军曹鱼（Rachycentron canadum）幼鱼饲料中适宜磷源、磷水平以及钙磷比研究
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摘要
通过研究饲料中磷源、磷的添加水平以及钙磷比对军曹鱼的生长、体成分、生化指标等的影响,探讨军曹鱼饲料中适宜磷源,并确定适宜磷水平以及钙磷比。实验结果如下:
1、选取磷酸氢钙、磷酸二氢钙、磷酸钙、磷酸二氢钠、磷酸二氢钾等5种磷源,设计5种总磷为0.91%的等氮等能饲料,以不添加磷的基础饲料组(含磷量0.61%)作为对照组,研究磷源对军曹鱼生长性能、体成分、生化指标等的影响。结果表明:磷酸二氢钠组增重率最高;特定生长率、肥满度的变化趋势与增重率相同;肝体指数差异显著(P<0.05),对照组最高;鱼体及肌肉水分、蛋白含量差异不显著(P>0.05);体脂肪含量差异显著(P<0.05),磷酸二氢钙组含量最低,肌肉脂肪变化趋势与体脂肪相同;鱼体、肌肉、皮肤、头骨和脊椎骨的灰分、钙和磷的含量差异显著(P<0.05),磷酸二氢钙组鱼体及肌肉的灰分、钙和磷含量最高,磷酸二氢钠组皮肤、头骨、脊椎骨的灰分、钙和磷含量最高;血浆钙、磷、钾、镁、铁的含量差异显著(P<0.05);对照组血浆总胆固醇和甘油三酯含量最高;碱性磷酸酶活力差异显著(P<0.05),对照组血浆碱性磷酸酶活力最高,磷酸钙组肝脏碱性磷酸酶活力最高,磷酸二氢钙组肌肉磷酸酶活力最高;肌酸激酶活力差异显著(P<0.05),磷酸二氢钠组血浆肌酸激酶活力最高,磷酸钙组肝脏肌酸激酶活力最高,磷酸二氢钠组肌肉肌酸激酶活力最高;五种无机磷源的磷表观消化率由高到低分别是:NaH_2PO_4(80.68%)>KH_2PO_4(74.56%)> Ca(H_2PO_4)_2(44.55%)>CaHPO_4(13.81%)>Ca_3(PO_4)_2(-6.42%)。以增重率和表观消化率为判据,在本实验条件下,磷酸二氢钠是军曹鱼幼鱼的最适磷源。
2.以磷酸二氢钙为磷源,配制6组不同磷水平(0.61%,0.76%,0.91%,1.11%,1.31%和1.51%)的实验饲料,评价不同磷水平对军曹鱼幼鱼的生长性能、体成分、生化指标的影响。结果表明:随着饲料磷水平的升高,增重率不断增加,在饲料总磷含量为0.91%时达到最大值,而后随着饲料磷水平的升高而逐渐降低(P<0.05);特定生长率变化趋势与增重率相同(P<0.05);肝体指数,随着饲料磷水平升高显著下降(P<0.05);肥满度无显著差异(P>0.05);成活率在77.78-82.22%之间,差异不显著(P>0.05);鱼体以及肌肉的水分、蛋白含量无显著差异(P>0.05),鱼体脂肪含量随饲料磷含量的升高而显著降低,而肌肉脂肪则不受饲料磷水平影响(P>0.05);鱼体、皮肤、头骨和脊椎骨的灰分、钙、磷含量随饲料磷的升高而显著升高,饲料磷水平不影响肌肉灰分、钙和磷含量(P>0.05);血浆钙、磷、钾和镁含量在0.91%组最高;血浆铁含量,随着饲料磷水平升高降低,在1.11%组出现最低值;血浆中总胆固醇和甘油三酯随着饲料磷水平升高呈下降趋势;血浆、肝脏的碱性磷酸酶、肌酸激酶活力在0.91%组达到最高;各处理肌肉碱性磷酸酶无显著差异(P>0.05),肌肉肌酸激酶活力在0.91%组最高(P<0.05)。以增重率为评价指标,通过折线模型得到军曹鱼饲料中最适磷水平为0.93%;以脊椎骨灰分和磷含量为评价指标,军曹鱼饲料中最适磷水平为0.91%和0.95%。
3.以酪蛋白和明胶作为蛋白源,乳酸钙和磷酸二氢钠为钙源和磷源,配制饲料钙磷比例分别为1∶0.5、1∶0.8、1∶1、1∶2、1∶3、1∶4的6种实验饲料。研究不同钙磷比对军曹鱼幼鱼生长性能、体成分、生化指标等的影响。实验结果表明:在饲料钙磷总量相等条件下,钙磷比1∶1组军曹鱼生长最好,增重率达1210.51%,饲料中钙磷比过低或过高均对军曹鱼生长不利。全鱼、头骨、脊椎的灰分、钙和磷含量随着饲料钙磷比升高而增加(P<0.05);皮肤灰分、磷含量无显著差异(P>0.05),皮肤钙含量随着饲料钙磷比升高呈现下降趋势;肌肉灰分、钙含量差异不显著(P>0.05),肌肉磷在钙磷比(1∶1)组时含量最高;血浆钙、磷、钾含量受饲料钙磷比影响无显著差异(P>0.05);血浆铁含量随着饲料钙磷比降低而增加(P<0.05);镁含量随着饲料钙磷比增加而提高;血浆甘油三酯含量随饲料钙磷比升高而降低,总胆固醇含量随饲料钙磷比升高而增加;血浆碱性磷酸酶活力在钙磷比(1∶1)组出现最低值;肝脏碱性磷酸酶活力差异显著(P<0.05),随饲料钙磷比升高而增加;肌肉碱性磷酸酶活力无显著差异(P>0.05);血浆、肌肉及肝脏的肌酸激酶活力变化趋势与碱性磷酸酶一致。以增重率为判据,在饲料钙磷总量相等的条件下,军曹鱼幼鱼获得最大生长的饲料钙磷比为1∶1。
Three trials were conducted to investigate the effect of the dietary phosphate sources, phosphorus supplemental level, and calcium/phosphorus ratio on growth, body proximate composition, tissue phosphorus content and its biochemical indexes of juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum). The results can be summarized as follows:
1. A trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of five inorganic phosphorus (dibasic calcium phosphate, calcium dihydrogen phosphate, calcium phosphate, sodium dihydrgen phosphate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate) on growth, body proximate composition, tissue phosphorus content,biochemical indexes to juvenile cobia. Diets of isonitrogenous and isoenergetic which contained dietary phosphorus 0.91%, without supplemental phosphorus as the control group (dietary total P 0.61%)were fed to juvenile cobia. The experiment indicated that weight gain ratio (WGR), special growth rate (SGR), fat factor (CF) and hepatosomatic index (HIS) of fish were significant differences among various dietary treatments (P<0.05). The highest WGR and CF were in the sodium dihydrgen phosphate group and calcium phosphate group, respectively. The control group was the lowest HIS; The body composition analysis showed that supplementation of different sources phosphorus had no significantly effect on moisture, protein contents in the carcass and muscle, but there was some effect on the carcass lipids and muscle lipids content, the lowest carcass lipids content was the sodium dihydrgen phosphate group; Ash and calcium, as well as phosphorus contents in the whole body, muscle, skin, skull and vertebrae,were significantly affected by dietary different sources phosphorus (P<0.05),the highest ash and calcium, as well as phosphorus contents in the carcass and muscle was the calcium dihydrogen phosphate group, the highest ash and calcium, as well as phosphorus contents in skin, skull and vertebrae was the sodium dihydrgen phosphate group. The analysis of plasma mineral elements indicated that the calcium, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium contents, were significantly affected by dietary phosphate sources (P<0.05). The biochemistry analysis showed that the triglycerides (TG), cholesterol (CHO), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and creatine phosphoransferase (CK) in plasma, liver and muscle were significantly affected by sources of phosphorus, and the control group TG,CHO contents was significantly higher than the five supplemented groups; The highest ALP activity in plasma, liver and muscle was the control group, the calcium phosphate diet, the calcium dihydrogen phosphate diet;The highest CK activity in plasma, liver and muscle was the sodium dihydrgen phosphate diet, the calcium phosphate diet, the sodium dihydrgen phosphate diet. Within the inorganic phosphorus sources, ADC of P was significantly affected by supplement source. Mean P availability decreased in the following order∶sodium dihydrgen phosphate, 80.68%; potassium dihydrogen phosphate, 74.56%; phosphate dicalcium phosphate, 44.55%; monocalcium phosphate, 13.81%; tricalcium phosphate, -6.42%. Based on the index of growth performance and ADC of phosphorus, sodium dihydrgen phosphate was the optimal dietary phosphate.
2. A trial was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary phosphorus levels on on growth, body proximate composition, tissue phosphorus content and its biochemical indexes of juvenile cobia. Six experimental isonitrogenous and isoenergetic purified diets ( casein-gelatin based) were formulated to contain 0.61%,0.76% ,0.91%,1.11% ,1.31%,1.51% phosphorus with calcium dihydrogen phosphate as source of phosphorus.Weight gain ratio (WGR), special growth rate (SGR) of fish were significantly increased with increasing phosphorus from 0.61 to 0.91% of diet (P<0.05), and then decreased. No significantly (P>0.05) changes exist in condition factor of juvenile cobia fed different levels of phosphorus, but the hepatosomatic index (HIS) was significantly improved with the increasing supplementation of dietary phosphorus. Survival of juvenile cobia for all dietary treatments ranged from 77.78 to 82.22%, and there were no significant differences among various dietary treatments (P>0.05). The body composition analysis showed that supplementation of dietary phosphorus had no significantly effect on the carcass moisture, carcass protein and the muscle moisture, muscle protein, muscle lipids, but there was some effect on the carcass lipids content, the carcass lipids content decreased with the increase of dietary phosphorus. Ash and calcium, as well as phosphorus contents in the whole body, skin, skull and vertebrae, increased with elevation of dietary phosphorus content (P<0.05). The blood biochemistry analysis showed that plasma calcium, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium contents increased with the increase of dietary available phosphorus levels (P<0.05), but plasma iron was negative.Dietary phosphorus supplementation had some influence on triglycerides (TG), cholesterol (CHO), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and creatine phosphoransferase (CK) in plasma, liver and muscle. With the elevation of dietary phosphorus, plasma CHO and TG content decreased. Muscle CK, ALP and CK of plasma and liver increased with increasing phosphorus from 0.61 to 0.91% of diet and then decreased.Broken-line analysis based on WGR indicated that the minimum available phosphorus requirement for the optimal growth of juvenile cobia was 0.93%.Based on the ash content in vertebrae or the phosphorus content,the requirements were 0.91%and 0.95%,respectively.
3. A trial was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary calcium(Ca)and phosphorus(P) ratio on growth performance ,body composition and biochemical indexes and optimal dietary Ca and P ratio of juvenile cobia.Diets were formulated to contain six Ca and P ratio as 1∶0.5,1∶0.8,1∶1,1∶2,1∶3,1∶4 using casein and gelatin as the main protein sources, Ca-lactate and NaH2PO4·2H2O as the Ca, P source, respectively. The growth trial suggested that Weight gain ratio (WGR), special growth rate (SGR) of fish were significantly affected by different dietary calcium and phosphorus ratios ,the highest WGR was the calcium and phosphorus ratio (1∶1) group, beyond this ratio the growth decreased. The fat factor (CF) and hepatosomatic index (HIS) of fish were not significant differences among various dietary treatments (P<0.05).The body composition analysis showed that dietary calcium and phosphorus ratios had no significantly effect on moisture, protein contents in the carcass and muscle, as well as muscle lipids content. The carcass lipids, carcass ash and calcium as well as phosphorus contents in the whole body, skull and vertebrae, were significantly affected by dietary phosphorus, not dietary calcium (P<0.05). The skin calcium content decreased with the increase of dietary phosphorus; As well, the ash and phosphorus contents in muscle increased with elevation of dietary phosphorus content, but no significant changes were found in the muscle ash and calcium content(P>0.05). The blood biochemistry analysis showed that that plasma calcium, phosphorus, potassium was negative among various dietary treatments, magnesium contents increased with the increase of dietary phosphorus levels (P<0.05), but plasma iron was decreased.With different dietary calcium and phosphorus ratios, significant differences were observed plasma triglycerides (TG), plasma cholesterol(CHO), alkaline phosphatase(ALP) and creatine phosphoransferase (CK) in plasma, liver and muscle (P<0.05). Based on the growth performance, dietary calcium and phosphorus ratio for juvenile cobia was 1∶1 might be optimum.
1、选取磷酸氢钙、磷酸二氢钙、磷酸钙、磷酸二氢钠、磷酸二氢钾等5种磷源,设计5种总磷为0.91%的等氮等能饲料,以不添加磷的基础饲料组(含磷量0.61%)作为对照组,研究磷源对军曹鱼生长性能、体成分、生化指标等的影响。结果表明:磷酸二氢钠组增重率最高;特定生长率、肥满度的变化趋势与增重率相同;肝体指数差异显著(P<0.05),对照组最高;鱼体及肌肉水分、蛋白含量差异不显著(P>0.05);体脂肪含量差异显著(P<0.05),磷酸二氢钙组含量最低,肌肉脂肪变化趋势与体脂肪相同;鱼体、肌肉、皮肤、头骨和脊椎骨的灰分、钙和磷的含量差异显著(P<0.05),磷酸二氢钙组鱼体及肌肉的灰分、钙和磷含量最高,磷酸二氢钠组皮肤、头骨、脊椎骨的灰分、钙和磷含量最高;血浆钙、磷、钾、镁、铁的含量差异显著(P<0.05);对照组血浆总胆固醇和甘油三酯含量最高;碱性磷酸酶活力差异显著(P<0.05),对照组血浆碱性磷酸酶活力最高,磷酸钙组肝脏碱性磷酸酶活力最高,磷酸二氢钙组肌肉磷酸酶活力最高;肌酸激酶活力差异显著(P<0.05),磷酸二氢钠组血浆肌酸激酶活力最高,磷酸钙组肝脏肌酸激酶活力最高,磷酸二氢钠组肌肉肌酸激酶活力最高;五种无机磷源的磷表观消化率由高到低分别是:NaH_2PO_4(80.68%)>KH_2PO_4(74.56%)> Ca(H_2PO_4)_2(44.55%)>CaHPO_4(13.81%)>Ca_3(PO_4)_2(-6.42%)。以增重率和表观消化率为判据,在本实验条件下,磷酸二氢钠是军曹鱼幼鱼的最适磷源。
2.以磷酸二氢钙为磷源,配制6组不同磷水平(0.61%,0.76%,0.91%,1.11%,1.31%和1.51%)的实验饲料,评价不同磷水平对军曹鱼幼鱼的生长性能、体成分、生化指标的影响。结果表明:随着饲料磷水平的升高,增重率不断增加,在饲料总磷含量为0.91%时达到最大值,而后随着饲料磷水平的升高而逐渐降低(P<0.05);特定生长率变化趋势与增重率相同(P<0.05);肝体指数,随着饲料磷水平升高显著下降(P<0.05);肥满度无显著差异(P>0.05);成活率在77.78-82.22%之间,差异不显著(P>0.05);鱼体以及肌肉的水分、蛋白含量无显著差异(P>0.05),鱼体脂肪含量随饲料磷含量的升高而显著降低,而肌肉脂肪则不受饲料磷水平影响(P>0.05);鱼体、皮肤、头骨和脊椎骨的灰分、钙、磷含量随饲料磷的升高而显著升高,饲料磷水平不影响肌肉灰分、钙和磷含量(P>0.05);血浆钙、磷、钾和镁含量在0.91%组最高;血浆铁含量,随着饲料磷水平升高降低,在1.11%组出现最低值;血浆中总胆固醇和甘油三酯随着饲料磷水平升高呈下降趋势;血浆、肝脏的碱性磷酸酶、肌酸激酶活力在0.91%组达到最高;各处理肌肉碱性磷酸酶无显著差异(P>0.05),肌肉肌酸激酶活力在0.91%组最高(P<0.05)。以增重率为评价指标,通过折线模型得到军曹鱼饲料中最适磷水平为0.93%;以脊椎骨灰分和磷含量为评价指标,军曹鱼饲料中最适磷水平为0.91%和0.95%。
3.以酪蛋白和明胶作为蛋白源,乳酸钙和磷酸二氢钠为钙源和磷源,配制饲料钙磷比例分别为1∶0.5、1∶0.8、1∶1、1∶2、1∶3、1∶4的6种实验饲料。研究不同钙磷比对军曹鱼幼鱼生长性能、体成分、生化指标等的影响。实验结果表明:在饲料钙磷总量相等条件下,钙磷比1∶1组军曹鱼生长最好,增重率达1210.51%,饲料中钙磷比过低或过高均对军曹鱼生长不利。全鱼、头骨、脊椎的灰分、钙和磷含量随着饲料钙磷比升高而增加(P<0.05);皮肤灰分、磷含量无显著差异(P>0.05),皮肤钙含量随着饲料钙磷比升高呈现下降趋势;肌肉灰分、钙含量差异不显著(P>0.05),肌肉磷在钙磷比(1∶1)组时含量最高;血浆钙、磷、钾含量受饲料钙磷比影响无显著差异(P>0.05);血浆铁含量随着饲料钙磷比降低而增加(P<0.05);镁含量随着饲料钙磷比增加而提高;血浆甘油三酯含量随饲料钙磷比升高而降低,总胆固醇含量随饲料钙磷比升高而增加;血浆碱性磷酸酶活力在钙磷比(1∶1)组出现最低值;肝脏碱性磷酸酶活力差异显著(P<0.05),随饲料钙磷比升高而增加;肌肉碱性磷酸酶活力无显著差异(P>0.05);血浆、肌肉及肝脏的肌酸激酶活力变化趋势与碱性磷酸酶一致。以增重率为判据,在饲料钙磷总量相等的条件下,军曹鱼幼鱼获得最大生长的饲料钙磷比为1∶1。
Three trials were conducted to investigate the effect of the dietary phosphate sources, phosphorus supplemental level, and calcium/phosphorus ratio on growth, body proximate composition, tissue phosphorus content and its biochemical indexes of juvenile cobia (Rachycentron canadum). The results can be summarized as follows:
1. A trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of five inorganic phosphorus (dibasic calcium phosphate, calcium dihydrogen phosphate, calcium phosphate, sodium dihydrgen phosphate, potassium dihydrogen phosphate) on growth, body proximate composition, tissue phosphorus content,biochemical indexes to juvenile cobia. Diets of isonitrogenous and isoenergetic which contained dietary phosphorus 0.91%, without supplemental phosphorus as the control group (dietary total P 0.61%)were fed to juvenile cobia. The experiment indicated that weight gain ratio (WGR), special growth rate (SGR), fat factor (CF) and hepatosomatic index (HIS) of fish were significant differences among various dietary treatments (P<0.05). The highest WGR and CF were in the sodium dihydrgen phosphate group and calcium phosphate group, respectively. The control group was the lowest HIS; The body composition analysis showed that supplementation of different sources phosphorus had no significantly effect on moisture, protein contents in the carcass and muscle, but there was some effect on the carcass lipids and muscle lipids content, the lowest carcass lipids content was the sodium dihydrgen phosphate group; Ash and calcium, as well as phosphorus contents in the whole body, muscle, skin, skull and vertebrae,were significantly affected by dietary different sources phosphorus (P<0.05),the highest ash and calcium, as well as phosphorus contents in the carcass and muscle was the calcium dihydrogen phosphate group, the highest ash and calcium, as well as phosphorus contents in skin, skull and vertebrae was the sodium dihydrgen phosphate group. The analysis of plasma mineral elements indicated that the calcium, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium contents, were significantly affected by dietary phosphate sources (P<0.05). The biochemistry analysis showed that the triglycerides (TG), cholesterol (CHO), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and creatine phosphoransferase (CK) in plasma, liver and muscle were significantly affected by sources of phosphorus, and the control group TG,CHO contents was significantly higher than the five supplemented groups; The highest ALP activity in plasma, liver and muscle was the control group, the calcium phosphate diet, the calcium dihydrogen phosphate diet;The highest CK activity in plasma, liver and muscle was the sodium dihydrgen phosphate diet, the calcium phosphate diet, the sodium dihydrgen phosphate diet. Within the inorganic phosphorus sources, ADC of P was significantly affected by supplement source. Mean P availability decreased in the following order∶sodium dihydrgen phosphate, 80.68%; potassium dihydrogen phosphate, 74.56%; phosphate dicalcium phosphate, 44.55%; monocalcium phosphate, 13.81%; tricalcium phosphate, -6.42%. Based on the index of growth performance and ADC of phosphorus, sodium dihydrgen phosphate was the optimal dietary phosphate.
2. A trial was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary phosphorus levels on on growth, body proximate composition, tissue phosphorus content and its biochemical indexes of juvenile cobia. Six experimental isonitrogenous and isoenergetic purified diets ( casein-gelatin based) were formulated to contain 0.61%,0.76% ,0.91%,1.11% ,1.31%,1.51% phosphorus with calcium dihydrogen phosphate as source of phosphorus.Weight gain ratio (WGR), special growth rate (SGR) of fish were significantly increased with increasing phosphorus from 0.61 to 0.91% of diet (P<0.05), and then decreased. No significantly (P>0.05) changes exist in condition factor of juvenile cobia fed different levels of phosphorus, but the hepatosomatic index (HIS) was significantly improved with the increasing supplementation of dietary phosphorus. Survival of juvenile cobia for all dietary treatments ranged from 77.78 to 82.22%, and there were no significant differences among various dietary treatments (P>0.05). The body composition analysis showed that supplementation of dietary phosphorus had no significantly effect on the carcass moisture, carcass protein and the muscle moisture, muscle protein, muscle lipids, but there was some effect on the carcass lipids content, the carcass lipids content decreased with the increase of dietary phosphorus. Ash and calcium, as well as phosphorus contents in the whole body, skin, skull and vertebrae, increased with elevation of dietary phosphorus content (P<0.05). The blood biochemistry analysis showed that plasma calcium, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium contents increased with the increase of dietary available phosphorus levels (P<0.05), but plasma iron was negative.Dietary phosphorus supplementation had some influence on triglycerides (TG), cholesterol (CHO), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and creatine phosphoransferase (CK) in plasma, liver and muscle. With the elevation of dietary phosphorus, plasma CHO and TG content decreased. Muscle CK, ALP and CK of plasma and liver increased with increasing phosphorus from 0.61 to 0.91% of diet and then decreased.Broken-line analysis based on WGR indicated that the minimum available phosphorus requirement for the optimal growth of juvenile cobia was 0.93%.Based on the ash content in vertebrae or the phosphorus content,the requirements were 0.91%and 0.95%,respectively.
3. A trial was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary calcium(Ca)and phosphorus(P) ratio on growth performance ,body composition and biochemical indexes and optimal dietary Ca and P ratio of juvenile cobia.Diets were formulated to contain six Ca and P ratio as 1∶0.5,1∶0.8,1∶1,1∶2,1∶3,1∶4 using casein and gelatin as the main protein sources, Ca-lactate and NaH2PO4·2H2O as the Ca, P source, respectively. The growth trial suggested that Weight gain ratio (WGR), special growth rate (SGR) of fish were significantly affected by different dietary calcium and phosphorus ratios ,the highest WGR was the calcium and phosphorus ratio (1∶1) group, beyond this ratio the growth decreased. The fat factor (CF) and hepatosomatic index (HIS) of fish were not significant differences among various dietary treatments (P<0.05).The body composition analysis showed that dietary calcium and phosphorus ratios had no significantly effect on moisture, protein contents in the carcass and muscle, as well as muscle lipids content. The carcass lipids, carcass ash and calcium as well as phosphorus contents in the whole body, skull and vertebrae, were significantly affected by dietary phosphorus, not dietary calcium (P<0.05). The skin calcium content decreased with the increase of dietary phosphorus; As well, the ash and phosphorus contents in muscle increased with elevation of dietary phosphorus content, but no significant changes were found in the muscle ash and calcium content(P>0.05). The blood biochemistry analysis showed that that plasma calcium, phosphorus, potassium was negative among various dietary treatments, magnesium contents increased with the increase of dietary phosphorus levels (P<0.05), but plasma iron was decreased.With different dietary calcium and phosphorus ratios, significant differences were observed plasma triglycerides (TG), plasma cholesterol(CHO), alkaline phosphatase(ALP) and creatine phosphoransferase (CK) in plasma, liver and muscle (P<0.05). Based on the growth performance, dietary calcium and phosphorus ratio for juvenile cobia was 1∶1 might be optimum.
引文
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