英语专业学习者口头叙事话语中一般过去时使用情况研究
|
摘要
本研究描述了中国英语专业二年级学生在口头叙事语篇中一般过去时使用的总体特征,主要回答三个问题:1)在故事复述任务中,中国二语学习者使用一般过去时有什么总体特征?2)不同口语水平的学习者使用一般过去时有什么差异?3)使用一般过去时与学习者口语成绩有何关系?
本研究使用的语料来源于中国学习者语料库(SWECCL),从中抽取复述故事任务所产生的语料计60个样本,按照测试者在全国英语专业四级口语测试中的成绩分为高水平组和低水平组。通过数据统计分析,有以下主要发现:
首先,在故事复述中,一般过去时是使用频次最高的时态形式,占所有动词时态形式的56.65%,这与口语测试任务效应有关,因为测试任务要求测试者复述的是有关叙述个人过去经历的故事。
其次,在样本中,一般过去时的使用情况可分为四种类型:表述习惯性过去动作、习惯性过去状态、具体过去动作和具体过去状态。
个案研究表明,在使用频次上,过去动作动词大于过去状态动词,这一结果并不奇怪,故事原文本身讲述的是过去的事,其中所描述的行为动作多于状态,同时也说明测试者在认知上具有使用过去时来叙述过去经历的意识。这一点也可以从具体的四种类型的使用情况中得到验证:在所有过去动作动词中,描述具体过去动作动词的使用频率大于习惯性过去状态动词(分别是58.32%和5.32 %);同样,具体过去状态动词使用的频率大于习惯性过去状态动词。
第三,独立样本T-检验显示,高水平组和低水平组在一般过去时总体使用情况在频率上具有显著差异,且一般过去时各类型的使用频率也均具有显著差异,其中原因可能是高分组由于语言水平较高,在完成复述任务时,注意力资源可以合理分配到过去时的使用,也可以兼顾到故事原文的内容,而低水平组往往只能将大部分注意力放在故事内容上,无法顾及语言形式。微观分析表明,与高水平组相比,低水平组更倾向于使用习惯性过去动作和习惯性过去状态,在某种程度上影响了他们的口语水平。另外,低水平组的口头产出在篇幅上相对较短,最终影响了过去时使用的总频次。
最后,相关性分析表明,一般过去时使用的总频次以及一般过去时各类型的使用频次均与测试者的成绩呈显著正相关,说明过去时的使用可以作为一个有效指标来衡量二语学习者的口语水平。
本研究的结果对教学有几点启示。从教师的角度看,在评价学习者口头叙事语篇时,过去时的使用情况可作为主要的有效评分指标之一。从学习者角度看,在口语训练中,特别是训练叙述技能,学习者需要加强使用过去时描述具体过去动作或具体过去状态的意识。
This study was undertaken to investigate the use of simple past tense by Chinese EFL learners in their oral narrative discourse in a testing context. It seeks to describe the general characteristics of test-takers’use of simple past tense in their oral production driven by the task of story-retelling, and explore the differences in the use of simple past tense across learners of different levels. The ultimate purpose of the study is to examine the relationship between the use of simple past tense and the learners’oral performances.
The materials employed in the study were 60 cases taken from SWECCL, a Chinese learner corpus. On the basis of the test-takers’oral performances on the TEM-Band 4 Oral Test, the sampled cases were divided into high- and low-level groups. The data analysis yielded the following major findings:
Firstly, of all the occurrences of different tenses, simple past tense enjoys the highest frequency of use in the learners’narrative discourse. Of all the verbs identified in the sampled cases, simple tense accounts for 56.41%. Such a tendency is related to the effect of the task that requires the test-takers to reproduce the story in which the past tense is overwhelmingly used to tell the personal past experiences.
Secondly, the use of past tense by the test-takers in the task of story retelling can be categorized into two broad types: simple past tense intended to describe past actions and past states, and they could be further divided into 4 sub-types: habitual past actions, specific past actions, and habitual past states and specific past states.
Case analysis indicates that verbs of past actions were used more than those of past states, suggesting that the use of past tense was influenced by the original story to be reproduced, on the one hand, and that the learners were cognitively aware of how the personal past experiences were represented in the use of past tense, on the other. Such a finding could be supported by the occurrences of subtypes of the past actions and past states: Of all the identified instances of past actions, specific past actions were used much more frequently than habitual ones (58.32% and 5.32% respectively). Similarly, specific past states enjoy a higher frequency of use than habitual past states.
Thirdly, the independent sample T-test reveals that there is significant difference between higher and lower achievers in the frequency of use of simple past tense and the frequency distribution of each type (except verbs describing habitual past states). The possible explanation for this is that higher achievers were linguistically proficient enough to allocate their attentional resources to both the use of past tense and the content of the original story, whereas low achievers were likely to allocate much of their attention to the story content. The micro-analysis conducted in some of lower-level cases indicates that the lower achievers tended to use more verbs of habitual past actions and states than the higher achievers. In addition, their production was in general smaller in length in comparison with higher achievers’, naturally leading to the lower frequency of use of past tense.
Finally, the correlation analysis indicates that the use of simple past tense is positively correlated with the test-takers’oral performances, suggesting that the use of past tense may become an effective indicator of EFL learners’oral performances.
Pedagogically, from the teacher’s perspective, the use of simple past tense can be used as one of the effective means in oral assessment. From the learners’perspective, learning effort should be directed to their awareness of the use of more specific past actions or states in the narrative discourse.
本研究使用的语料来源于中国学习者语料库(SWECCL),从中抽取复述故事任务所产生的语料计60个样本,按照测试者在全国英语专业四级口语测试中的成绩分为高水平组和低水平组。通过数据统计分析,有以下主要发现:
首先,在故事复述中,一般过去时是使用频次最高的时态形式,占所有动词时态形式的56.65%,这与口语测试任务效应有关,因为测试任务要求测试者复述的是有关叙述个人过去经历的故事。
其次,在样本中,一般过去时的使用情况可分为四种类型:表述习惯性过去动作、习惯性过去状态、具体过去动作和具体过去状态。
个案研究表明,在使用频次上,过去动作动词大于过去状态动词,这一结果并不奇怪,故事原文本身讲述的是过去的事,其中所描述的行为动作多于状态,同时也说明测试者在认知上具有使用过去时来叙述过去经历的意识。这一点也可以从具体的四种类型的使用情况中得到验证:在所有过去动作动词中,描述具体过去动作动词的使用频率大于习惯性过去状态动词(分别是58.32%和5.32 %);同样,具体过去状态动词使用的频率大于习惯性过去状态动词。
第三,独立样本T-检验显示,高水平组和低水平组在一般过去时总体使用情况在频率上具有显著差异,且一般过去时各类型的使用频率也均具有显著差异,其中原因可能是高分组由于语言水平较高,在完成复述任务时,注意力资源可以合理分配到过去时的使用,也可以兼顾到故事原文的内容,而低水平组往往只能将大部分注意力放在故事内容上,无法顾及语言形式。微观分析表明,与高水平组相比,低水平组更倾向于使用习惯性过去动作和习惯性过去状态,在某种程度上影响了他们的口语水平。另外,低水平组的口头产出在篇幅上相对较短,最终影响了过去时使用的总频次。
最后,相关性分析表明,一般过去时使用的总频次以及一般过去时各类型的使用频次均与测试者的成绩呈显著正相关,说明过去时的使用可以作为一个有效指标来衡量二语学习者的口语水平。
本研究的结果对教学有几点启示。从教师的角度看,在评价学习者口头叙事语篇时,过去时的使用情况可作为主要的有效评分指标之一。从学习者角度看,在口语训练中,特别是训练叙述技能,学习者需要加强使用过去时描述具体过去动作或具体过去状态的意识。
This study was undertaken to investigate the use of simple past tense by Chinese EFL learners in their oral narrative discourse in a testing context. It seeks to describe the general characteristics of test-takers’use of simple past tense in their oral production driven by the task of story-retelling, and explore the differences in the use of simple past tense across learners of different levels. The ultimate purpose of the study is to examine the relationship between the use of simple past tense and the learners’oral performances.
The materials employed in the study were 60 cases taken from SWECCL, a Chinese learner corpus. On the basis of the test-takers’oral performances on the TEM-Band 4 Oral Test, the sampled cases were divided into high- and low-level groups. The data analysis yielded the following major findings:
Firstly, of all the occurrences of different tenses, simple past tense enjoys the highest frequency of use in the learners’narrative discourse. Of all the verbs identified in the sampled cases, simple tense accounts for 56.41%. Such a tendency is related to the effect of the task that requires the test-takers to reproduce the story in which the past tense is overwhelmingly used to tell the personal past experiences.
Secondly, the use of past tense by the test-takers in the task of story retelling can be categorized into two broad types: simple past tense intended to describe past actions and past states, and they could be further divided into 4 sub-types: habitual past actions, specific past actions, and habitual past states and specific past states.
Case analysis indicates that verbs of past actions were used more than those of past states, suggesting that the use of past tense was influenced by the original story to be reproduced, on the one hand, and that the learners were cognitively aware of how the personal past experiences were represented in the use of past tense, on the other. Such a finding could be supported by the occurrences of subtypes of the past actions and past states: Of all the identified instances of past actions, specific past actions were used much more frequently than habitual ones (58.32% and 5.32% respectively). Similarly, specific past states enjoy a higher frequency of use than habitual past states.
Thirdly, the independent sample T-test reveals that there is significant difference between higher and lower achievers in the frequency of use of simple past tense and the frequency distribution of each type (except verbs describing habitual past states). The possible explanation for this is that higher achievers were linguistically proficient enough to allocate their attentional resources to both the use of past tense and the content of the original story, whereas low achievers were likely to allocate much of their attention to the story content. The micro-analysis conducted in some of lower-level cases indicates that the lower achievers tended to use more verbs of habitual past actions and states than the higher achievers. In addition, their production was in general smaller in length in comparison with higher achievers’, naturally leading to the lower frequency of use of past tense.
Finally, the correlation analysis indicates that the use of simple past tense is positively correlated with the test-takers’oral performances, suggesting that the use of past tense may become an effective indicator of EFL learners’oral performances.
Pedagogically, from the teacher’s perspective, the use of simple past tense can be used as one of the effective means in oral assessment. From the learners’perspective, learning effort should be directed to their awareness of the use of more specific past actions or states in the narrative discourse.
引文
Bal, M. (1997). Narratology: Introduction to the theory of narrative (2nd ed.).Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
Bamberg, M.G.W. (1997a). Positioning between structure and performance. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 7(1-4), 335-342.
Bamberg, M.G.W. (Ed.). (1997b). Oral versions of personal experience: Three decades of narrative analysis. [Special issue of Journal of Narrative and Life History]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. The Relationship of Form andMeaning: A Cross-sectional Study of Tense and Aspect in the Interlanguage of Learners of English as a Second Language [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1992 (13): 253– 278
Bardovi-Harlig, K. A Narrative Perspective on the Development of the Tense /Aspect System in Second Language Acquisition. [J]. SSLA, 1995 (17): 263 - 291.
Barley, R. Interlanguage Variation and the Quantitative Paradigm: Past Tense Marking in Chinese & English [A]. In Tarone, Elaine E., Susan M. Gass, & Andrew D. Cohen (Eds.) Research Methodology in Second Language Acquisition [C]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994: 157 - 184.
Barthes, R. (1977). Introduction to the structural analysis of narratives. In Image-Music-Text: Essays selected and translated by Stephen Heath (pp. 79-124). (Original work published 1966). London: Fontana.
Berg, G. A. (2000). Cognitive development through narrative: computer interface design for educational purposes. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 9 (1), 3-17.
Binnick, R. I. (1991). Time and the verb: A guide to tense and aspect. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983a). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Bruner, J.S. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J.S. (1987). Life as narrative. Social Research, 54 (1), 11-32.
Bruner, J.S. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J.S. (2002). Making stories. New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux.
Chatman, S. (1978). Story and discourse: Narrative structure in fiction and film. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Chatman, S. (1990). Coming to terms: The rhetoric of narrative in fiction and film. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Chen Xuan (2004). The use of English articles in oral English: A study of Chinese EFL learners at tertiary level. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Nanjing University, Nanjing.
Cohn, D. (1999). The Distinction of fiction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP.
Comrie, B. (1985). Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Comrie, B. (1976). Aspect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dahl, ?. (1984). Temporal distance: Remoteness distinctions in tense-aspect systems. In B.Butterworth, B. Comrie,& ?. Dahl (Eds.), Explanations for language universals (pp. 105–122). Berlin: Mouton.
Dry, H. (1981). Sentence aspect and the movement of narrative time. Text, 1, 233–240.
Dry, H. (1983). The movement of narrative time. Journal of Literary Semantics, 12, 19–53.
Engel, S. (1995). The stories children tell: making sense of the narratives of childhood. NY: W. H. Freeman.
Flasher, V. (1989). Transfer of Aspect in the English Oral Narratives of Non-native Russian Speakers [A]. In H. W. Raupach (Eds.) Transfer in Language Production [C]. Norwood: Ablex: 71 - 98.
Gee, J.P. (1986). Units in the production of narrative discourse. Discourse Processes, 9, 391-422.
Gee, J.P. (1991). A linguistic approach to narrative. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1 (1), 15-39.
Genette, G. (1980). Narrative Discourse. (Jane E. Lewin, trans.) (Original work published 1972) Oxford: Blackwell.
Hermans, H.J.M. (1997). Self-Narrative in the life course: A contextual approach. In M. Bamberg (Ed.), Narrative development: Six approaches (pp.223-264). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hopper, P. J. (1979). Aspect and foregrounding in discourse. In T. Givon (Ed.), Syntax and semantics: Discourse and syntax (pp. 213–241). New York: Academic Press.
James, P.G., (1999). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method, 17
Kintsch, W. (1974). The representation of meaning in memory. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum Associates.
Kumph, L. (1984). Temporal Systems and Universality in Interlanguage: A case study [A]. In F.
Eckman, et. Al. (Eds.) Universals of second Language Acquisition [C]. Rowley: Newbury House, 132 - 143.
Labov, W., & Waletzky, J. (1967). Narrative analysis: oral versions of personal experience. In J.Helm (Ed.), Essays on the verbal and visual arts. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. Retrieved August 5, 2002, from http://www.clarku.edu/~mbamberg/Labov&Waletzky.html.
Labov, W. (1972). The transformation of reality in narrative syntax. In W. Labov Language in the inner city (pp.354-396). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Labov, W. (1972). Language in the inner city. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Labov, W. (1997). Some further steps in narrative analysis. Journal of Narrative and Life History 7: 395-415. Retrieved August 5, 2002, from http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~labov/sfs.html.
Linde, C. (1993). Life stories: The creation of coherence. New York: Oxford University Press.
Liles, B. (1993). Narrative discourse in children with language disorders and children with normal language: a critical review of the literature. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research, 36, 868-882.
Lock, A. (1998) Narratives and Infancy. Discussion paper given at the Symposium on“Narrative Analysis of Early Developmental Processes”. 11th Biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, Atlanta, 2-5th April, 1998. Available online at: http://www.massey.ac.nz/~Alock/virtual/atlanta.htm
Mandler, J.M.,&Johnson, N.S. (1977). Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 111-151.
McCabe, A. (1997). Developmental and cross-cultural aspects of children’s narration. In M.Bamberg (Ed.), Narrative development: Six approaches (pp.137-173). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Meyer, B.J.F. (1985). Text dimensions and cognitive processing. In H. Mandl, N. Stein, & T.Trabasso (Eds.), Learning and comprehension of text. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Polkinghome, D.E. (1988). Narrative knowing and the human sciences. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Polkinghorne, D.E. (1996). Narrative Knowing and the Study of Lives. In J. E. Birren et al (Eds.), Aging and biography: explorations in adult development (pp. 77-99). New York: Springer Publishing.
Propp, V. (1968). Morphology of the folktale. Austin: University of Texas Press. (Original work published 1928)
Prince, Gerald. (1982). Narratology: The Form and Functioning of Narrative. Amsterdam: Mouton,.
Quasthoff, U. M. (1997). An interactive approach to narrative development. In M. Bamberg (Ed.), Narrative development: Six approaches. Lawrence Erlbaum, London.
Reinhart, T. (1984). Principles of gestalt perception in the temporal organization of narrative texts. Linguistics, 22, 779-809.
Richardson, B. (2000). Recent concepts of narrative and the narratives of narrative theory. Style, (Summer 2000). Retrieved July, 2003, from: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2342/is_2_34
Richmond, H.J. (2002). Learners’lives: A narrative analysis. The Qualitative Report, 7 (3). Retrieved Dec. 25, 2003, from http://www.nova.edu./ssss/QR/QR7-3/richmond.html.
Riessman, C.K. (1988). Worlds of difference: Contrasting experience in marriage and narrative style. In A.D. Todd & S. Fisher (Eds.), Gender and discourse: The power of talk (pp.151-173). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Riessman, C.K. (1990a). Strategic uses of narrative in the presentation of self and illness: a research note. Social Science and Medicine, 30 (11), 1195-1200. 233
Riessman, C.K. (1990b). Divorce talk: Women and men make sense of personal relationships. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Riessman, C.K. (1993). Narrative analysis. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Robison, R.E. (1990). The primacy of Aspect: Aspectual Marking in English Interlanguage [J]. SSLA,12, 351 - 372.
Robison, R.E. (1995). The aspect hypothesis revisited: A cross-sectional study of tense and aspect marking in interlanguage. Applied Linguistics, 16, 344–370.
Rumelhart, David E. (1975). Notes on a schema for stories. In D.G Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science (pp. 211-236). New York: Academic Press, Inc. Rumelhart, David E. (1977). Understanding and summarizing brief stories. In David LaBerge & S. Jay Samuels (Eds.), Basic processes in reading: perception and comprehension (pp.265-303). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rumelhart, David E. (1980). Schemata: the building blocks of cognition. In Rand J. Spiro, Bertram C. Bruce, & William E. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading
comprehension (pp.33-58). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ryan, M. (1991). Possible worlds, artificial intelligence and narrative Theory. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Schiffrin, D. (1981). Tense variation in narrative. Language, 57, 45–62.
Shuman, A. (1986). Storytelling rights: The uses of oral and written, texts by urban adolescents. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schumann, J. (1987). The expression of temporality in basilang speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 21–41.
Smith, C. S. The parameter of aspect (2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997.
Stein, N.L., & Glenn, C.G. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. In R. Freedle (Ed.), New directions in discourse processing (pp.53-120). Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishng Corporation.
Stein, N.L., & Albro, E.R. (1997). Building complexity and coherence: children’s use of goal-structured knowledge in telling stories. In M. Bamberg (Ed.), Narrative development:
Six approaches (Chapter 1). London: Erlbarum Association.
Thorndyke, P.W. (1977). Cognitive structures in comprehension and memory of narrative discourse. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 77-110. 235
Todorov T. (1981). Introduction to poetics. (Original work published 1968). Sussex: Harvester.
Trévise, A. (1987). Toward an analysis of the (inter)language activity of referring to time in narratives. In C. W. Pfaff (Ed.), First and second language acquisition processes (pp. 225–251). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Van Dijk, (1977).T.A, Text and Context London: Longman. Widdowson, H.G, (1979). Rules and Procedures in discourse analysis in (ed.) T. Myers. The Development of Conversation and Discourse Edinburgh University Press..
蔡金亭. (2003a).记叙文语篇结构与英语过渡语中一般过去时变异的关系———对语篇假设的检验[J].现代外语, (1) .
蔡金亭. (2003b).语言因素对英语过渡语中使用一般过去时的影响[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社.
蔡金亭. (2004).情状体和语篇结构对英语过渡语中一般过去时标记的影响[J].外语教学与研究, (1).
孙莉.蔡金亭.(2005).英语过渡语中记叙文语篇结构与时体使用的关系---一项基于口语语料库的研究[J].外语与外语教学,(7).
文秋芳,赵学熙,王文宇. (2001).全国英语专业四级口试指南[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.
俞洪亮.(2005).中国大学生英语口头叙事话语的结构范式研究[M].外语教学与研究出版社.
Bamberg, M.G.W. (1997a). Positioning between structure and performance. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 7(1-4), 335-342.
Bamberg, M.G.W. (Ed.). (1997b). Oral versions of personal experience: Three decades of narrative analysis. [Special issue of Journal of Narrative and Life History]. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bardovi-Harlig, K. The Relationship of Form andMeaning: A Cross-sectional Study of Tense and Aspect in the Interlanguage of Learners of English as a Second Language [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1992 (13): 253– 278
Bardovi-Harlig, K. A Narrative Perspective on the Development of the Tense /Aspect System in Second Language Acquisition. [J]. SSLA, 1995 (17): 263 - 291.
Barley, R. Interlanguage Variation and the Quantitative Paradigm: Past Tense Marking in Chinese & English [A]. In Tarone, Elaine E., Susan M. Gass, & Andrew D. Cohen (Eds.) Research Methodology in Second Language Acquisition [C]. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994: 157 - 184.
Barthes, R. (1977). Introduction to the structural analysis of narratives. In Image-Music-Text: Essays selected and translated by Stephen Heath (pp. 79-124). (Original work published 1966). London: Fontana.
Berg, G. A. (2000). Cognitive development through narrative: computer interface design for educational purposes. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 9 (1), 3-17.
Binnick, R. I. (1991). Time and the verb: A guide to tense and aspect. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983a). Discourse analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Bruner, J.S. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J.S. (1987). Life as narrative. Social Research, 54 (1), 11-32.
Bruner, J.S. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bruner, J.S. (2002). Making stories. New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux.
Chatman, S. (1978). Story and discourse: Narrative structure in fiction and film. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Chatman, S. (1990). Coming to terms: The rhetoric of narrative in fiction and film. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Chen Xuan (2004). The use of English articles in oral English: A study of Chinese EFL learners at tertiary level. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Nanjing University, Nanjing.
Cohn, D. (1999). The Distinction of fiction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP.
Comrie, B. (1985). Tense. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Comrie, B. (1976). Aspect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dahl, ?. (1984). Temporal distance: Remoteness distinctions in tense-aspect systems. In B.Butterworth, B. Comrie,& ?. Dahl (Eds.), Explanations for language universals (pp. 105–122). Berlin: Mouton.
Dry, H. (1981). Sentence aspect and the movement of narrative time. Text, 1, 233–240.
Dry, H. (1983). The movement of narrative time. Journal of Literary Semantics, 12, 19–53.
Engel, S. (1995). The stories children tell: making sense of the narratives of childhood. NY: W. H. Freeman.
Flasher, V. (1989). Transfer of Aspect in the English Oral Narratives of Non-native Russian Speakers [A]. In H. W. Raupach (Eds.) Transfer in Language Production [C]. Norwood: Ablex: 71 - 98.
Gee, J.P. (1986). Units in the production of narrative discourse. Discourse Processes, 9, 391-422.
Gee, J.P. (1991). A linguistic approach to narrative. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 1 (1), 15-39.
Genette, G. (1980). Narrative Discourse. (Jane E. Lewin, trans.) (Original work published 1972) Oxford: Blackwell.
Hermans, H.J.M. (1997). Self-Narrative in the life course: A contextual approach. In M. Bamberg (Ed.), Narrative development: Six approaches (pp.223-264). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hopper, P. J. (1979). Aspect and foregrounding in discourse. In T. Givon (Ed.), Syntax and semantics: Discourse and syntax (pp. 213–241). New York: Academic Press.
James, P.G., (1999). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory and Method, 17
Kintsch, W. (1974). The representation of meaning in memory. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum Associates.
Kumph, L. (1984). Temporal Systems and Universality in Interlanguage: A case study [A]. In F.
Eckman, et. Al. (Eds.) Universals of second Language Acquisition [C]. Rowley: Newbury House, 132 - 143.
Labov, W., & Waletzky, J. (1967). Narrative analysis: oral versions of personal experience. In J.Helm (Ed.), Essays on the verbal and visual arts. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. Retrieved August 5, 2002, from http://www.clarku.edu/~mbamberg/Labov&Waletzky.html.
Labov, W. (1972). The transformation of reality in narrative syntax. In W. Labov Language in the inner city (pp.354-396). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Labov, W. (1972). Language in the inner city. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Labov, W. (1997). Some further steps in narrative analysis. Journal of Narrative and Life History 7: 395-415. Retrieved August 5, 2002, from http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~labov/sfs.html.
Linde, C. (1993). Life stories: The creation of coherence. New York: Oxford University Press.
Liles, B. (1993). Narrative discourse in children with language disorders and children with normal language: a critical review of the literature. Journal of Speech & Hearing Research, 36, 868-882.
Lock, A. (1998) Narratives and Infancy. Discussion paper given at the Symposium on“Narrative Analysis of Early Developmental Processes”. 11th Biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, Atlanta, 2-5th April, 1998. Available online at: http://www.massey.ac.nz/~Alock/virtual/atlanta.htm
Mandler, J.M.,&Johnson, N.S. (1977). Remembrance of things parsed: Story structure and recall. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 111-151.
McCabe, A. (1997). Developmental and cross-cultural aspects of children’s narration. In M.Bamberg (Ed.), Narrative development: Six approaches (pp.137-173). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Meyer, B.J.F. (1985). Text dimensions and cognitive processing. In H. Mandl, N. Stein, & T.Trabasso (Eds.), Learning and comprehension of text. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Polkinghome, D.E. (1988). Narrative knowing and the human sciences. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Polkinghorne, D.E. (1996). Narrative Knowing and the Study of Lives. In J. E. Birren et al (Eds.), Aging and biography: explorations in adult development (pp. 77-99). New York: Springer Publishing.
Propp, V. (1968). Morphology of the folktale. Austin: University of Texas Press. (Original work published 1928)
Prince, Gerald. (1982). Narratology: The Form and Functioning of Narrative. Amsterdam: Mouton,.
Quasthoff, U. M. (1997). An interactive approach to narrative development. In M. Bamberg (Ed.), Narrative development: Six approaches. Lawrence Erlbaum, London.
Reinhart, T. (1984). Principles of gestalt perception in the temporal organization of narrative texts. Linguistics, 22, 779-809.
Richardson, B. (2000). Recent concepts of narrative and the narratives of narrative theory. Style, (Summer 2000). Retrieved July, 2003, from: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2342/is_2_34
Richmond, H.J. (2002). Learners’lives: A narrative analysis. The Qualitative Report, 7 (3). Retrieved Dec. 25, 2003, from http://www.nova.edu./ssss/QR/QR7-3/richmond.html.
Riessman, C.K. (1988). Worlds of difference: Contrasting experience in marriage and narrative style. In A.D. Todd & S. Fisher (Eds.), Gender and discourse: The power of talk (pp.151-173). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Riessman, C.K. (1990a). Strategic uses of narrative in the presentation of self and illness: a research note. Social Science and Medicine, 30 (11), 1195-1200. 233
Riessman, C.K. (1990b). Divorce talk: Women and men make sense of personal relationships. New Brunswick NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Riessman, C.K. (1993). Narrative analysis. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Robison, R.E. (1990). The primacy of Aspect: Aspectual Marking in English Interlanguage [J]. SSLA,12, 351 - 372.
Robison, R.E. (1995). The aspect hypothesis revisited: A cross-sectional study of tense and aspect marking in interlanguage. Applied Linguistics, 16, 344–370.
Rumelhart, David E. (1975). Notes on a schema for stories. In D.G Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science (pp. 211-236). New York: Academic Press, Inc. Rumelhart, David E. (1977). Understanding and summarizing brief stories. In David LaBerge & S. Jay Samuels (Eds.), Basic processes in reading: perception and comprehension (pp.265-303). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Rumelhart, David E. (1980). Schemata: the building blocks of cognition. In Rand J. Spiro, Bertram C. Bruce, & William E. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading
comprehension (pp.33-58). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ryan, M. (1991). Possible worlds, artificial intelligence and narrative Theory. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Schiffrin, D. (1981). Tense variation in narrative. Language, 57, 45–62.
Shuman, A. (1986). Storytelling rights: The uses of oral and written, texts by urban adolescents. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schumann, J. (1987). The expression of temporality in basilang speech. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 9, 21–41.
Smith, C. S. The parameter of aspect (2nd ed.). Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997.
Stein, N.L., & Glenn, C.G. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. In R. Freedle (Ed.), New directions in discourse processing (pp.53-120). Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishng Corporation.
Stein, N.L., & Albro, E.R. (1997). Building complexity and coherence: children’s use of goal-structured knowledge in telling stories. In M. Bamberg (Ed.), Narrative development:
Six approaches (Chapter 1). London: Erlbarum Association.
Thorndyke, P.W. (1977). Cognitive structures in comprehension and memory of narrative discourse. Cognitive Psychology, 9, 77-110. 235
Todorov T. (1981). Introduction to poetics. (Original work published 1968). Sussex: Harvester.
Trévise, A. (1987). Toward an analysis of the (inter)language activity of referring to time in narratives. In C. W. Pfaff (Ed.), First and second language acquisition processes (pp. 225–251). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Van Dijk, (1977).T.A, Text and Context London: Longman. Widdowson, H.G, (1979). Rules and Procedures in discourse analysis in (ed.) T. Myers. The Development of Conversation and Discourse Edinburgh University Press..
蔡金亭. (2003a).记叙文语篇结构与英语过渡语中一般过去时变异的关系———对语篇假设的检验[J].现代外语, (1) .
蔡金亭. (2003b).语言因素对英语过渡语中使用一般过去时的影响[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社.
蔡金亭. (2004).情状体和语篇结构对英语过渡语中一般过去时标记的影响[J].外语教学与研究, (1).
孙莉.蔡金亭.(2005).英语过渡语中记叙文语篇结构与时体使用的关系---一项基于口语语料库的研究[J].外语与外语教学,(7).
文秋芳,赵学熙,王文宇. (2001).全国英语专业四级口试指南[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.
俞洪亮.(2005).中国大学生英语口头叙事话语的结构范式研究[M].外语教学与研究出版社.