美国产权保险制度研究
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摘要
在美国高度发达的市场经济环境下,不动产市场和保险市场有着及其紧密的联系。无论是灾难保险还是产权保险,都是不动产交易中典型需要的保险类型。在不动产交易中,产权质量是当事人首要关注的问题。美国不完善的产权记录体系推动产权保险人来整合产权调查和其它产权交易服务工作。产权保险在审慎的产权调查之后可以为业主或贷款人提供保护以对抗保单签发之前就已经存在的产权瑕疵。美国整个产权保险行业通过推动二级抵押市场的发展已在美国整个大经济环境中表演着,而且持续表演着至关重要的角色,从而保证美国成为世界上私有住房拥有率最高的国家之一。
产权保险制度产生并一直盛行于美国,已经有100多年的历史。近年来,在英美法系国家,产权保险制度得到了较大的推广,另外,这项制度已经逐步渗透到了欧洲传统的大陆法系国家,以及部分前社会主义国家。所以,外国学者(尤其是美国)对该项制度的理论和实务研究水平是相当高的。反观国内,因为种种原因,我国学者对产权保险制度染指很少,成果不多。因此,有必要对美国产权保险制度作细致而深入的研究。
本文共分成五章。
第一章介绍了美国产权保险制度的历史演进。该章首先从产权保险制度产生原因入手,分析了美国多种产权保证方式的区别;然后总结出产权保险产生的历史必然性;最后概括论述了产权保险制度诞生、全国化、国际化的三个发展阶段。
第二章介绍了美国产权保险制度的几个基本内容。首先,该章明确了产权保险的概念,即产权保险本质上是一种赔偿合同,而非某些人想当然认为的一种保证合同;然后,该章在对产权保险避免风险功能、信息功能、服务功能、分散风险功能进行详细探讨的基础上,指出产权保险能够有效地明确不动产产权状况、增强产权适销性和融资性、提高产权交易效率,并推动美国二级抵押市场的发展;产权保险人开展业务的基本流程包括创建和维护产权链、接受投保、进行产权调查、提交产权报告、签发正式保单等阶段。该章最后对其中最为重要的产权调查、产权报告和产权链等三个概念进行了详细的介绍和研究。
第三章介绍了美国产权保险合同的基本要素。这些合同组成要素包括保险标的、保险当事人、保险承保范围、保险期间、保险费、保险金额、保险责任七个方面。该章指出,保险标的不是交易产权的完整,而是产权报告的准确性;明确产权保险范围是正确理解产权保险合同的关键所在;产权保险合同的目的在于维护当事人的产权利益,所以保险人主要以保护产权的方式承担保险责任。最后,该部分还介绍了ALTA统一保单的相关内容。
第四章介绍了美国产权保险制度的基本特征。产权保险与一般P/C保险(财产和意外险)相比有自己独特之处。该章通过运用对比分析的方法归纳了产权保险制度的特色。包括:保险功能的多样性、承保瑕疵的追溯性、合同形式的地域性与统一性、保费费率确定的非精算、保费缴纳的一次性和使用的前置性、承担保险责任方式的选择性、保险期间的无限制性、保险合同转让区别性、产权保险监管的州立性、保险公司业务内容的单一性、产权保险市场的相对集中性等。
第五章介绍了美国产权保险制度国际化的内容。首先,该章介绍了美国产权保险制度国际化现状,指出产权保险日益国际化的趋势;其次,该章介绍了美国产权保险制度国际化的主要原因;第三,该章归纳了国际化产权保险的基本特征;最后,该章通过对比美国产权保险制度在普通法系国家、大陆法系国家和前社会主义国家的开展和应用,分析了产权保险国际化的前景,并提出了作者个人见解。
本文综合运用了比较法学、经济学、社会学等多种研究方法,在充分占有国内外产权保险制度研究成果的基础上,对美国产权保险制度进行了尝试性的研究。但无可避免的是,由于笔者掌握的研究资料毕竟有限,加之法学理论水平的限制,本文存在很多不足之处,还望学界前辈和后来者批评指正。本文目的和意义就在于通过比较完整地介绍美国产权保险制度的内容,以希望笔者对美国产权保险制度研究的“一小步”能够引起理论和实务界对这项制度重视的“一大步”,并期望有更多学者在借鉴美国产权保险制度的成功经验的基础上,结合我国实际,对此项制度在我国房地产市场上的应用前景作出进一步深入探讨。能够对完善我国不动产交易市场法律制度建设有所借鉴,便是笔者最大心愿。
In today's U.S. highly developed market economy environment, the real estate and insurance markets enjoy a close relationship. Both hazard insurance and title insurance are typically required to close a real estate transaction. In a real estate transaction, quality of title is a major concern. Poor organization of public record lead U.S. title insurers to integrate title examination and settlement services. Title insurance provides protection to the owner and/or lender against defects in public records occurring before the date of the policy after a thorough title search. The title industry has played, and continues to play, a critical role in the U.S. economy by facilitating the growth of the secondary mortgage market, thus enabling Americans to have one of the highest home ownership rates in the word.
Title insurance has become a universal instrument for real estate transactions in the U.S. for more than 100 years and has the increasing importantance in other countries. In general, there are many published literatures on title insurance abroad. On the contrary, Chinese scholars have no willing to study title insurance for some reasons. So, it is time for us to do something about this subject.
This thesis is divided into five parts.
The first part is about the historical development of U.S. title insurance system. Beginning with the reasons for the occurrence of U.S. title insurance system, we can know the differences of many title assurance measures in U.S.. Then this part includes the historical inevitability of the occurrence of U.S. title insurance system. At last, this part general analyses the historical evolution phases of U.S. title insurance system.
The second part is about the general theory of U.S. title insurance system. First, this part makes true the concept of U.S. title insurance system. Title insurance is a contract of indemnity rather than a contract of guarantee as is sometimes assumed. Secondary, this part discusses the function and the effect of U.S. title insurance system. Finally, this part introduces the matters about title search, title report and title plant.
The third part is about the basic elements of U.S. title insurance contract. These elements include the subject matter, the parties and relating people, the coverage, the insurance period, the premium, the indemnity and the insurance liability. This part points out that the subject matter is not the integrity of title but the veracity of title report. It is very important to understand the contract accurately that the parties of title insurance contract must understand the coverage and the insurance liability fully. In the end, this part introduces the ALTA uniform policies.
The forth part is about the analysis of characteristics of U.S. title insurance system. Title insurance has unique characteristics compared with other P/C(property/casualty) insurance. These characteristics include the diversity of the function of title insurance, the retrospective defect in insurance coverage, the territorialism and oneness of the form of contract, the non-actuarial insurance rate, the one-off premium, the selectivity of the forms for bearing insurance liability, the unlimited insurance period, the distinctness of transfer of policy, the Monoline insurance, the relatively concentrated insurance market and so on.
The five part is about the analysis of internationalization of U.S. title insurance system. First, this part discusses the outline of internationalization of U.S. title insurance system and points out that there is a growing demand for title insurance from the international market. Second, this part introduces the reasons about the internationalization of U.S. title insurance system. Third, this part concludes the characteristics of international title insurance. Finally, this part analysis the prospect of international title insurance system and advances the author's viewpoint by contrasting the application of U.S. title insurance system in common law countries, continental law countries and former socialist countries.
Because the research on title insurance is of no boundary, the opinions of the author need to be further studied. But the author will fell satisfied if this thesis would make contribution to the theoretical study and the practical realm of the title insurance of our country.
产权保险制度产生并一直盛行于美国,已经有100多年的历史。近年来,在英美法系国家,产权保险制度得到了较大的推广,另外,这项制度已经逐步渗透到了欧洲传统的大陆法系国家,以及部分前社会主义国家。所以,外国学者(尤其是美国)对该项制度的理论和实务研究水平是相当高的。反观国内,因为种种原因,我国学者对产权保险制度染指很少,成果不多。因此,有必要对美国产权保险制度作细致而深入的研究。
本文共分成五章。
第一章介绍了美国产权保险制度的历史演进。该章首先从产权保险制度产生原因入手,分析了美国多种产权保证方式的区别;然后总结出产权保险产生的历史必然性;最后概括论述了产权保险制度诞生、全国化、国际化的三个发展阶段。
第二章介绍了美国产权保险制度的几个基本内容。首先,该章明确了产权保险的概念,即产权保险本质上是一种赔偿合同,而非某些人想当然认为的一种保证合同;然后,该章在对产权保险避免风险功能、信息功能、服务功能、分散风险功能进行详细探讨的基础上,指出产权保险能够有效地明确不动产产权状况、增强产权适销性和融资性、提高产权交易效率,并推动美国二级抵押市场的发展;产权保险人开展业务的基本流程包括创建和维护产权链、接受投保、进行产权调查、提交产权报告、签发正式保单等阶段。该章最后对其中最为重要的产权调查、产权报告和产权链等三个概念进行了详细的介绍和研究。
第三章介绍了美国产权保险合同的基本要素。这些合同组成要素包括保险标的、保险当事人、保险承保范围、保险期间、保险费、保险金额、保险责任七个方面。该章指出,保险标的不是交易产权的完整,而是产权报告的准确性;明确产权保险范围是正确理解产权保险合同的关键所在;产权保险合同的目的在于维护当事人的产权利益,所以保险人主要以保护产权的方式承担保险责任。最后,该部分还介绍了ALTA统一保单的相关内容。
第四章介绍了美国产权保险制度的基本特征。产权保险与一般P/C保险(财产和意外险)相比有自己独特之处。该章通过运用对比分析的方法归纳了产权保险制度的特色。包括:保险功能的多样性、承保瑕疵的追溯性、合同形式的地域性与统一性、保费费率确定的非精算、保费缴纳的一次性和使用的前置性、承担保险责任方式的选择性、保险期间的无限制性、保险合同转让区别性、产权保险监管的州立性、保险公司业务内容的单一性、产权保险市场的相对集中性等。
第五章介绍了美国产权保险制度国际化的内容。首先,该章介绍了美国产权保险制度国际化现状,指出产权保险日益国际化的趋势;其次,该章介绍了美国产权保险制度国际化的主要原因;第三,该章归纳了国际化产权保险的基本特征;最后,该章通过对比美国产权保险制度在普通法系国家、大陆法系国家和前社会主义国家的开展和应用,分析了产权保险国际化的前景,并提出了作者个人见解。
本文综合运用了比较法学、经济学、社会学等多种研究方法,在充分占有国内外产权保险制度研究成果的基础上,对美国产权保险制度进行了尝试性的研究。但无可避免的是,由于笔者掌握的研究资料毕竟有限,加之法学理论水平的限制,本文存在很多不足之处,还望学界前辈和后来者批评指正。本文目的和意义就在于通过比较完整地介绍美国产权保险制度的内容,以希望笔者对美国产权保险制度研究的“一小步”能够引起理论和实务界对这项制度重视的“一大步”,并期望有更多学者在借鉴美国产权保险制度的成功经验的基础上,结合我国实际,对此项制度在我国房地产市场上的应用前景作出进一步深入探讨。能够对完善我国不动产交易市场法律制度建设有所借鉴,便是笔者最大心愿。
In today's U.S. highly developed market economy environment, the real estate and insurance markets enjoy a close relationship. Both hazard insurance and title insurance are typically required to close a real estate transaction. In a real estate transaction, quality of title is a major concern. Poor organization of public record lead U.S. title insurers to integrate title examination and settlement services. Title insurance provides protection to the owner and/or lender against defects in public records occurring before the date of the policy after a thorough title search. The title industry has played, and continues to play, a critical role in the U.S. economy by facilitating the growth of the secondary mortgage market, thus enabling Americans to have one of the highest home ownership rates in the word.
Title insurance has become a universal instrument for real estate transactions in the U.S. for more than 100 years and has the increasing importantance in other countries. In general, there are many published literatures on title insurance abroad. On the contrary, Chinese scholars have no willing to study title insurance for some reasons. So, it is time for us to do something about this subject.
This thesis is divided into five parts.
The first part is about the historical development of U.S. title insurance system. Beginning with the reasons for the occurrence of U.S. title insurance system, we can know the differences of many title assurance measures in U.S.. Then this part includes the historical inevitability of the occurrence of U.S. title insurance system. At last, this part general analyses the historical evolution phases of U.S. title insurance system.
The second part is about the general theory of U.S. title insurance system. First, this part makes true the concept of U.S. title insurance system. Title insurance is a contract of indemnity rather than a contract of guarantee as is sometimes assumed. Secondary, this part discusses the function and the effect of U.S. title insurance system. Finally, this part introduces the matters about title search, title report and title plant.
The third part is about the basic elements of U.S. title insurance contract. These elements include the subject matter, the parties and relating people, the coverage, the insurance period, the premium, the indemnity and the insurance liability. This part points out that the subject matter is not the integrity of title but the veracity of title report. It is very important to understand the contract accurately that the parties of title insurance contract must understand the coverage and the insurance liability fully. In the end, this part introduces the ALTA uniform policies.
The forth part is about the analysis of characteristics of U.S. title insurance system. Title insurance has unique characteristics compared with other P/C(property/casualty) insurance. These characteristics include the diversity of the function of title insurance, the retrospective defect in insurance coverage, the territorialism and oneness of the form of contract, the non-actuarial insurance rate, the one-off premium, the selectivity of the forms for bearing insurance liability, the unlimited insurance period, the distinctness of transfer of policy, the Monoline insurance, the relatively concentrated insurance market and so on.
The five part is about the analysis of internationalization of U.S. title insurance system. First, this part discusses the outline of internationalization of U.S. title insurance system and points out that there is a growing demand for title insurance from the international market. Second, this part introduces the reasons about the internationalization of U.S. title insurance system. Third, this part concludes the characteristics of international title insurance. Finally, this part analysis the prospect of international title insurance system and advances the author's viewpoint by contrasting the application of U.S. title insurance system in common law countries, continental law countries and former socialist countries.
Because the research on title insurance is of no boundary, the opinions of the author need to be further studied. But the author will fell satisfied if this thesis would make contribution to the theoretical study and the practical realm of the title insurance of our country.
引文
[1]Chicago Title and Trust Family of Companies,Title Insurance:The Loan Policy Does Not Protect the Borrower,https://www.ctic.com/title_insurance.asp.
[2]参见:Nyce and Boyer,An Analysis of the Title Insurance Industry,Journal of Insurance Regulation,213,228(1998).
[1]参见:[美]约翰·E·克里贝特、科温·W·约翰逊、罗杰·W·芬德利、欧内斯特·E·史密斯著,齐东祥、陈刚译,《财产法:案例与材料》,中国政法大学出版社,2003年版,第1231页。
[2]参见:Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Propeny》,法律出版社,2004年版,第363页。
[3]详细内容请参见[美]约翰·E·克里贝特、科温·W·约翰逊、罗杰·W·芬德利、欧内斯特·E·史密斯著,齐东祥、陈刚译,《财产法:案例与材料》,中国政法大学出版社,2003年版,第1232-1246页。
[4]参见:Steven L.Emanel,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第432页。
[1]Benito Arrunada,A Global Perspective on Title Insurance,Housing Finance International,3(2001).
[2]参见:E.F.Robert,Title Insurance:State Regulation and the Public Perspective,39IND.1.j.,4,7(1963).
[3]参见:Quinton Johnstone,Title Insurance,66 YALE L.J.,492(1956).
[4]Moses K.Rosenberg,Historical Perspective of the Development of Rate Regulation of Title Insurance,Journal of Risk and Insurance,193,197(1977).
[5]Jean-Bernard Wurm,How US-Style Title Insurance is Transforming Risk Management in European Real Estate Markets,Housing Finance International,16(2006).
[1]参见:American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1.3.
[2]美国土地产权协会(the American Land Title Association)始建于1907年,位于华盛顿特区,是代表产权交易服务业全国性行业协会,1个世纪以来总计代表了近2000家成员单位,包括产权保险人、代理人和摘要人。当然还包括部分律师、建筑商、开发商、贷款商和不动产经济人。
[3]American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1,3.
[4]Calder.Compton,and Stein,A Report on Title Insurance in International Real Estate Transactions,Briefings in Real Estate Finance,165(2004).
[5]Mattson-Tieg,Title Insurance Enter Virgin Market,National Real Estate Investor,48,49(2004).关于产权保险
[1]参见:Jesee Dukeminier and James E.Krier,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第733页。
[2]参见:Joseph Willian Singer,《Property law:Rules,Policies,and Practices》,中信出版社,2003年版,第919页。
[3]参见:李进之、王久华、李克宁、蒋丹宁著,《美国财产法》,法律出版社,1990年版,第189页。
[4]参见:Stanley B.Balbach,Title Insurance Industry Regulation,American Bar Association Journal,786(1981).该文指出大型产权保险公司正采用多种措施打压小型产权保险公司的存在,并有违反反垄断法的嫌疑,导致了诸如限制竞争在内的一系列问题。该文还指出,律师型产权保险的存在和发展可以推动整个产权保险行业的发展(竞争),并直接给消费者带来利益,虽然目前这种产权保险方式还存在很多问题,但其有着广阔的发展前景。笔者认为,律师型产权保险实际上是律师团体为了对抗美国产权保险制度给产权服务律师带来的冲击而产生。这种保险为律师产权意见的准确性提供保证,其保险本质是职业责任保险。
[5]产权保险人和产权保险公司不是等同概念,产权保险人包括律师团体和独立的产权代理商在内,其内涵应当大于产权保险公司。但是,产权保险公司是英国最主要的产权保险人,本文所述产权保险人主要指产权保险公司。
[1]Joyee Dickey,Limited Liability Companies,Corporations,General Partnerships,Limited partnerships,Joint Ventures,Trust—Who dose the Title Insurance Cover?,Real Property Probate and Trust Journal,605,606(1997).
[2]参见:Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第416页。
[3]参见:Harry Mack Johnson,The Nature of Title Insurance,The Journal of Risk and Insurance,392,402(1990).
[1]Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第415页。
[2]参见:American Land Title Association,Title Insurance;A Comprehensive Overview,1,6.
[3]下文第三章第二节将详细介绍服务功能的具体表现。
[4]American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1,7.
[5]产权保险不能保证产权的完美性,即使通过消除产权瑕疵程序也不能保证每项产权的完美。虽然不动产的高转让率可能导致权利争议的产生,但只要保证每次转让时审慎产权调查的存在,高转手率的不动产也许是“最完美”的。
[1]本文关十二级抵押市场的说明主要参见American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1,5.
[2]Moses K.Rosenberg,Historical Perspective of the Development of Rate Regulation of Title Insurance,Journal of Risk and Insurance,193,194(1977).
[3]参见:[美]约翰·E·克里贝特、科温·W·约翰逊、罗杰·W·芬德利、欧内斯特·E·史密斯著,齐东祥、陈刚译,《财产法:案例与材料》,中国政法大学出版社,2003年版,第1243页。
[1]参见:Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第417页。
[2]Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Property》,法律出版社,2004年版,第288页。
[3]Koch,Title Insurance:A Regulatory Perspective,Journal of Insurance Regulation,3,19(1993).
[1]Koch,Title Insurance:A Regulatory Perspective.Journal of Insurance Regulation.3.7(1993).
[2]在NAIC备案的76家产权保险公司中,33家没有自己的产权链,但是在这33家中的17家公司要么属于某些集团,而这些集团内至少有一个成员拥有产权链,要么根本没有采用直接营销手段。剩下公司中的2家租用产权链,另外14家只在非产权链州开展业务。根据这些数据分析,可以说产权链对于产权保险公司经营至关重要。参见:Nyce and Boyer,An Analysis of the Title Insurance Industry,Journal of Insurance Regulation.213,218,(1998).
[3]参见:Steven L.Emanel,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第434页。
[4]参见:Benito Arrunada,A Global Perspective on Title Insurance,Housing Finance International,3,4(2001).
[1]American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1,2.
[2]Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Property》,法律出版社,2004年版,第363页。
[3]Dwight Jaffee,Monoline Restrictions with Applications to Mortgage Insurance and Title Insurance,Review of Industrial Organization,83,95(2006).
[4]参见:Harry Mack Johnson,The Nature of Title Insurance,The Journal of Risk and Insurance,392,399(1990).
[1]G.Stacy Sirmans and Randy E.Durum,Title Insurance:An Historical Perspective,Journal of Real Estate Literature,293.296(2006).
[2]参见:李进之、王久华、李克宁、蒋丹宁著,《美国财产法》,法律出版社,1990年版,第189页案例:甲将黑土地以9000美元卖给乙。乙为黑土地买了无地役权的保险,最高赔偿金额是7000美元。后来乙发现丙对黑土地有地役权。黑土地在签发保险单当日的无地役权的市场价格是15000美元(乙做了一次很便宜的交易),而有地役权的当日价格是5000美元。乙的损失是10000美元,但他只能得到保险单的最高赔偿金额7000美元。
[3]Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第417页。
[1]参见:G Stacy Sirmans and Randy E.Dumm,Title Insurance:An Historical Perspective,Journal of Real Estate Literature,293,295(2006).
[2]Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Property》,法律出版社,2004年版,第368页。
[3]一方面,保费前置使得保险人可以最大限度地发现产权瑕疵,这样产权保险面临的潜在产权风险就大大减少;另一方面,责任方式的选择使保险人可以通过一系列技术手段去消除产权瑕疵,而不需要没有区别的一概直接赔偿,而且多数产权瑕疵程度不是太高,能够采取非赔偿的方式进行解决。另外,针对容易出现大型理赔请求的被保险不动产(如大型商业地产),保险人通过产权保险服务功能的体现,一般在项目开始阶段就参与工作,这样也直接减少了产权瑕疵的发生。
[1]Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第416页。
1.李进之、王久华、李克宁、蒋丹宁著,《美国财产法》,法律出版社,1990年版
2.[美]约翰·E·克里贝特、科温·W·约翰逊、罗杰·W·芬德利、欧内斯特·E·史密斯著,齐东祥、陈刚译,《财产法:案例与材料》,中国政法大学出版社,2003年版
3.Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版
4.Jesee Dukeminier and James E.Krier,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版
5.Joseph Willian Singer,《Property law:Rules,Policies,and Practices》,中信出版社,2003年版
6.Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Property》,法律出版社,2004年版
7.Steven L.Emanel,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版
1.American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1-12.
2.American Land Title Association,The Nature of and need for Title Insurance,The Industry White Papers,Volume I(1976).
3.Benito Arrunada,A Global Perspective on Title Insurance,Housing Finance International,16:2,3-11(2001).
4.Benito Arrunada,A Transaction Cost View of Title Insurance and its Role in Different Legal Systems,The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance,27:4,582-601(2002).
5.Bean and Guttery,The Coming Downsizing of Real Estate:Implication of Technology,Journal of Real Estate Portfolio Management,3:1,6-12.
6. BestWeek, Title Insurance: An Industry on the Verge of Transformation, A.M. Best Property/Casualty Supplement, July(1996).
7. Calder, Compton, and Stein, A Report on Title Insurance in International Real Estate Transactions, Briefings in Real Estate Finance, 165-172(2004).
8. Chicago Title and Trust Family of Companies, Title Insurance: The Loan Policy Does Not Protect the Borrower, https://www.ctic.com/title_insurance.asp.
9. Dwight Jaffee, Monoline Restrictions, with Applications to Mortgage Insurance and Title Insurance, Review of Industrial Organization, 83-108(2006).
10. E. F. Robert, Title Insurance: State Regulation and the Public Perspective, 39IND.1.j., 4-7(1963).
11. Gray A. Davis, Title Industry Running on All Cylinders, A.M. Best Special Report, October 4(2006).
12. Gary Ketchum, Taking Title, Best's Review, 99:2, 27-8(1998).
13. G. Stacy Sirmans and Randy E. Dumm, Title Insurance: An Historical Perspective, Journal of Real Estate Literature, 293-320(2006).
14. Geoff Richards, Face-to-face with who's who in title insurance, National Real Estate Investor, 40:13,74-98.
15. Harry Mack Johnson, The Nature of Title Insurance, The Journal of Risk and Insurance, 392-410(1990).
16. Hofflander and Shulman, The Distribution of Title Insurance, Journal of Risk and Insurance, 64:3,435-46(1977).
17. Jean-Bernard Wurm, How US-Style Title Insurance is Transforming Risk Management in European Real Estate Markets, Housing Finance International, 16-19(2006).
18. John Bell, Technology and the Title Insurance Industry, www.nreionline.com.
19. Joyee Dickey, Limited Liability Companies, Corrporations, General Partnerships, Limited partnerships, Joint Ventures, Trust-Who dose the Title Insurance Cover?, Real Property Probate and Trust Journal, 31:4, 605-645(1997).
20. Koch, Title Insurance: A Regulatory Perspective, Journal of Insurance Regulation, 12:1,3-27(1993).
21. Lisa-Anne Culp, The Beginning of a Beautiful Friendship: The title insurance industry uses technology to boost the bottom line, www. nreionline. com.
22. Mattson-Tieg, Title Insurance Enter Virgin Market, National Real Estate Investor, 48:8,48-51(2004).
23. Moody, A Timeline for Title Insurance, Mortgage Banking, 65:11, 57-62(2005).
24. Moody, The Competitive Landscape of Title, Mortgage Banking, 63:11, 46-53(2003).
25. Moses K. Rosenberg, Historical Perspective of the Development of Rate Regulation of Title Insurance, Journal of Risk and Insurance, 64: 2,193-209(1977).
26. No Author Given, Title Insurance: Recovery for Emotional Distress for Wrongful Failure to Defend, Brigham Young Law View, 895-911.
27. Nyce and Boyer, An Analysis of the Title Insurance Industry, Journal of Insurance Regulation, 17:2,213-55(1998).
28. Pedowitz, Condominium Unit Title Insurance, ST. John's Law Review, 73:1, 183-197(1999).
29. Quinton Johnstone, Title Insurance, 66 YALE L.J.,(1956).
30. Robin McGills, Title Insurance and Land Surveys, Why Invest in Ganadian Real Estate?, 15-16(2004).
31. Roussel and Rosenberg, The High Price of Reform Title Insurance Rates and the Benefit of Ratings Bureaus, Journal of Risk and Insurance, 68:4, 638-48(1981).
32. Sayers, How Are Title Insurance Companies Using GIS ? BNET Financial Services, October 31 (2005)。
33. Stanley B. Balbach, Title Insurance Industry Regulation, American Bar Association Journal, V67, (1981).
34. Todd and Mcenally, Profitability and Risk in the Title Insurance Industry --the Texas Experience, Survey of underwriters,agents,and county clerks and filings with State Board of Insurance, 61:3,415-34(1974).
35. Tom Grifferty, Title insurance for foreign investments is taking off, National Real Estate Investor, 41:3, 52-3(1999).
36. Thomas J. Micelt, C.F. Sirmans, Geoffrey K. Turnbull, Title Assurance and Incentives for Efficient Land Use, European Journal of Law and Economics,(1998).
37. United States Government accountability Office, Title Insurance: Preliminary Views and Issues for Further Study, April 2006.
38. Villani and Simonson, Real Estate Settlement Pricing: A Theoretical Framework, Journal of the American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association, 10:3, 249-75, (1982).
39. William Leslie.Jr. and Neil A. Bethel, The Title Insurance Industry: A Case for Affirmative Rate Regulation, Journal of Insurance Regulation,610-23.
[2]参见:Nyce and Boyer,An Analysis of the Title Insurance Industry,Journal of Insurance Regulation,213,228(1998).
[1]参见:[美]约翰·E·克里贝特、科温·W·约翰逊、罗杰·W·芬德利、欧内斯特·E·史密斯著,齐东祥、陈刚译,《财产法:案例与材料》,中国政法大学出版社,2003年版,第1231页。
[2]参见:Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Propeny》,法律出版社,2004年版,第363页。
[3]详细内容请参见[美]约翰·E·克里贝特、科温·W·约翰逊、罗杰·W·芬德利、欧内斯特·E·史密斯著,齐东祥、陈刚译,《财产法:案例与材料》,中国政法大学出版社,2003年版,第1232-1246页。
[4]参见:Steven L.Emanel,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第432页。
[1]Benito Arrunada,A Global Perspective on Title Insurance,Housing Finance International,3(2001).
[2]参见:E.F.Robert,Title Insurance:State Regulation and the Public Perspective,39IND.1.j.,4,7(1963).
[3]参见:Quinton Johnstone,Title Insurance,66 YALE L.J.,492(1956).
[4]Moses K.Rosenberg,Historical Perspective of the Development of Rate Regulation of Title Insurance,Journal of Risk and Insurance,193,197(1977).
[5]Jean-Bernard Wurm,How US-Style Title Insurance is Transforming Risk Management in European Real Estate Markets,Housing Finance International,16(2006).
[1]参见:American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1.3.
[2]美国土地产权协会(the American Land Title Association)始建于1907年,位于华盛顿特区,是代表产权交易服务业全国性行业协会,1个世纪以来总计代表了近2000家成员单位,包括产权保险人、代理人和摘要人。当然还包括部分律师、建筑商、开发商、贷款商和不动产经济人。
[3]American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1,3.
[4]Calder.Compton,and Stein,A Report on Title Insurance in International Real Estate Transactions,Briefings in Real Estate Finance,165(2004).
[5]Mattson-Tieg,Title Insurance Enter Virgin Market,National Real Estate Investor,48,49(2004).关于产权保险
[1]参见:Jesee Dukeminier and James E.Krier,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第733页。
[2]参见:Joseph Willian Singer,《Property law:Rules,Policies,and Practices》,中信出版社,2003年版,第919页。
[3]参见:李进之、王久华、李克宁、蒋丹宁著,《美国财产法》,法律出版社,1990年版,第189页。
[4]参见:Stanley B.Balbach,Title Insurance Industry Regulation,American Bar Association Journal,786(1981).该文指出大型产权保险公司正采用多种措施打压小型产权保险公司的存在,并有违反反垄断法的嫌疑,导致了诸如限制竞争在内的一系列问题。该文还指出,律师型产权保险的存在和发展可以推动整个产权保险行业的发展(竞争),并直接给消费者带来利益,虽然目前这种产权保险方式还存在很多问题,但其有着广阔的发展前景。笔者认为,律师型产权保险实际上是律师团体为了对抗美国产权保险制度给产权服务律师带来的冲击而产生。这种保险为律师产权意见的准确性提供保证,其保险本质是职业责任保险。
[5]产权保险人和产权保险公司不是等同概念,产权保险人包括律师团体和独立的产权代理商在内,其内涵应当大于产权保险公司。但是,产权保险公司是英国最主要的产权保险人,本文所述产权保险人主要指产权保险公司。
[1]Joyee Dickey,Limited Liability Companies,Corporations,General Partnerships,Limited partnerships,Joint Ventures,Trust—Who dose the Title Insurance Cover?,Real Property Probate and Trust Journal,605,606(1997).
[2]参见:Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第416页。
[3]参见:Harry Mack Johnson,The Nature of Title Insurance,The Journal of Risk and Insurance,392,402(1990).
[1]Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第415页。
[2]参见:American Land Title Association,Title Insurance;A Comprehensive Overview,1,6.
[3]下文第三章第二节将详细介绍服务功能的具体表现。
[4]American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1,7.
[5]产权保险不能保证产权的完美性,即使通过消除产权瑕疵程序也不能保证每项产权的完美。虽然不动产的高转让率可能导致权利争议的产生,但只要保证每次转让时审慎产权调查的存在,高转手率的不动产也许是“最完美”的。
[1]本文关十二级抵押市场的说明主要参见American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1,5.
[2]Moses K.Rosenberg,Historical Perspective of the Development of Rate Regulation of Title Insurance,Journal of Risk and Insurance,193,194(1977).
[3]参见:[美]约翰·E·克里贝特、科温·W·约翰逊、罗杰·W·芬德利、欧内斯特·E·史密斯著,齐东祥、陈刚译,《财产法:案例与材料》,中国政法大学出版社,2003年版,第1243页。
[1]参见:Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第417页。
[2]Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Property》,法律出版社,2004年版,第288页。
[3]Koch,Title Insurance:A Regulatory Perspective,Journal of Insurance Regulation,3,19(1993).
[1]Koch,Title Insurance:A Regulatory Perspective.Journal of Insurance Regulation.3.7(1993).
[2]在NAIC备案的76家产权保险公司中,33家没有自己的产权链,但是在这33家中的17家公司要么属于某些集团,而这些集团内至少有一个成员拥有产权链,要么根本没有采用直接营销手段。剩下公司中的2家租用产权链,另外14家只在非产权链州开展业务。根据这些数据分析,可以说产权链对于产权保险公司经营至关重要。参见:Nyce and Boyer,An Analysis of the Title Insurance Industry,Journal of Insurance Regulation.213,218,(1998).
[3]参见:Steven L.Emanel,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第434页。
[4]参见:Benito Arrunada,A Global Perspective on Title Insurance,Housing Finance International,3,4(2001).
[1]American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1,2.
[2]Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Property》,法律出版社,2004年版,第363页。
[3]Dwight Jaffee,Monoline Restrictions with Applications to Mortgage Insurance and Title Insurance,Review of Industrial Organization,83,95(2006).
[4]参见:Harry Mack Johnson,The Nature of Title Insurance,The Journal of Risk and Insurance,392,399(1990).
[1]G.Stacy Sirmans and Randy E.Durum,Title Insurance:An Historical Perspective,Journal of Real Estate Literature,293.296(2006).
[2]参见:李进之、王久华、李克宁、蒋丹宁著,《美国财产法》,法律出版社,1990年版,第189页案例:甲将黑土地以9000美元卖给乙。乙为黑土地买了无地役权的保险,最高赔偿金额是7000美元。后来乙发现丙对黑土地有地役权。黑土地在签发保险单当日的无地役权的市场价格是15000美元(乙做了一次很便宜的交易),而有地役权的当日价格是5000美元。乙的损失是10000美元,但他只能得到保险单的最高赔偿金额7000美元。
[3]Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第417页。
[1]参见:G Stacy Sirmans and Randy E.Dumm,Title Insurance:An Historical Perspective,Journal of Real Estate Literature,293,295(2006).
[2]Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Property》,法律出版社,2004年版,第368页。
[3]一方面,保费前置使得保险人可以最大限度地发现产权瑕疵,这样产权保险面临的潜在产权风险就大大减少;另一方面,责任方式的选择使保险人可以通过一系列技术手段去消除产权瑕疵,而不需要没有区别的一概直接赔偿,而且多数产权瑕疵程度不是太高,能够采取非赔偿的方式进行解决。另外,针对容易出现大型理赔请求的被保险不动产(如大型商业地产),保险人通过产权保险服务功能的体现,一般在项目开始阶段就参与工作,这样也直接减少了产权瑕疵的发生。
[1]Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版,第416页。
1.李进之、王久华、李克宁、蒋丹宁著,《美国财产法》,法律出版社,1990年版
2.[美]约翰·E·克里贝特、科温·W·约翰逊、罗杰·W·芬德利、欧内斯特·E·史密斯著,齐东祥、陈刚译,《财产法:案例与材料》,中国政法大学出版社,2003年版
3.Barlow Burk and Joseph A.Sone,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版
4.Jesee Dukeminier and James E.Krier,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版
5.Joseph Willian Singer,《Property law:Rules,Policies,and Practices》,中信出版社,2003年版
6.Roger H.Bernhardt and Ann M.Burkhart,《Real Property》,法律出版社,2004年版
7.Steven L.Emanel,《Property》,中信出版社,2003年版
1.American Land Title Association,Title Insurance:A Comprehensive Overview,1-12.
2.American Land Title Association,The Nature of and need for Title Insurance,The Industry White Papers,Volume I(1976).
3.Benito Arrunada,A Global Perspective on Title Insurance,Housing Finance International,16:2,3-11(2001).
4.Benito Arrunada,A Transaction Cost View of Title Insurance and its Role in Different Legal Systems,The Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance,27:4,582-601(2002).
5.Bean and Guttery,The Coming Downsizing of Real Estate:Implication of Technology,Journal of Real Estate Portfolio Management,3:1,6-12.
6. BestWeek, Title Insurance: An Industry on the Verge of Transformation, A.M. Best Property/Casualty Supplement, July(1996).
7. Calder, Compton, and Stein, A Report on Title Insurance in International Real Estate Transactions, Briefings in Real Estate Finance, 165-172(2004).
8. Chicago Title and Trust Family of Companies, Title Insurance: The Loan Policy Does Not Protect the Borrower, https://www.ctic.com/title_insurance.asp.
9. Dwight Jaffee, Monoline Restrictions, with Applications to Mortgage Insurance and Title Insurance, Review of Industrial Organization, 83-108(2006).
10. E. F. Robert, Title Insurance: State Regulation and the Public Perspective, 39IND.1.j., 4-7(1963).
11. Gray A. Davis, Title Industry Running on All Cylinders, A.M. Best Special Report, October 4(2006).
12. Gary Ketchum, Taking Title, Best's Review, 99:2, 27-8(1998).
13. G. Stacy Sirmans and Randy E. Dumm, Title Insurance: An Historical Perspective, Journal of Real Estate Literature, 293-320(2006).
14. Geoff Richards, Face-to-face with who's who in title insurance, National Real Estate Investor, 40:13,74-98.
15. Harry Mack Johnson, The Nature of Title Insurance, The Journal of Risk and Insurance, 392-410(1990).
16. Hofflander and Shulman, The Distribution of Title Insurance, Journal of Risk and Insurance, 64:3,435-46(1977).
17. Jean-Bernard Wurm, How US-Style Title Insurance is Transforming Risk Management in European Real Estate Markets, Housing Finance International, 16-19(2006).
18. John Bell, Technology and the Title Insurance Industry, www.nreionline.com.
19. Joyee Dickey, Limited Liability Companies, Corrporations, General Partnerships, Limited partnerships, Joint Ventures, Trust-Who dose the Title Insurance Cover?, Real Property Probate and Trust Journal, 31:4, 605-645(1997).
20. Koch, Title Insurance: A Regulatory Perspective, Journal of Insurance Regulation, 12:1,3-27(1993).
21. Lisa-Anne Culp, The Beginning of a Beautiful Friendship: The title insurance industry uses technology to boost the bottom line, www. nreionline. com.
22. Mattson-Tieg, Title Insurance Enter Virgin Market, National Real Estate Investor, 48:8,48-51(2004).
23. Moody, A Timeline for Title Insurance, Mortgage Banking, 65:11, 57-62(2005).
24. Moody, The Competitive Landscape of Title, Mortgage Banking, 63:11, 46-53(2003).
25. Moses K. Rosenberg, Historical Perspective of the Development of Rate Regulation of Title Insurance, Journal of Risk and Insurance, 64: 2,193-209(1977).
26. No Author Given, Title Insurance: Recovery for Emotional Distress for Wrongful Failure to Defend, Brigham Young Law View, 895-911.
27. Nyce and Boyer, An Analysis of the Title Insurance Industry, Journal of Insurance Regulation, 17:2,213-55(1998).
28. Pedowitz, Condominium Unit Title Insurance, ST. John's Law Review, 73:1, 183-197(1999).
29. Quinton Johnstone, Title Insurance, 66 YALE L.J.,(1956).
30. Robin McGills, Title Insurance and Land Surveys, Why Invest in Ganadian Real Estate?, 15-16(2004).
31. Roussel and Rosenberg, The High Price of Reform Title Insurance Rates and the Benefit of Ratings Bureaus, Journal of Risk and Insurance, 68:4, 638-48(1981).
32. Sayers, How Are Title Insurance Companies Using GIS ? BNET Financial Services, October 31 (2005)。
33. Stanley B. Balbach, Title Insurance Industry Regulation, American Bar Association Journal, V67, (1981).
34. Todd and Mcenally, Profitability and Risk in the Title Insurance Industry --the Texas Experience, Survey of underwriters,agents,and county clerks and filings with State Board of Insurance, 61:3,415-34(1974).
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