孩子的教育之间存在着千丝万缕的联系,政策制定者应该重视农村学校的质量,提高学校的教学质量,改善学校的物质条件,建设良好的教育环境。(4)家庭教育决策存在着明显的性别差异,父母亲都更倾向于男孩,女孩要继续学习必须有更好的学习成绩,应采取积极有效的政策促进女孩入学,特别是生活在贫困家庭中的女孩。(5)父亲和母亲的教育对孩子的教育至关重要,而且母亲的教育程度表现出更大地影响,尤其是对女孩的影响。因此应重视提高父亲和母亲的文化水平。(6)应该改善孩子的上学环境,对于那些家庭居住得较远的孩子给予帮助。孩子上学的距离与孩子的学习成绩之间出现负相关关系,近年来合并学校的政策对孩子的学习成绩造成了负面影响,因此对目前农村集中资源办学的政策应重新思索。(7)完善农村信贷体系,增加农村的教育贷款。
论文在借鉴与吸收国内外研究成果的基础上,取得一定的创新:首先,以往的研究多关注教育成就水平的测量,如对入学率的计算,本研究则从多个角度估计了教育成就。其次,所使用的数据使我们能构造出比以前更直接地估计有趣变量的方法。如用从正规和非正规渠道得到的债务以及借款能力的数据,我们可以用来估计农户的信贷能力,并分别检验财富和信贷的影响。第三,考虑到母亲与父亲在家庭决策中办演着不同的角色,本研究以母亲的权利引入模型,估计其对孩子入学及学习成绩的影响。最后,有关学校质量数据的获得使本研究能够估计学校质量的影响。这些创新提供了全新的视角,也扩展了关于中国农村教育成就实证研究的范围。
Education research in developing countries often investigates school and family socioeconomic influences on children's achievement and attainment. Less research has sought to identify the relation between educational fees and education achievement and attainment. This dissertation is to study education fees and education attainment and factors which affect them in western region of rural China.The paper is organized as follows. Section 1 is introduction (problematic;research background;significance and objective of study;approach and methodology;frameworks;data.) . In the second part theories, methods and productions being applied into this study are reviewed and commented. Section 3 analyzes the change of school fees and determinants of school fees. Section 4 studies the level and composing of education expenditures and determinants. Section 5 describes the status of enrollment of children and what is the relationship between enrollment and education fees. At the same time, this paper presents other factors, such as wealth of household, land, education of parents, and school quality, that may bring positive or negative impact on access to school. Section 6 analyzes test scores of children. Section 7 concludes.The results are following: (1) Educational fees indeed affect education attainment. Education fees are not the main factor of children dropping out in rural China. Increasing educational fees are helpful to advancing test score of children. But children from poorer households have a disadvantage in school performance, and poverty still may be an important issue in education attainment because of its direct effects on education, so the government should improve farmers' status, increase their income, alleviate their educational burden and constitute more pro-poor policies. (2) The government should draw out different policies in different areas, in order to reduce region gap, and carry out education equity indeed. (3) School quality brings very big influence. Policy constitutor should attach importance to rural school quality, enhance teaching quality, improve material condition and build a good educational environment. (4) Education decision-making of family has obvious gender bias. Parents are all inclined to boys. Girls must have better scores if they want to go school. The government should adopt actively effective measures to promote girls school attainment. (5) Parents' education has positive effect on children' education. Mother's education has a much greater influence on children's enrollment and test scores than father's education, and that mother's education has a greater effect on girls' education. So the government should consider to advance educational level of father and mother. (6) The distance from home to school has negative effect on children' test scores, which shows that the policy of merging school is not right-on in rural, at least it affects children' learning. So the government should reconsider the policy on running a school by centralizing resource in rural. (7) Increase education loan.The detailed data make several innovations possible. First, unlike many studies that focus on single measures of attainment, especially enrollment, we examine multiple outcomes that reflect both enrollment and learning within school. Next, the data enable us to construct more direct measures of variables of interest than in previous studies. Using data on existing debt and the ability to borrow money from both formal and informal sources, we construct a measure of household credit limits, which allows us to test separately the effects of wealth and credit limits. A direct question on the role of mothers relative to fathers in the decision to enroll children in school serves as a measure of women's empowerment. Last, local school quality measures are available from surveys, so the effects of school quality can be estimated. These innovations provide general insights, but also enable us to go well beyond the scope of existing empirical studies of educational attainment in rural China, which have typically used large data sets with limited information.
本研究由六个部分组成:第一章,引言。论述研究背景、研究意义、研究目标、研究方法、论文结构及资料来源。第二章,文献综述。介绍国内外关于教育费用和教育成就研究的理论、方法及成果。第三章,学费变化及其决定因素。重点叙述我国农村义务教育阶段学校收取学费的水平、构成、变化以及“一费制”收费的实施效果,同时还系统描述了经济发展与贫困程度与学费变化之间的关系,最后利用计量经济模型分析学费的决定因素。第四章,农村家庭教育支出状况及因素分析。包括农村家庭教育支出总量、分布及县级差异,深入探讨了家庭教育负担程度,同时还对家庭教育支出和学费水平进行比较,最后利用计量经济方法分析了家庭教育支出的决定因素。第五章,教育费用与孩子入学决策。详细介绍样本孩子入学状况,并利用计量方法研究家庭教育决策的影响因素。第六章,孩子学习成绩的影响因素分析。首先描述了孩子学习成绩的总体情况以及分布情况,然后运用回归模型讨论了影响孩子学习成绩的主要因素。第三章、第四章、第五章和第六章是相互独立又密切联系的四个部分。
通过研究,得出以下结论:(1)教育费用确实影响着教育成就。在当前减免学杂费的基础上,教育费用并不是引起农村孩子辍学的主要因素。另外增加教育费用有助于提高孩子的学习成绩,不过贫困的孩子还是会因为得不到更多的教育投入而影响学习成绩。因此,贫困是影响我国农村贫困地区孩子教育的重要因素,应极力改善贫困地区贫困的现状,增加农民收入,减轻农民教育负担,政策制定应更多地偏向于贫困家庭。(2)国家政策应采取地方偏向政策,对国定贫困县或其它较为贫困的地区在教育上给予更多的经费支持,对不同地区应采取不同的刺激教育需求的政策,以缩小地区差距,实现真正意义上的教育公平。(3)学校质量与孩子的教育之间存在着千丝万缕的联系,政策制定者应该重视农村学校的质量,提高学校的教学质量,改善学校的物质条件,建设良好的教育环境。(4)家庭教育决策存在着明显的性别差异,父母亲都更倾向于男孩,女孩要继续学习必须有更好的学习成绩,应采取积极有效的政策促进女孩入学,特别是生活在贫困家庭中的女孩。(5)父亲和母亲的教育对孩子的教育至关重要,而且母亲的教育程度表现出更大地影响,尤其是对女孩的影响。因此应重视提高父亲和母亲的文化水平。(6)应该改善孩子的上学环境,对于那些家庭居住得较远的孩子给予帮助。孩子上学的距离与孩子的学习成绩之间出现负相关关系,近年来合并学校的政策对孩子的学习成绩造成了负面影响,因此对目前农村集中资源办学的政策应重新思索。(7)完善农村信贷体系,增加农村的教育贷款。
论文在借鉴与吸收国内外研究成果的基础上,取得一定的创新:首先,以往的研究多关注教育成就水平的测量,如对入学率的计算,本研究则从多个角度估计了教育成就。其次,所使用的数据使我们能构造出比以前更直接地估计有趣变量的方法。如用从正规和非正规渠道得到的债务以及借款能力的数据,我们可以用来估计农户的信贷能力,并分别检验财富和信贷的影响。第三,考虑到母亲与父亲在家庭决策中办演着不同的角色,本研究以母亲的权利引入模型,估计其对孩子入学及学习成绩的影响。最后,有关学校质量数据的获得使本研究能够估计学校质量的影响。这些创新提供了全新的视角,也扩展了关于中国农村教育成就实证研究的范围。
Education research in developing countries often investigates school and family socioeconomic influences on children's achievement and attainment. Less research has sought to identify the relation between educational fees and education achievement and attainment. This dissertation is to study education fees and education attainment and factors which affect them in western region of rural China.The paper is organized as follows. Section 1 is introduction (problematic;research background;significance and objective of study;approach and methodology;frameworks;data.) . In the second part theories, methods and productions being applied into this study are reviewed and commented. Section 3 analyzes the change of school fees and determinants of school fees. Section 4 studies the level and composing of education expenditures and determinants. Section 5 describes the status of enrollment of children and what is the relationship between enrollment and education fees. At the same time, this paper presents other factors, such as wealth of household, land, education of parents, and school quality, that may bring positive or negative impact on access to school. Section 6 analyzes test scores of children. Section 7 concludes.The results are following: (1) Educational fees indeed affect education attainment. Education fees are not the main factor of children dropping out in rural China. Increasing educational fees are helpful to advancing test score of children. But children from poorer households have a disadvantage in school performance, and poverty still may be an important issue in education attainment because of its direct effects on education, so the government should improve farmers' status, increase their income, alleviate their educational burden and constitute more pro-poor policies. (2) The government should draw out different policies in different areas, in order to reduce region gap, and carry out education equity indeed. (3) School quality brings very big influence. Policy constitutor should attach importance to rural school quality, enhance teaching quality, improve material condition and build a good educational environment. (4) Education decision-making of family has obvious gender bias. Parents are all inclined to boys. Girls must have better scores if they want to go school. The government should adopt actively effective measures to promote girls school attainment. (5) Parents' education has positive effect on children' education. Mother's education has a much greater influence on children's enrollment and test scores than father's education, and that mother's education has a greater effect on girls' education. So the government should consider to advance educational level of father and mother. (6) The distance from home to school has negative effect on children' test scores, which shows that the policy of merging school is not right-on in rural, at least it affects children' learning. So the government should reconsider the policy on running a school by centralizing resource in rural. (7) Increase education loan.The detailed data make several innovations possible. First, unlike many studies that focus on single measures of attainment, especially enrollment, we examine multiple outcomes that reflect both enrollment and learning within school. Next, the data enable us to construct more direct measures of variables of interest than in previous studies. Using data on existing debt and the ability to borrow money from both formal and informal sources, we construct a measure of household credit limits, which allows us to test separately the effects of wealth and credit limits. A direct question on the role of mothers relative to fathers in the decision to enroll children in school serves as a measure of women's empowerment. Last, local school quality measures are available from surveys, so the effects of school quality can be estimated. These innovations provide general insights, but also enable us to go well beyond the scope of existing empirical studies of educational attainment in rural China, which have typically used large data sets with limited information.
引文
1.安爱华,汪玲,史慧静等,影响学生学习能力因素的探讨.中国学校卫生,1998(2):98-99
2.程方平,中国教育问题报告——入世背景下中国教育的现实问题和基本对策.北京:中国社会科学出版社,2002
3.程刚,义务教育法将增至95条,教育公平成焦点.中国青年报,2005,http://info.edu.hc360.com/2005/08/19102578797.shtml
4.程国美,许宏辉,家庭环境对学生学习成绩的影响和分析.中国教育网,http://jia.cersp.com/article.php/479,2005年5月23日
5.傅家荣,居民教育消费:理论·政策·启示.求索,2004(6):98-100
6.霍金芝,邹艳,蔡琰等,学习动机研究Ⅱ:动机和智力对学习成绩影响的分析.中国学校卫生,1998,19(3):181-182
7.加里.斯坦利.贝克尔,家庭论.北京:商务印书馆,1998
8.李炳全,唐安国,论教育价格.上海教育研究,1998(5):50-53
9.李竞能,当代西方人口学说.太原;山西人民出版社,1992
10.李文,汪三贵,Albert Park,贫困地区农村中小学教育经费的不平等程度分析.中国农村贫困问题研究,北京:中国财政经济出版社,2005:429-444
11.马菊红,应用Hotelling T2检验评价学生学习成绩的探讨.本溪冶金高等专科学校学报,2002(2):42-44
12.沈百福,简论义务教育的价格.上海教育科研,2000(3):32-35
13.孙士杰,试论我国实现完全免费义务教育的现实可能性.河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2000(2):95-98
14.孙志军,中国农村家庭教育决策的实证分析[博士学位论文].北京:北京师范大学,1999
15.汤灿晴,董志强,农村教育:问题与对策.农村经济,2004(5):86-66
16.汪海燕,新中国义务教育历史研究[硕士学位论文].甘肃:西北师范大学,2003
17.王善迈,袁连生,建立规范的义务教育财政转移支付制度.国家行政学院学报,2001(1):28-34
18.王秀萍,魏嗣琼,心理因素对小学生脑力工作能力影响的研究.中国学校卫生,1998,(5):371-372
19.肖厚群,生活事件对中专学生学习成绩影响的调查.中国学校卫生,1997(6):467
20.谢磊,如何正确评价学生的学习成绩.广西高教研究,2001(1):94-97
21.谢琦圣,关于南京市中小学生学习成绩与家庭环境因素的调查.2005,http://www.njbxjy.net/blog/yfxj/more.asp?name=yfxjxqs&id=2606
22.亚洲开发银行,从实行农村免费义务教育入手,进一步减轻农民负担,观察与建议,2004年2月
23.曾满超,教育政策的经济分析.北京:人民教育出版社,2000:7-9
24.赵启强,当代中国教育调查之一.2005,http://www.zgpg.net/blog/userl/532/archivest2005/1 069.asp
25.赵永华,小学至初中阶段男女生学习成绩差异原因及其克服途径.理论研究,2000(4):77-80
26.周运浓,我国义务教育免费与筹资问题研究.荆州师范院校学报(社会科学版),1999(6):110-113
27.朱玲,蒋中一,以工代赈与缓解贫困.上海:上海三联书店、上海人民出版社,1994
28. Abdel-Ghany M., Schwenk E, Differences in consumption patterns of single-parent and two-parent family in the United States. Journal of Family and Economics Issues 1993, 14:299-315.
29. Alan de Brauw, Scott Rozelle, Carefully measuring the returns to education in rural China. Memo.2002.
30. Al-Samarrai Samer, Tessa Peasgood, Educational Attainments and Household Characteristics in Tanzania. Economics of Education Review 1998, 17 (4) :395-417.
31. Anderson CA., The social status of university students in relation to type of economy:An international comparison. Trans. Third World Congr. Sociol 1956, 5:51-63.
32. Angrist Joshua, Victor Lavy, Using Maimonides Rule to Estimate the Effect of Glass Size on Scholastic Achievement. Econ 1999a, 114:2.
33. Angrist Joshua, Victor Lavy, New Evidence on Glassroom Computers and Pupil Learning .NBER work paper 1999b, 533-75.
34. Anh TS., Knodel J., Lam D., Friedman J., Family size and children's education in Vietnam.Demography 1998,35:57-70.
35. Asian Development Bank, Education and National Development: Trends, Issues, Policies and Strategies. Manila: Asian Development Bank 2001.
36. Axinn WG, The effects of children's schooling on fertility limitation. Popul. Stud. 1993, 47:481-93.
37. Banerjee A., S. Cole, E. Duflo, L. Linden, Remedying Education: Evidence from Two Randomized Experiments in India.Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 2003. [http://econ-www.mit.edu/faculty/download_pdf.php?id=678]
38. Bary M., Counting the full cost: Parental and community financing of education in East Asia. Washington D.C.: World Bank 1996.
39. Becker Gary, Human Gapital and Poverty Alleviation.Human Gapital Devel. Operations Policy work, World Bank. 1995:52.
40. Becker G.S., Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education. New York, Columbia University 1964.
41. Becker G.S., A treatise on the family. Cambridge: Harvard University 1981.
42. Behrman JR, Birdsall N., The quality of schooling: quantity alone is misleading. Am.Econ. Rev. 1983, 73:928-46.
43. Behrman J.R.et., B.L.Wolfe, Investment in schooling in two generation in pre-Revolutionary Nicaragua: the role of family background and school supply.Journal of development Economics 1987:27.
44. Behrman J.R., Knowles J.C., Household income and child schooling in Vietnam.The World Bank Economic Review 1999, 13 (2) :211-56.
45. Benjamin Dwayne, Loren Brandt, Paul Glewwe, and Guo li., Markets, Human Capital, and Inequality: Evidence from Rural China, mimeo 1990.
46. Benson C.S., The economics of public education. Boston: Houghton. Mifflin 1961.
47. Blake J. Family Size and Achievement.Berkeley: Univ. Calif. 1989.
48. Blau PM, Duncan OD., The American Occupational Structure. New York: Wiley 1967.
49. Boserup E. Woman's Role in Economic Development. London: Earthscan 1989.
50. Boyle S., Brock A., Mace J., Sibbons M., Reaching the Poor: The 'Costs' of Sending Children to School-A Six Country Comparative Study. Educational Papers. London: Department for International Development 2002: 47.
51. Bray Mark, Government and Household Financing of Education: Finding Appropriate Balances, in Min Weifang, Yang Zhoufu & Li Wenli (eds.), Raising Adequate Resources for Education. Beijing: People's Education Press, 2003:605-631. [Chinese translation by Li Mei in Peking University EducationReview, 2003, 1 (2) :43-51.]
52. Bray Mark, The Costs and Financing of Education: Trends and Policy Implications. Series 'Education in Developing Asia. Manila: Asian Development Bank, and Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. 2002.
53. Brown P., A. Park, Education and Poverty in Rural China. Economics of Education Review 2002, 21: 523-41.
54. Bruns B., Mingat A., Rakotomalala R., Achieving Universal Primary Education by 2015: A Chance for Every Child. Washington DC: The World Bank 2003.
55. Buchmann C., E. Hannum, Education and Stratification in Developing Countries: A Review of Theories and Empirical Research. Annual Review of Sociology 2001, 27:77-102.
56. Buchmann C., Family structure, parental perceptions and child labor in Kenya: What factors determine who is enrolled in school? Soc. Forces 2000, 78:1349-79.
57. Caldwell JC., Mass education as a determinant of the timing of fertility decline.Popul. Dev. Rev. 1980, 6:225-55.
58. Card, David, Krueger, Alan, Does School Quality Matter? Returns to Education and the Characteristics of Public Schools in the United States. Journal of Political Economy 1992, 100 (1) :1-40.
59. Carnoy M., Ducation and Productivity. The International Encyclopedia of Education. Torsten Husen and T. N. Postlethwaite. New York, Pergamon 1994.
60. Chan D., K. H. Mok, Educational Reforms and Coping Strategies under the Tidal Wave of Marketization: A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and the Mainland. Comparative Education 2001, 37 (1) : 21-41.
61. Cheng K. M., The Quality of Primary Education: A Case Study of Zhejiang Province, China. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning. 1996.
62. Chernichovsky D., Socioeconomic and demographic aspects of school enrollment and attendance in rural Botswana. Econ. Dev.Cult. 1985, 33:319-32.
63. China, People's Republic of: National Report for EFA 2000 Assessment. Beijing: Ministry of Education and National Commission for UNESCO. 2000.
64. Clignet R, Foster P.J., The Fortunate Few: A Study of Secondary Schools and Students in the Ivory Coast. Evanston, IL: NorthwesternUniv. Press. 1966.
65. Cohn E, Rossmiller RA., Research on effective schools: implications for less developed countries. Comp. Educ. Rev. 1987, 31:377-99.
66. Coleman JS, Campbell E, Hobson C, Mc-Partland J, Mood A, et al., Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, DC: Dep. Health, Educ., Welfare. 1966.
67. Connelly R.,Z.Zheng, Determinants of school enrollment and completion of 10 to 18 years olds in China.Economics of Education Review 2003,22:379-388.
68. Csapo M., Religious, social and economic factors hindering the education of girls in northern Nigeria. Comp. Educ. 1981, 17:311-19.
69. Davis D., Chinese Social Welfare: Policies and Outcomes. China Quarterly 1989, 119:577-97.
70. Deininger Klaus, Does Cost of Schooling Affect Enrollment by the Poor?. Universal Primary Education in Uganda. Economics of Education Review 2003, 22 (3) :291-305.
71. Deolalikar A.B., Gender Differences in the Returns to Schooling and in School Enrollment Rates in Indonesia. Journal of Human Resources 1993, 28 (4) : 899-932.
72. Filmer D, Pritchett L., The effect of household wealth on educational attainment:evidence from 35 countries. Popul. Dev. Rev. 1999, 25:85-120.
73. Filmer D., The Structure of Social Disparities in Education: Gender and Wealth. Gender and Development Working Paper Series, No. 5. World Bank, Washington, DC. 1999.
74. Forsythe N., R.P. Korzeniewicz, V. Durrant, Gender Inequalities and Economic Growth: A Longitudinal Evaluation. Economic Development and Cultural Change 2000, 48:573-618.
75. Foster PJ., Secondary schooling and social mobility in a West African nation. Sociol.Educ. 1963, 37:150-71.
76. Fuller B, Clarke P., Raising school effects while ignoring culture? Rev. Educ. Res. 1994, 64:119-57.
77. Fuller B, Liang X., Which girls stay in school? The influence of family economy, social demands, and ethnicity in South Africa. In Critical Perspectives on Schooling and Fertility in the DevelopingWorld, ed.CH Bledsoe, J Casterline, J Johnson-Kuhn, J Haaga, Washington DC: Natl.Acad. Press. 1999:181-215.
78. Fuller B, Singer J, Keiley M., Why do daughters leave school in southern Africa? Family economy and mothers' commitments.Soc. Forces 1995, 74:657-80.
79. Fuller B., What school factors raise achievement in the developing world? Rev.Educ. Res. 1987, 57:255-92.
80. Gase Anne, Angus Deaton, School Inputs and Educational Outcomes in South Africa.Quart. J. Econ. 1999, 114 (3) :1047-84.
81. Glewwe P., H. Jacoby, An Economic Analysis of Delayed Primary School Enrollment in a Low Income Country: The Role of Early Childhood Nutrition. The Review of Economics and Statistics 1995, 77 (1) :156-169.
82. Glewwe P., schooling, skills, and the returns to government investment in education.Living Standard Measurement Study Working Paper No.76, Word Bank 1991.
83. Glewwe P., Schools and skills in developing countries: Education policies and socioeconomic outcomes.Journal of Economic Literature 2002, 40:436-482.
84. Glewwe Paul, Hanan JacoBy, Student Achievement and Schooling Ghoice in Low-Income Gountries: Evidence from Ghana.Human Res. 1994, 29 (3) :843-64.
85. Glewwe Paul,Hanan JacoBy, Estimating the Determinants of Gognitive Achievement in Low-income Gountries:The Case of Ghana.World Bank 1992:91.
86. Glewwe Paul,Margaret Grosh, Hanan Jacoby, Marlaine Lockheed,An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education.World Bank Econ. Rev. 1995, 9 (2) :231-58.
87. Glewwe Paul, Michael Kremer, Sylvie Moulin, Textbooks and Test Scores: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in Kenya.Devel.Research Group, World Bank 2001.
88. Glick P., Sahn D., Schooling of Girls and Boys in a West African Country: The Effects of Parental Education, Income, and Household Structure. Economics of Education Review 2000, 19:63-87.
89. Gomes M., Family size and educational attainment in Kenya. Popul. Dev. Rev. 1984, 10:647-60.
90. Goodkind D., Rising Gender Inequality in Vietnam since Reunification. Pacific Affairs 1995, 68:342-59.
91. Greenhalgh S., Controlling Births and Bodies in Village China. American Ethnologist 1994, 21 (1) :3-30.
92. Greenhalgh S., Sexual stratification: the other side of 'growth with equity' in East Asia. Popul. Dev. Rev. 1985, 11:265-314.
93. Grootaert C, Patrinos HA., The Policy Analysis of Child Labor: A Comparative Study. New York: St. Martin's, 1999.
94. Hannum E., Opportunity lost: rural children and educational opportunity in reformera China. Harvard Univ. Mimeo. 2000.
95. Hannum E., Political Change and the Urban-Rural Gap in Education in China, 1949-1990. Comparative Education Review 1999a, 43:193-211.
96. Hannum E., Poverty and Basic-Level Schooling in the People's Republic of China: Equity Issues in the 1990s. Prospects: the quarterly Journal of Comparative Education 1999b, 29: 561-577.
97. Hannum Emily, Poverty and Basic Education in Rural China: Villages, Households, and Girls' and Boys' Enrollment. Comparative Education Review.2003, 47 (2) :141-159.
98. Hanushek Eric, Interpreting Recent Research on Schoolong in developing Countries. World Bank Research Observer 1995:1141-77.
99. Harbison, Ralph, Eric Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil. Oxford U. Press for World Bank 1992.
100. Harold Alderman, Jere R. Behrman, Hans-Peter Kohler, John A. Maluccio, Susan Cotts Watkins,Attrition in Longitudinal Household Survey Data: Some Tests for Three Developing-Country Samples 2000.
101. Hashimoto, K., Health J. A., Income elasticities of educational expenditure by income class: The case of Japanese households. Economics of Education Review 1995, 14 (1) :63-71.
102. Heckman, James, China's investment in human capital.NBER working paper 9296. 2002.
103. Hermalin AI, Seltzer JA, Lin CH., Transitions in the effect of family size on female education and educational attainment: the case of Taiwan. Comp. Educ. Rev. 1982, 26:245-70.
104. Heyneman S.P., Jamison DT., Student learning in Uganda: textbook availability and other factors. Comp. Educ. Rev. 1980, 24:206-20.
105. Heyneman S.P., Loxley WA., The effect ofprimary school quality on academic achievement across twenty-nine high- and lowincome countries. Am. J. Sociol. 1983, 88:1162-94.
106. Heyneman S.P., Influences on academicachievement: a comparison of results fromUganda and more industrialized societies.Sociol. Educ. 1976, 49:200-11.
107. Heyneman, S.P., Dean T. Jamison, Xenia Montenegro, Textbooks in the Philippines: Evaluation of the Pedagogical Impact of Nationwide Investment.Educ. Eval.Policy Anal. 1984, 6 (2) :139-50.
108. Hirsman C.et, M.G Wong, The extraordinary educational attainment of Asian-Americans: a search for historical evidence and explanation.Social forces 1986.
109. Hossain S.A., Making an equitable and efficient education: The Chinese experience. Mimeo, revised from China: Social Sector Expenditure Review, Washington, D.C.: World Bank 1996.
110. Houton S.E., Hafstrom J.L., Income elasticities for selected consumption categories: Comparison of single female-headed and tow-parent families. Home Economics Research Journal 1985, 13 (3) :292-303.
111. Jacoby H., P. Glewwe, E. King, Early Childhood Nutrition and Academic Achievement: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Public Economics 2003, 81:345-368.
112. Jamison D., van der Gaag J., Education and Earnings in the People'srepublic of China.Economics of Education Review 1987, 6 (2) :161-166.
113. Jamison, Dean,Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda,Stephen Heyneman,Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement. Educ. Psych. 1981, 73 (4) :556-67.
114. John Knight, Lina Sony, Increasing wage in equality in transition: efficiency versus equity. 2001.
115. King E., M.A., HillWomen's Education in Developing Countries. Baltimore, MD: John's Hopkins University Press. 1993.
116. King E.M.et, R. Belew, Education policy and schooling levels in Peru.Word Bank 1988.
117. King EM, Lillard LA., Education policy and school attainment in Malaysia and the Philippines. Econ. Educ. Rev. 1987, 6:167-8.
118. Kingdon Ceeta, Student Achievement and Teacher Pay: A Case Study of India.STICERD work paper 74, London School Econ. Polit. Science. 1996.
119. Knight J., S. Li, The Determinants of Educational Attainment in China. In The Distribution of Income in China, edited by K. Griffin and R. Zhao. New York: St. Martin's Press.1993: 285-323.
120. Knight, John, Song, Lina Jia, Huaibin, Chinese Rural Migrants in Urban Enterprises: Three Perspectives. J. Develop. Stud. 1999, 35 (3) :73-104.
121. Knight, John, Lina Song, Increasing Wage Inequality in China: Efficiency versus Equity? University of Oxford Applied Economics Discussion Paper Series No.211.1999.
122. Knodel J, Havanon N, Sittitrai W., Family size and the education of children in the context of rapid fertility decline. Popul. Dev.Rev. 1990, 16:31-62.
123. Knodel J., G.W. Jones, Post-Cairo Population Policy: Does Promoting Girls' Schooling Miss the Mark? Population and Development Review 1996, 22:683-702.
124. Leibowitz A., Home investment in children. Journal of Political Economy 1974, 82 (2) :111-131.
125. Lewin K., Y. Wang, Implementing Basic Education in China: Progress and Prospects in Rich, Poor and National Minority Areas. ⅡEP Research Report, No. 101. International Institute for Educational Planning, Pads. 1994.
126. Lin J., Education in Post-Mao China. Westport, CT: Praeger. 1993.
127. Lloyd CB, Gage-Brandon AJ., High fertility and children's schooling in Ghana: sex differences in parental contributions and educational outcomes. Popul. Stud. 1994, 48:293-306.
128. Lloys C.et, A. Blanc, Children's schooling en sub-Saharan Africa: the role of fathers, mothers and others. Population and Development review 1996, (22) :2.
129. Lockheed ME, Fuller B, Nyirongo R., Family effects on students' achievement in Thailand and Malawi. Sociol. Educ. 1989, 62:239-55.
130. Lockheed ME, Komenan A., Teaching quality and student achievement in Africa:the case of Nigeria and Swaziland. Teach.Teach. Educ. 1989, 5:93-113.
131. Lockheed ME, Vail S, Fuller B., How textbooks affect achievement in developing countries: evidence from Thailand. Educ.Eval. Policy Anal. 1986, 8:379-92.
132. Lopez-Acevedo, Gladys,Angel Salinas, Marginal Willingness to Pay for Education and the Determinants of Enrollment in Mexico.Working Papers No.2405, World Bank, Washington D. C., 2000.
133. Margaret CW, What influences learning? A content analysis review literature.J Educat Res 1990, 84 (1) :30-40.
134. Mason Andrew, Schooling Decisions, Basic Education, and the Poor in Rural Java.Ph.D.Diss.Stanford University 1995.
135. Mehrotra, Santosh, Delamonica, Enrique: Household Costs and Public Expenditure on Primary Education in Five Low Income Countries: A Comparative Analysis. International Journal of Educational Development 1998, 18 (1) :41-61.
136. Miguel, Edward, Michael Kremer, Worms: Education and Health Externalities in Kenya.NBER work, paper 8481, 2001.
137. Montgomery MR, Lloyd CB. Excess fertility, unintended births and children's schooling. Policy Res. Div. Work. Pap. No. 100. New York: Popul. Council 1997.
138. Mukhopadhyay, Sudhin, Adapting household behavior to agricultural technology in West Bengal, India: Wage labor, fertility, and child schooling determinants.Economic Development and Cultural Change 1994, 43.
139. Niles FS., Social class and academic achievement: a third world reinterpretation.Comp. Educ. Rev., 1981, 25:419-30.
140. Papanek H., Class and Gender in Education-Employment Linkages. Comparative Education Review 1985, 29:317-46.
141. Parish W. L., Willis R. J., Daughters, Education, and Family Budgets: Taiwan Experiences. Journal of Human Resources 1993, 28 (4) :863-898.
142. Park A., W. Li, S. Wang, School Equity in Rural China. Paper presented at the Association of Asian Studies, Washington, DC. 2002.
143. Patrinos HA, Psacharopoulos G., Socioeconomic and ethnic determinants of age grade distortion in Bolivian and Guatemalan primary schools. Int. J. Educ. Dev., 1996, 16:3-14.
144. Peaker G., The Plowden Children FourYears Later. London: Natl. Found. for Educ.Res. in England and Wales, 1971.
145. Penrose, Perran, Cost Sharing in Education: Public Finance, School and Household Perspectives.Educational Papers, London: Department for International Development 1998:27.
146. Philip H.Brown, Albert Park, Education and poverty in rural China.Economics of Education Review. 2002, 21:523-541.
147.Philip H.Brown,albert Park,中国贫困地区的教育水平,中国农村贫困与扶贫政策研讨会会议材料,2000年1月27日.
148. Piazza A., E.H. Liang, Reducing Absolute Poverty in China: Current Status and Issues. Journal of International Affairs 1998, 52:253-64.
149. Plug Erik, Wim Vijverberg, School, Family Background, and Adoption:Does Family Income matter?.IZA 2001:246.
150. Pong SL., School participation of children from single-mother families in Malaysia.Comp. Educ. Rev. 1996, 40:231-49.
151. Rosenzweig M.R.et, T.P Schultz Market opportunities, genetic endowments and intrafamily resource distribution: child survival in rural India.American Economic Review 1982: 72.
152. Rosenzweig Mark, Robert Evenson, Fertility, Schooling, and the Economic Contribution of Children in Rural India: An Econometric Analysis. Econometrica 2001,45. (http://www.jstor.org, 2-11-2001 )
153. Sander W., The effects of ethnicity and religion on educational attainment.Economic of Education review 1992, 11: 2.
154. Sandra J.Huston, The household Expenditure Ratio: Exploring the Importance of Education. Journal of the Family Economics and Resource Management division of AAFCS 1995.
155. Sathar Z, Lloyd C., Who gets primary schooling in Pakistan: inequalities among and within families. Popul. Council Work Pap, 1993, 52:1-40.
156. Sawada, Yasuyuki, Michael Lokshin, Household Schooling Decisions in Rural Pakistan.Working Papers No.2541, Word Bank, Washington D. C., 2000.
157. Schultz T.E, Investments in the Schooling and Health of Women and Men: Quantities and Returns in Investments in Women's Human Capital, edited by T.P. Schultz. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995:15-50.
158. Shapiro David, B. Oleko Tambashe, Gender, Poverty, Family Structure, and Investments in Children's Education in Kinshasa, Congo.Economics of Education Review 2001, 20:359-375.
159. Shavit Y, Pierce JL., Sibship size and educational attainment in nuclear and extended families: Arabs and Jews in Israel. Am. Sociol.Rev. 1991, 56:321-30.
160. Shavit Y.., H.P. Blossfeld., Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993.
161. Shreeniwas S., Family size, sex composition and children's education: ethnic differentials over development in Peninsular Malaysia. Popul. Stud., 1997, 51:139-51.
162. Stash S, Hannum E., Who goes to school? Educational stratification by gender, caste and ethnicity in Nepal. Comp. Educ. Rev., 2001, 45.
163. Steelman LC, Powell B., Acquiring capital for college: the constraints of family configuration. Am. Sociol. Rev., 1989, 54:844-55.
164. Stromquist N.P., Determinants of Educational Participation and Achievement of Women in the Third World: A Review of the Evidence and a Theoretical Critique. Review of Educational Research 1989, 59:143-83.
165. Summerfield G., Economic Reform and the Employment of Chinese Women. Journal of Economic Issues 1994, 28:715-32.
166. Tansel Aysit, Determinants of School Attainment of Boys and Girls in Turkey. Economic Growth Center, Yale University, 1998:789.
167. Tansel Aysit, Schooling Attainment, Parental Education and Gender in Coted'Ivoire and Ghana.Economic Development and Cultural Change 1997.
168. Treiman D.J., Industrialization and Social Stratification. in Social Stratification:Research and Theory for the 1970s, edited by E.O. Laumann. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill. 1970:207-34.
169. Tsang M., Education and National Development in China since 1949: Oscillating Politics and Enduring Dilemmas. China Review 2000.
170. Tsang M., The Financial Reform of Basic Education in China. Economics of Education Review 1996, 15 (4) :423-44.
171. Tsang M.C., Costs of Education in China: Issues of Resource Mobilization, Equality, Equity, and Efficiency. Education Economics 1994, 2:287-312.
172. Tsui M., L. Rich, The Only Child and Educational Opportunity for Girls in Urban China.Gender and Society 2002, 16 (1) :74-92.
173. UNDP, Human Development Report. NY: United Nations Development Programme 1990.
174. Walder A. G., Markets and Income Inequalit.y in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy.American Sociology Review 2002, 67 (4) : 231-253.
175. Walder A. G., Markets and in Equality in Transitional Economies: Toward Testable Theories." American Journal of Sociology 1996, 101: 1060-73.
176. World Bank, China: Strategies for Reducing Poverty in the 1990s. Washington, DC, 1992.
177. World Bank. Engendering Development Enhancing Development through Attention to Gender.Washington DC: World Bank and Oxford Univ, 2001.
178. Zheng Z., R. Niu and L. Xing, Determinants of Primary and Middle School Enrollment of 10-18 Year Olds in China. Population and Economics 2002, 131 (2) :28-37.
179. Zheng Z., L.Xing, R.Connelly, Patterns of educational attainment of China's youth, 10-18 years old in 1990.Population and Economics 2002, 2:28-37.
2.程方平,中国教育问题报告——入世背景下中国教育的现实问题和基本对策.北京:中国社会科学出版社,2002
3.程刚,义务教育法将增至95条,教育公平成焦点.中国青年报,2005,http://info.edu.hc360.com/2005/08/19102578797.shtml
4.程国美,许宏辉,家庭环境对学生学习成绩的影响和分析.中国教育网,http://jia.cersp.com/article.php/479,2005年5月23日
5.傅家荣,居民教育消费:理论·政策·启示.求索,2004(6):98-100
6.霍金芝,邹艳,蔡琰等,学习动机研究Ⅱ:动机和智力对学习成绩影响的分析.中国学校卫生,1998,19(3):181-182
7.加里.斯坦利.贝克尔,家庭论.北京:商务印书馆,1998
8.李炳全,唐安国,论教育价格.上海教育研究,1998(5):50-53
9.李竞能,当代西方人口学说.太原;山西人民出版社,1992
10.李文,汪三贵,Albert Park,贫困地区农村中小学教育经费的不平等程度分析.中国农村贫困问题研究,北京:中国财政经济出版社,2005:429-444
11.马菊红,应用Hotelling T2检验评价学生学习成绩的探讨.本溪冶金高等专科学校学报,2002(2):42-44
12.沈百福,简论义务教育的价格.上海教育科研,2000(3):32-35
13.孙士杰,试论我国实现完全免费义务教育的现实可能性.河南师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2000(2):95-98
14.孙志军,中国农村家庭教育决策的实证分析[博士学位论文].北京:北京师范大学,1999
15.汤灿晴,董志强,农村教育:问题与对策.农村经济,2004(5):86-66
16.汪海燕,新中国义务教育历史研究[硕士学位论文].甘肃:西北师范大学,2003
17.王善迈,袁连生,建立规范的义务教育财政转移支付制度.国家行政学院学报,2001(1):28-34
18.王秀萍,魏嗣琼,心理因素对小学生脑力工作能力影响的研究.中国学校卫生,1998,(5):371-372
19.肖厚群,生活事件对中专学生学习成绩影响的调查.中国学校卫生,1997(6):467
20.谢磊,如何正确评价学生的学习成绩.广西高教研究,2001(1):94-97
21.谢琦圣,关于南京市中小学生学习成绩与家庭环境因素的调查.2005,http://www.njbxjy.net/blog/yfxj/more.asp?name=yfxjxqs&id=2606
22.亚洲开发银行,从实行农村免费义务教育入手,进一步减轻农民负担,观察与建议,2004年2月
23.曾满超,教育政策的经济分析.北京:人民教育出版社,2000:7-9
24.赵启强,当代中国教育调查之一.2005,http://www.zgpg.net/blog/userl/532/archivest2005/1 069.asp
25.赵永华,小学至初中阶段男女生学习成绩差异原因及其克服途径.理论研究,2000(4):77-80
26.周运浓,我国义务教育免费与筹资问题研究.荆州师范院校学报(社会科学版),1999(6):110-113
27.朱玲,蒋中一,以工代赈与缓解贫困.上海:上海三联书店、上海人民出版社,1994
28. Abdel-Ghany M., Schwenk E, Differences in consumption patterns of single-parent and two-parent family in the United States. Journal of Family and Economics Issues 1993, 14:299-315.
29. Alan de Brauw, Scott Rozelle, Carefully measuring the returns to education in rural China. Memo.2002.
30. Al-Samarrai Samer, Tessa Peasgood, Educational Attainments and Household Characteristics in Tanzania. Economics of Education Review 1998, 17 (4) :395-417.
31. Anderson CA., The social status of university students in relation to type of economy:An international comparison. Trans. Third World Congr. Sociol 1956, 5:51-63.
32. Angrist Joshua, Victor Lavy, Using Maimonides Rule to Estimate the Effect of Glass Size on Scholastic Achievement. Econ 1999a, 114:2.
33. Angrist Joshua, Victor Lavy, New Evidence on Glassroom Computers and Pupil Learning .NBER work paper 1999b, 533-75.
34. Anh TS., Knodel J., Lam D., Friedman J., Family size and children's education in Vietnam.Demography 1998,35:57-70.
35. Asian Development Bank, Education and National Development: Trends, Issues, Policies and Strategies. Manila: Asian Development Bank 2001.
36. Axinn WG, The effects of children's schooling on fertility limitation. Popul. Stud. 1993, 47:481-93.
37. Banerjee A., S. Cole, E. Duflo, L. Linden, Remedying Education: Evidence from Two Randomized Experiments in India.Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge 2003. [http://econ-www.mit.edu/faculty/download_pdf.php?id=678]
38. Bary M., Counting the full cost: Parental and community financing of education in East Asia. Washington D.C.: World Bank 1996.
39. Becker Gary, Human Gapital and Poverty Alleviation.Human Gapital Devel. Operations Policy work, World Bank. 1995:52.
40. Becker G.S., Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education. New York, Columbia University 1964.
41. Becker G.S., A treatise on the family. Cambridge: Harvard University 1981.
42. Behrman JR, Birdsall N., The quality of schooling: quantity alone is misleading. Am.Econ. Rev. 1983, 73:928-46.
43. Behrman J.R.et., B.L.Wolfe, Investment in schooling in two generation in pre-Revolutionary Nicaragua: the role of family background and school supply.Journal of development Economics 1987:27.
44. Behrman J.R., Knowles J.C., Household income and child schooling in Vietnam.The World Bank Economic Review 1999, 13 (2) :211-56.
45. Benjamin Dwayne, Loren Brandt, Paul Glewwe, and Guo li., Markets, Human Capital, and Inequality: Evidence from Rural China, mimeo 1990.
46. Benson C.S., The economics of public education. Boston: Houghton. Mifflin 1961.
47. Blake J. Family Size and Achievement.Berkeley: Univ. Calif. 1989.
48. Blau PM, Duncan OD., The American Occupational Structure. New York: Wiley 1967.
49. Boserup E. Woman's Role in Economic Development. London: Earthscan 1989.
50. Boyle S., Brock A., Mace J., Sibbons M., Reaching the Poor: The 'Costs' of Sending Children to School-A Six Country Comparative Study. Educational Papers. London: Department for International Development 2002: 47.
51. Bray Mark, Government and Household Financing of Education: Finding Appropriate Balances, in Min Weifang, Yang Zhoufu & Li Wenli (eds.), Raising Adequate Resources for Education. Beijing: People's Education Press, 2003:605-631. [Chinese translation by Li Mei in Peking University EducationReview, 2003, 1 (2) :43-51.]
52. Bray Mark, The Costs and Financing of Education: Trends and Policy Implications. Series 'Education in Developing Asia. Manila: Asian Development Bank, and Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. 2002.
53. Brown P., A. Park, Education and Poverty in Rural China. Economics of Education Review 2002, 21: 523-41.
54. Bruns B., Mingat A., Rakotomalala R., Achieving Universal Primary Education by 2015: A Chance for Every Child. Washington DC: The World Bank 2003.
55. Buchmann C., E. Hannum, Education and Stratification in Developing Countries: A Review of Theories and Empirical Research. Annual Review of Sociology 2001, 27:77-102.
56. Buchmann C., Family structure, parental perceptions and child labor in Kenya: What factors determine who is enrolled in school? Soc. Forces 2000, 78:1349-79.
57. Caldwell JC., Mass education as a determinant of the timing of fertility decline.Popul. Dev. Rev. 1980, 6:225-55.
58. Card, David, Krueger, Alan, Does School Quality Matter? Returns to Education and the Characteristics of Public Schools in the United States. Journal of Political Economy 1992, 100 (1) :1-40.
59. Carnoy M., Ducation and Productivity. The International Encyclopedia of Education. Torsten Husen and T. N. Postlethwaite. New York, Pergamon 1994.
60. Chan D., K. H. Mok, Educational Reforms and Coping Strategies under the Tidal Wave of Marketization: A Comparative Study of Hong Kong and the Mainland. Comparative Education 2001, 37 (1) : 21-41.
61. Cheng K. M., The Quality of Primary Education: A Case Study of Zhejiang Province, China. Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning. 1996.
62. Chernichovsky D., Socioeconomic and demographic aspects of school enrollment and attendance in rural Botswana. Econ. Dev.Cult. 1985, 33:319-32.
63. China, People's Republic of: National Report for EFA 2000 Assessment. Beijing: Ministry of Education and National Commission for UNESCO. 2000.
64. Clignet R, Foster P.J., The Fortunate Few: A Study of Secondary Schools and Students in the Ivory Coast. Evanston, IL: NorthwesternUniv. Press. 1966.
65. Cohn E, Rossmiller RA., Research on effective schools: implications for less developed countries. Comp. Educ. Rev. 1987, 31:377-99.
66. Coleman JS, Campbell E, Hobson C, Mc-Partland J, Mood A, et al., Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, DC: Dep. Health, Educ., Welfare. 1966.
67. Connelly R.,Z.Zheng, Determinants of school enrollment and completion of 10 to 18 years olds in China.Economics of Education Review 2003,22:379-388.
68. Csapo M., Religious, social and economic factors hindering the education of girls in northern Nigeria. Comp. Educ. 1981, 17:311-19.
69. Davis D., Chinese Social Welfare: Policies and Outcomes. China Quarterly 1989, 119:577-97.
70. Deininger Klaus, Does Cost of Schooling Affect Enrollment by the Poor?. Universal Primary Education in Uganda. Economics of Education Review 2003, 22 (3) :291-305.
71. Deolalikar A.B., Gender Differences in the Returns to Schooling and in School Enrollment Rates in Indonesia. Journal of Human Resources 1993, 28 (4) : 899-932.
72. Filmer D, Pritchett L., The effect of household wealth on educational attainment:evidence from 35 countries. Popul. Dev. Rev. 1999, 25:85-120.
73. Filmer D., The Structure of Social Disparities in Education: Gender and Wealth. Gender and Development Working Paper Series, No. 5. World Bank, Washington, DC. 1999.
74. Forsythe N., R.P. Korzeniewicz, V. Durrant, Gender Inequalities and Economic Growth: A Longitudinal Evaluation. Economic Development and Cultural Change 2000, 48:573-618.
75. Foster PJ., Secondary schooling and social mobility in a West African nation. Sociol.Educ. 1963, 37:150-71.
76. Fuller B, Clarke P., Raising school effects while ignoring culture? Rev. Educ. Res. 1994, 64:119-57.
77. Fuller B, Liang X., Which girls stay in school? The influence of family economy, social demands, and ethnicity in South Africa. In Critical Perspectives on Schooling and Fertility in the DevelopingWorld, ed.CH Bledsoe, J Casterline, J Johnson-Kuhn, J Haaga, Washington DC: Natl.Acad. Press. 1999:181-215.
78. Fuller B, Singer J, Keiley M., Why do daughters leave school in southern Africa? Family economy and mothers' commitments.Soc. Forces 1995, 74:657-80.
79. Fuller B., What school factors raise achievement in the developing world? Rev.Educ. Res. 1987, 57:255-92.
80. Gase Anne, Angus Deaton, School Inputs and Educational Outcomes in South Africa.Quart. J. Econ. 1999, 114 (3) :1047-84.
81. Glewwe P., H. Jacoby, An Economic Analysis of Delayed Primary School Enrollment in a Low Income Country: The Role of Early Childhood Nutrition. The Review of Economics and Statistics 1995, 77 (1) :156-169.
82. Glewwe P., schooling, skills, and the returns to government investment in education.Living Standard Measurement Study Working Paper No.76, Word Bank 1991.
83. Glewwe P., Schools and skills in developing countries: Education policies and socioeconomic outcomes.Journal of Economic Literature 2002, 40:436-482.
84. Glewwe Paul, Hanan JacoBy, Student Achievement and Schooling Ghoice in Low-Income Gountries: Evidence from Ghana.Human Res. 1994, 29 (3) :843-64.
85. Glewwe Paul,Hanan JacoBy, Estimating the Determinants of Gognitive Achievement in Low-income Gountries:The Case of Ghana.World Bank 1992:91.
86. Glewwe Paul,Margaret Grosh, Hanan Jacoby, Marlaine Lockheed,An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education.World Bank Econ. Rev. 1995, 9 (2) :231-58.
87. Glewwe Paul, Michael Kremer, Sylvie Moulin, Textbooks and Test Scores: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in Kenya.Devel.Research Group, World Bank 2001.
88. Glick P., Sahn D., Schooling of Girls and Boys in a West African Country: The Effects of Parental Education, Income, and Household Structure. Economics of Education Review 2000, 19:63-87.
89. Gomes M., Family size and educational attainment in Kenya. Popul. Dev. Rev. 1984, 10:647-60.
90. Goodkind D., Rising Gender Inequality in Vietnam since Reunification. Pacific Affairs 1995, 68:342-59.
91. Greenhalgh S., Controlling Births and Bodies in Village China. American Ethnologist 1994, 21 (1) :3-30.
92. Greenhalgh S., Sexual stratification: the other side of 'growth with equity' in East Asia. Popul. Dev. Rev. 1985, 11:265-314.
93. Grootaert C, Patrinos HA., The Policy Analysis of Child Labor: A Comparative Study. New York: St. Martin's, 1999.
94. Hannum E., Opportunity lost: rural children and educational opportunity in reformera China. Harvard Univ. Mimeo. 2000.
95. Hannum E., Political Change and the Urban-Rural Gap in Education in China, 1949-1990. Comparative Education Review 1999a, 43:193-211.
96. Hannum E., Poverty and Basic-Level Schooling in the People's Republic of China: Equity Issues in the 1990s. Prospects: the quarterly Journal of Comparative Education 1999b, 29: 561-577.
97. Hannum Emily, Poverty and Basic Education in Rural China: Villages, Households, and Girls' and Boys' Enrollment. Comparative Education Review.2003, 47 (2) :141-159.
98. Hanushek Eric, Interpreting Recent Research on Schoolong in developing Countries. World Bank Research Observer 1995:1141-77.
99. Harbison, Ralph, Eric Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil. Oxford U. Press for World Bank 1992.
100. Harold Alderman, Jere R. Behrman, Hans-Peter Kohler, John A. Maluccio, Susan Cotts Watkins,Attrition in Longitudinal Household Survey Data: Some Tests for Three Developing-Country Samples 2000.
101. Hashimoto, K., Health J. A., Income elasticities of educational expenditure by income class: The case of Japanese households. Economics of Education Review 1995, 14 (1) :63-71.
102. Heckman, James, China's investment in human capital.NBER working paper 9296. 2002.
103. Hermalin AI, Seltzer JA, Lin CH., Transitions in the effect of family size on female education and educational attainment: the case of Taiwan. Comp. Educ. Rev. 1982, 26:245-70.
104. Heyneman S.P., Jamison DT., Student learning in Uganda: textbook availability and other factors. Comp. Educ. Rev. 1980, 24:206-20.
105. Heyneman S.P., Loxley WA., The effect ofprimary school quality on academic achievement across twenty-nine high- and lowincome countries. Am. J. Sociol. 1983, 88:1162-94.
106. Heyneman S.P., Influences on academicachievement: a comparison of results fromUganda and more industrialized societies.Sociol. Educ. 1976, 49:200-11.
107. Heyneman, S.P., Dean T. Jamison, Xenia Montenegro, Textbooks in the Philippines: Evaluation of the Pedagogical Impact of Nationwide Investment.Educ. Eval.Policy Anal. 1984, 6 (2) :139-50.
108. Hirsman C.et, M.G Wong, The extraordinary educational attainment of Asian-Americans: a search for historical evidence and explanation.Social forces 1986.
109. Hossain S.A., Making an equitable and efficient education: The Chinese experience. Mimeo, revised from China: Social Sector Expenditure Review, Washington, D.C.: World Bank 1996.
110. Houton S.E., Hafstrom J.L., Income elasticities for selected consumption categories: Comparison of single female-headed and tow-parent families. Home Economics Research Journal 1985, 13 (3) :292-303.
111. Jacoby H., P. Glewwe, E. King, Early Childhood Nutrition and Academic Achievement: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Public Economics 2003, 81:345-368.
112. Jamison D., van der Gaag J., Education and Earnings in the People'srepublic of China.Economics of Education Review 1987, 6 (2) :161-166.
113. Jamison, Dean,Barbara Searle, Klaus Galda,Stephen Heyneman,Improving Elementary Mathematics Education in Nicaragua: An Experimental Study of the Impact of Textbooks and Radio on Achievement. Educ. Psych. 1981, 73 (4) :556-67.
114. John Knight, Lina Sony, Increasing wage in equality in transition: efficiency versus equity. 2001.
115. King E., M.A., HillWomen's Education in Developing Countries. Baltimore, MD: John's Hopkins University Press. 1993.
116. King E.M.et, R. Belew, Education policy and schooling levels in Peru.Word Bank 1988.
117. King EM, Lillard LA., Education policy and school attainment in Malaysia and the Philippines. Econ. Educ. Rev. 1987, 6:167-8.
118. Kingdon Ceeta, Student Achievement and Teacher Pay: A Case Study of India.STICERD work paper 74, London School Econ. Polit. Science. 1996.
119. Knight J., S. Li, The Determinants of Educational Attainment in China. In The Distribution of Income in China, edited by K. Griffin and R. Zhao. New York: St. Martin's Press.1993: 285-323.
120. Knight, John, Song, Lina Jia, Huaibin, Chinese Rural Migrants in Urban Enterprises: Three Perspectives. J. Develop. Stud. 1999, 35 (3) :73-104.
121. Knight, John, Lina Song, Increasing Wage Inequality in China: Efficiency versus Equity? University of Oxford Applied Economics Discussion Paper Series No.211.1999.
122. Knodel J, Havanon N, Sittitrai W., Family size and the education of children in the context of rapid fertility decline. Popul. Dev.Rev. 1990, 16:31-62.
123. Knodel J., G.W. Jones, Post-Cairo Population Policy: Does Promoting Girls' Schooling Miss the Mark? Population and Development Review 1996, 22:683-702.
124. Leibowitz A., Home investment in children. Journal of Political Economy 1974, 82 (2) :111-131.
125. Lewin K., Y. Wang, Implementing Basic Education in China: Progress and Prospects in Rich, Poor and National Minority Areas. ⅡEP Research Report, No. 101. International Institute for Educational Planning, Pads. 1994.
126. Lin J., Education in Post-Mao China. Westport, CT: Praeger. 1993.
127. Lloyd CB, Gage-Brandon AJ., High fertility and children's schooling in Ghana: sex differences in parental contributions and educational outcomes. Popul. Stud. 1994, 48:293-306.
128. Lloys C.et, A. Blanc, Children's schooling en sub-Saharan Africa: the role of fathers, mothers and others. Population and Development review 1996, (22) :2.
129. Lockheed ME, Fuller B, Nyirongo R., Family effects on students' achievement in Thailand and Malawi. Sociol. Educ. 1989, 62:239-55.
130. Lockheed ME, Komenan A., Teaching quality and student achievement in Africa:the case of Nigeria and Swaziland. Teach.Teach. Educ. 1989, 5:93-113.
131. Lockheed ME, Vail S, Fuller B., How textbooks affect achievement in developing countries: evidence from Thailand. Educ.Eval. Policy Anal. 1986, 8:379-92.
132. Lopez-Acevedo, Gladys,Angel Salinas, Marginal Willingness to Pay for Education and the Determinants of Enrollment in Mexico.Working Papers No.2405, World Bank, Washington D. C., 2000.
133. Margaret CW, What influences learning? A content analysis review literature.J Educat Res 1990, 84 (1) :30-40.
134. Mason Andrew, Schooling Decisions, Basic Education, and the Poor in Rural Java.Ph.D.Diss.Stanford University 1995.
135. Mehrotra, Santosh, Delamonica, Enrique: Household Costs and Public Expenditure on Primary Education in Five Low Income Countries: A Comparative Analysis. International Journal of Educational Development 1998, 18 (1) :41-61.
136. Miguel, Edward, Michael Kremer, Worms: Education and Health Externalities in Kenya.NBER work, paper 8481, 2001.
137. Montgomery MR, Lloyd CB. Excess fertility, unintended births and children's schooling. Policy Res. Div. Work. Pap. No. 100. New York: Popul. Council 1997.
138. Mukhopadhyay, Sudhin, Adapting household behavior to agricultural technology in West Bengal, India: Wage labor, fertility, and child schooling determinants.Economic Development and Cultural Change 1994, 43.
139. Niles FS., Social class and academic achievement: a third world reinterpretation.Comp. Educ. Rev., 1981, 25:419-30.
140. Papanek H., Class and Gender in Education-Employment Linkages. Comparative Education Review 1985, 29:317-46.
141. Parish W. L., Willis R. J., Daughters, Education, and Family Budgets: Taiwan Experiences. Journal of Human Resources 1993, 28 (4) :863-898.
142. Park A., W. Li, S. Wang, School Equity in Rural China. Paper presented at the Association of Asian Studies, Washington, DC. 2002.
143. Patrinos HA, Psacharopoulos G., Socioeconomic and ethnic determinants of age grade distortion in Bolivian and Guatemalan primary schools. Int. J. Educ. Dev., 1996, 16:3-14.
144. Peaker G., The Plowden Children FourYears Later. London: Natl. Found. for Educ.Res. in England and Wales, 1971.
145. Penrose, Perran, Cost Sharing in Education: Public Finance, School and Household Perspectives.Educational Papers, London: Department for International Development 1998:27.
146. Philip H.Brown, Albert Park, Education and poverty in rural China.Economics of Education Review. 2002, 21:523-541.
147.Philip H.Brown,albert Park,中国贫困地区的教育水平,中国农村贫困与扶贫政策研讨会会议材料,2000年1月27日.
148. Piazza A., E.H. Liang, Reducing Absolute Poverty in China: Current Status and Issues. Journal of International Affairs 1998, 52:253-64.
149. Plug Erik, Wim Vijverberg, School, Family Background, and Adoption:Does Family Income matter?.IZA 2001:246.
150. Pong SL., School participation of children from single-mother families in Malaysia.Comp. Educ. Rev. 1996, 40:231-49.
151. Rosenzweig M.R.et, T.P Schultz Market opportunities, genetic endowments and intrafamily resource distribution: child survival in rural India.American Economic Review 1982: 72.
152. Rosenzweig Mark, Robert Evenson, Fertility, Schooling, and the Economic Contribution of Children in Rural India: An Econometric Analysis. Econometrica 2001,45. (http://www.jstor.org, 2-11-2001 )
153. Sander W., The effects of ethnicity and religion on educational attainment.Economic of Education review 1992, 11: 2.
154. Sandra J.Huston, The household Expenditure Ratio: Exploring the Importance of Education. Journal of the Family Economics and Resource Management division of AAFCS 1995.
155. Sathar Z, Lloyd C., Who gets primary schooling in Pakistan: inequalities among and within families. Popul. Council Work Pap, 1993, 52:1-40.
156. Sawada, Yasuyuki, Michael Lokshin, Household Schooling Decisions in Rural Pakistan.Working Papers No.2541, Word Bank, Washington D. C., 2000.
157. Schultz T.E, Investments in the Schooling and Health of Women and Men: Quantities and Returns in Investments in Women's Human Capital, edited by T.P. Schultz. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995:15-50.
158. Shapiro David, B. Oleko Tambashe, Gender, Poverty, Family Structure, and Investments in Children's Education in Kinshasa, Congo.Economics of Education Review 2001, 20:359-375.
159. Shavit Y, Pierce JL., Sibship size and educational attainment in nuclear and extended families: Arabs and Jews in Israel. Am. Sociol.Rev. 1991, 56:321-30.
160. Shavit Y.., H.P. Blossfeld., Persistent Inequality: Changing Educational Attainment in Thirteen Countries. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993.
161. Shreeniwas S., Family size, sex composition and children's education: ethnic differentials over development in Peninsular Malaysia. Popul. Stud., 1997, 51:139-51.
162. Stash S, Hannum E., Who goes to school? Educational stratification by gender, caste and ethnicity in Nepal. Comp. Educ. Rev., 2001, 45.
163. Steelman LC, Powell B., Acquiring capital for college: the constraints of family configuration. Am. Sociol. Rev., 1989, 54:844-55.
164. Stromquist N.P., Determinants of Educational Participation and Achievement of Women in the Third World: A Review of the Evidence and a Theoretical Critique. Review of Educational Research 1989, 59:143-83.
165. Summerfield G., Economic Reform and the Employment of Chinese Women. Journal of Economic Issues 1994, 28:715-32.
166. Tansel Aysit, Determinants of School Attainment of Boys and Girls in Turkey. Economic Growth Center, Yale University, 1998:789.
167. Tansel Aysit, Schooling Attainment, Parental Education and Gender in Coted'Ivoire and Ghana.Economic Development and Cultural Change 1997.
168. Treiman D.J., Industrialization and Social Stratification. in Social Stratification:Research and Theory for the 1970s, edited by E.O. Laumann. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill. 1970:207-34.
169. Tsang M., Education and National Development in China since 1949: Oscillating Politics and Enduring Dilemmas. China Review 2000.
170. Tsang M., The Financial Reform of Basic Education in China. Economics of Education Review 1996, 15 (4) :423-44.
171. Tsang M.C., Costs of Education in China: Issues of Resource Mobilization, Equality, Equity, and Efficiency. Education Economics 1994, 2:287-312.
172. Tsui M., L. Rich, The Only Child and Educational Opportunity for Girls in Urban China.Gender and Society 2002, 16 (1) :74-92.
173. UNDP, Human Development Report. NY: United Nations Development Programme 1990.
174. Walder A. G., Markets and Income Inequalit.y in Rural China: Political Advantage in an Expanding Economy.American Sociology Review 2002, 67 (4) : 231-253.
175. Walder A. G., Markets and in Equality in Transitional Economies: Toward Testable Theories." American Journal of Sociology 1996, 101: 1060-73.
176. World Bank, China: Strategies for Reducing Poverty in the 1990s. Washington, DC, 1992.
177. World Bank. Engendering Development Enhancing Development through Attention to Gender.Washington DC: World Bank and Oxford Univ, 2001.
178. Zheng Z., R. Niu and L. Xing, Determinants of Primary and Middle School Enrollment of 10-18 Year Olds in China. Population and Economics 2002, 131 (2) :28-37.
179. Zheng Z., L.Xing, R.Connelly, Patterns of educational attainment of China's youth, 10-18 years old in 1990.Population and Economics 2002, 2:28-37.