美国女性单亲家庭福利史研究（1935-1996）

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英文题名：A History of Single-mother Families' Welfare in the United States, 1935 -1996 作者：吕洪艳 论文级别：博士 学科专业名称：世界史 中文关键词：“对有未成年子女的家庭援助” ; 美国女性单亲家庭 ; 福利改革 英文关键词：“Aid to Families with Dependent Children” ; Single Mothers Families ; Welfare Reform 学位年度：2011 导师：梁茂信 学科代码：060108 学位授予单位：东北师范大学 论文提交日期：2011-12-01

摘要

面向弱势群体的公共福利政策,历来是彰显社会道德原则的重要尺度。本文介绍了美国最具争议的单亲家庭福利计划——“对有未成年子女的家庭援助”,尝试整理该福利计划的历史发展脉络,同时追踪并剖析美国社会围绕女性单亲家庭福利政策展开的冲突和争论。影响美国女性单亲家庭福利政策的一般价值观念,包括对典范家庭模式的认同,对工作伦理的推崇,以及对女性社会角色变化的感知;而单亲家庭福利制度演变的历史,充分体现了美国联邦政府对上述认知的把握能力和导向作用。全文采取编年体体例,以时间为经,以史事为纬,顺序展开。除引言和结语外,论文主体部分共分四章。
     第一章,从分析美国单亲家庭福利制度产生的历史背景入手,追溯这一制度的雏形和实践基础,以及得以正式建立的契机,并对单亲家庭福利制度的基本特征作出概括。
     第二章,主要阐述了伟大社会时代美国联邦政府扩大福利的举措,以及20世纪60、70年代美国单亲家庭福利制度与单亲家庭规模同步扩张的表现,深入探究两种现象的背后动因。
     第三章,着重分析在福利困境出现之后,美国社会各界在单亲家庭及其福利制度上的不同立场和态度,以及70、80年代尼克松至里根政府期间的福利改革详情。
     第四章,专论1996年福利改革,详细考察1996年福利改革发生的语境、立法过程、得以通过的原因及初步效果。
The public welfare policy for the disadvantages has always been an important measure of social and moral principles. This article describes the most controversial U.S. welfare program for single parent families - "Aid to Families with Dependent Children", tracking and analyzing the conflict and controversy about the public welfare policy for single mothers families in the society. The factors involved in the U.S. single mothers families welfare policies includes the recognition of the nuclear family pattern, the appreciation for the work ethic, as well as the perception of the changing role of women in society. The history of welfare system of single-parent families reflects the U.S. federal government’s cognitive ability and guiding power of values above. This article is arranged by chronological style with time as longitude and historical events as latitude. The article is divided into four chapters in addition to the preface.
     The first chapter analyzes the historical background of U.S. welfare system aiming at single-parent families, tracing the prototype and practical basis of the AFDC, exploring how the ADC has been formally established, and concluding the basic features of AFDC.
     The second chapter focuses primarily on U.S. federal government’s efforts to expand social welfare and the expansions of both AFDC and single mothers families in the 1960s and 1970s, and interprets how both expansions could happened.
     The third chapter focuses on the different positions and attitudes about the welfare mess, the single-parent families and AFDC, and the details of Nixon’FAP and Reagan’s FSA in the 1970s and 1980s.
     The last chapter discusses specifically 1996 welfare reform and examines the context of welfare reform, the legislative process, the favorable factors for passage and the preliminary results.

引文

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    ①1950年之前,单亲家庭并未引起美国人口普查局的重视,因此在问卷中没有设计单亲家庭的划分,只能依据儿童和家庭类别的统计数据大致推算。1900-1950年间美国人口普查局相关统计报告见:http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/decennial. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
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    ③Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994. pp.19-20.
    ④Paul H. Jacobson, American Marriage and Divorce, New York: Rinehart, 1969, Table 42, cited in Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994. p.21.
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    ①Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994, p.58.
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    ②New York State, Report of the New York State Commission on Relief For Widowed Mothers, 1914, in Reobert H. Brenmer(ed.), Children and Youth in America : A Documentary History, Vol. II: 1866-1932, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971, p.3.
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    ④Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994, p.73.
    ⑤美国儿童局(The United State’s Children's Bureau)始建于1912年,当时隶属于劳工部,现归入美国卫生与人类服务部,主管儿童福利。
    ⑥也有学者译为“赫尔会所”或“赫尔堂”,详见李剑鸣:《大转折的年代:美国进步主义运动研究》,天津教育出版社,1992年,第182页;埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第897页。
    ①The United States Social Security Administration, Four Decades of Action for Children: a short story of Children’s Bureau, http://www.ssa.gov/history/pdf/child1.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ②Jay Kleinberg, Widows and Orphans First: The Family Economy and Social Welfare Policy, 1880-1939, Urbana:University of Illinois Press, 2006, p.86.
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    ②Jay Kleinberg, Widows and Orphans First: The Family Economy and andSocial Welfare Policy, 1880-1939, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006, p.86.
    ③许多美国史学家认为,此时福利积极分子对于女人母亲角色的策略性强调,是母亲援助项目得以建立的关键所在。代表成果见:Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994; Susan Sterett, Public Pensions : Gender and Civic Service in the States, 1850-1937, N.Y. : Cornell University Press, 2003, Nancy F. Cott,“Giving Character to Our Whole Civil Polity: Marriage and the Public Order in the Late Nineteenth Century,”in U.S. History as Women’s History: New Feminist Essays, ed. Linda K. Kerber, Alice Kessler-Harris, and Kathryn Kish Sklar, Cahpel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995; Ann Vanderpol,“Dependent Children, Child Custody and Mother’s Pensions: The Transformation of State-Family Relations in the Early 20th Century,”Social Problems , 29(1982):21-35.
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    ②Jay Kleinberg, Widows and Orphans First: The Family Economy and andSocial Welfare Policy, 1880-1939, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2006, p.33.
    ③Molly Ladd-Tylor, Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers’s Letters to the Children’s Bureau 1915-1932, New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1986, pp. 159-160, cited in Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994. p.42.
    ④Robert H. Bremner ed. Chldren and Youth in America: A Documentary History, Volume III, 1933-1973, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974, pp.357-369.
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    ②U.S. Children’s Bureau, Mother’s Aid, 1931. Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.95-97. Document 1, Table-I.
    ①Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press,1989, p.200.
    ②Winifred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, New York: Columbia University Press, 1965, p.9.
    ③Mary Odem,“Single Mothers, Delinquent Daughters and the Juvenile Court in Early 20th Century Los Angeles,”Journal of Social History 25 (fall 1991), p.30.
    ④Winifred Bell, Aid to Dependent Children, New York: Columbia University Press, 1965, pp.12-13.
    ⑤Edith Abbott and Sophonisba P. Breckinridge, the Administration of the Aid to Mothers Law in Illinois,Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1921. cited in Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994.
    ①Nancy Folbre and Marjorie Abel,“Women's Work and Women's Households: Gender Bias in the. U.S. Census”, Social Research, 56 (3), 1989, pp.545-569.
    ②U.S. Children’s Bureau, Mother’s Aid, 1931. Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, Document 1,p.92.
    ③美国妇女局(The United States Women's Bureau)始建于1920年,隶属于美国劳工部,专门负责女性劳工的福利问题。
    ④Caroline Manning, The Immigrant Woman and Her Job, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Women’s Bureau Bulletin No. 74, 1930, p.57, cited in Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994. p.50.
    ①Sara McLanahan and Irwin Garfinkel,“Single Mothers, The Underclass and Social Policy,”Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,501, Jan. 1989, p.99.
    ②Joanne Goodwin, "An American Experiment in Paid Motherhood: The Implementation of Mothers' Pensions in Early Twentieth Century Chicago," Gender and History, (Autumn 1992), p.339.
    ③U.S. Children’s Bureau, Mother’s Aid, 1931. Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.98-99, Document 1, Table A-II.
    ④Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, Document 1.
    ①U.S. Children’s Bureau, Mother’s Aid, 1931. Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.98-99, Document 1, Table A-II.
    ①U.S. Children’s Bureau, Mother’s Aid, 1931. Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, p.92. Document 1.
    ①原祖杰:“对美国平民党运动的再思考”,《美国研究》,2009年第4期。
    ③Hadley Cantril, ed., Public Opinion 1935-1946, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1951, p. 542.
    ④Social Security Board,依据1935年社会保障法而创建,是现在美国社会保障署(The United States Social Security Administration,简称SSA)的前身。
    ①Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994. p.229.
    ②Glen Jeansonne, Messiah of the Masses: Huey P. Long and the Great Depression, New York: Harper Collins, 1993,cited in Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994. p.230.
    ③埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1054页。
    ④Douglas Paul Howard, In the Fullness of Time: The Memoirs of Paul H. Douglas, Harcourt, 1972, p.74, cited in Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994, p.234.
    ②Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994. p.186.
    ③William R. Brock , Welfare, Democracy and the New Deal, Cambridge University Press 2002, pp.163-166.
    ④该委员会始建于1934年,其调查报告成为1935年社会保障法的蓝本之一。
    ⑤Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989, p.315.
    ①U.S.Children's Bureau, Trends in Different Types of Public and Private Relief in Urban Areas, 1929-1935, Washington D.C.:Government Printing Office,1937, pp.26,37.
    ②Susan Traverso, Welfare Politics in Boston, 1910-1940, University of Massachusetts Press, 2009.
    ③Social Security Board, Social Security in America, Washington, D.C., 1937, pp.240-241. http://www.larrydewitt.net/SSinGAPE/newdeal/ssbamerica.htm. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ④Gwendolyn Mink, The Wages of Motherhood: Inequality in the Welfare State, 1917-1942, Cornell University Press, 1995, p.10.
    ⑤Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994, p.191.
    ①埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1059页。
    ①Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.96.
    ②Gwendolyn Mink,“The Lady and the Tramp: Gender, Race, and the Origins of the American Welfare State.”in Women, The State and Welfare, ed. Linda Gordon, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1990, p.110.
    ③Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.97.
    ④Linda Gordon, Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: Free Press,1994, p.257.
    ⑤众议院方式方法委员会(House Committee on Ways and Means)是最为资深的国会委员会之一,负责众议院税收与贸易、社会保障、失业保险、医疗保险、贫困家庭援助和儿童领养等相关议程的审议,地位及作用与参议院金融委员会(Senate Finance Committee)相当。
    ①Edwin E. Witte, Development of the Social Security Act, University of Wisconsin Press 1962, pp.164-165; Cohen, Wilbur J. "The Development of the Social Security Act: An Interview with Dr. Edwin E. Witte." Interview Conducted on August 12, 1955, at the National Headquarters of the Social Security Administration in Washington, D.C. Online facsimile at: http://www.ssa.gov/history/witte.html; Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ②Linda Gordon, Pitied but not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: Free Press, 1994, p.277.
    ③王岽兴:“新政与美国南部的社会变迁”,《求是学刊》,2005年第2期,第125页。
    ①Edwin E. Witte, Development of the Social Security Act, University of Wisconsin Press 1962, cited in Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: Free Press,1994, p.277.
    ④Theda Skocpol,“The Narrow Vision of Today’s Experts on Social Policy,”Chronicle of Higher Education, Apr.15, 1992.
    ⑤Theda Skocpol,“The Limits of the New Deal System and the Roots of Contemporary Welfare Dilemmas.”Margaret Weir, Ann Orloff and Theda Skocpol, The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, Princeton University Press, 1988, pp.293-311.
    ①美国学者相关代表成果:Barbara Nelson,“The Origins of the Two-Channel Welfare State: Workmen’s Compensation and Mother’s Aid.”in Linda Gordon, ed., Women, the State and Welfare, Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1990, pp.123-151. Linda Gordon,“What Does Welfare Regulate?”Social Research, 55(Winter 1988): 609-630. Helene Silverberg,“Private Mothers and Public Policy: Women, Welfare and the State.”The Cornell Journal of Social Relations 18(Spring 1985):1-12.
    ②Robert H. Bremner ed. Chldren and Youth in America: A Documentary History, Volume III, 1933-1973, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974, p.539.
    ①Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989, p.316.
    ①Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.100.
    ②Robert H. Bremner ed., Chldren and Youth in America: A Documentary History, Volume III, 1933-1973, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974, p.535.
    ③Daniel Patrick Moynihan,“Empoyment, Income and the Ordeal of the Negro Family,”Jouranl of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 94(4), Fall 1965, p.766.
    ④指二战结束后美国经济高速增长,物价稳定,失业率低,生活水平的上升一直保持到1973年。见埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1202页。
    ①Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.101.
    ②Ibid.
    ③埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《美国自由的故事》,商务印书馆,2002年,第425页。
    ④安东尼·阿巴拉斯特著,曹海军等译:《西方自由主义的兴衰》,吉林人民出版社,2004年,第444-449页。
    ⑤埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《美国自由的故事》,商务印书馆,2002年,第410页。
    ①赫伯特·马尔库塞:《爱欲与文明》,上海译文出版社,2008年。
    ②Steven Mintz , Susan Kellogg,Domestic revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life,The Free Press, 1989, p.207.
    ③埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1234页。
    ④王恩铭:“当代美国的妇女运动”,《美国研究》,1995年第3期。
    ⑤具体流派与主张,详见张立平:“当代美国女性主义思潮述评”,《美国研究》,1999年第2期。
    ⑥Robert Booth Fowler, Enduring Liberalism: American Political Thought Since the 1960s, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1999, p.131.
    ①Linda Gordon,“Functions of the Family.”in Voices From Women’s Liberation, ed. Leslie Tanner, New York: New American Library, 1970, pp.182-184.
    ②Louise Gross and Phyllis MacEwan,“On Day Care.”in Voices From Women’s Liberation, ed. Leslie Tanner, New York: New American Library, 1970, pp.199-1200.
    ③埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1300页。
    ④Jo Freeman, The Politics of Women’s Liberation, New York: David Mckay, 1975, p.118.
    ⑤Myron Magnet, The Dream and the Nightmare: The Sixties’Legacy to the Underclass. Encounter Books, 2000.
    ⑥Irwin Garfinkel and Sara McLanahan, Single Mothers and Their Children: A New American Dilemma, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986.
    ⑦Mary Jo Bane and David R. Ellwood, Welfare Realities: From Rhetoric to Reform, Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press,1996.
    ①Erwin Garfinkel and Sara Mclanahan, Single Mothers and Their Children: A New American Dilemma,Washington D.C. : Urban Institute Press, 1986, p.82.
    ②David T. Ellwood, Poor support : Poverty in the American Family, New York : Basic Books, 1988, p.71.
    ③Andrew J.Cherlin,Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage, Harvard University Press, 1992, p.38.
    ④Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Susie: Single Pregnancy and Race Before Roe v. Wade, Routledge, 1992, pp.149,151.
    ⑤Jane Juffer, Single Mother: The Emergence of the Domestic Intellectual, New York: New York University Press, 2006, p.12.
    ⑥Rickie Solinger, Beggars and Choosers: How the Politics of Choice Shapes Adoption, Abortion, and Welfare in the United States, New York: Hill and Wang, 2001, p.9.
    ⑦Ibid, p.154.
    ①Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Susie: Single Pregnancy and Race Before Roe v. Wade, Routledge, 1992, pp.111,281.
    ②Ibid, p.224.
    ③Gertrude F. Barker. "The Self -Esteem of the Unwed Mother." Ph.D. dissertation. Boston University.1967, cited in Rickie Solinger, Wake Up Little Susie: Single Pregnancy and Race Before Roe v. Wade, Routledge, 1992.
    ④相比于白人未婚母亲,美国黑人未婚母亲一向有着自己抚养未婚生子女的传统,详见:Bette J. Dickerson, African American Single Mothers : Understanding Their lives and Families, Thousand Oaks : Sage Publications, 1995.
    ①Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, pp.101-102.
    ①Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.104.
    ②Ibid, p.94.
    ③Jennifer Mittelstadt, From Welfare to Workfare: The Unintended Consequences of Liberal Reform, 1945-1965. The University of North Carolina Press, 2005, p.169.
    ①关于此时美国人力资本理论的总结,见梁茂信:《美国人力培训与就业政策》,人民出版社,2006年,第62-74页。
    ②即1961年AFDC-UP,1962年公共福利修正案,1964年经济机会法,1967年社会保障法修正案,见:Jennifer Mittelstadt, From Welfare to Workfare: The Unintended Consequences of Liberal Reform, 1945-1965, The University of North Carolina Press, 2005, pp.176-178.
    ③美国学界对此存在不同看法,但与史事相悖,并非主流意见。比如,有学者认为,由于服务对象大多为未婚或者离婚的单身母亲,60年代时期的福利决策者已经放弃了传统双亲家庭的典范定位,接受女性单亲家庭作为一种合理的家庭生活模式——尽管是不完美的一种。见:Jennifer Mittelstadt, From Welfare to Workfare: The unintended Consequences of Liberal Reform, 1945-1965,The University of North Carolina Press, 2005, p.134.
    ④埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1210页。
    ⑤贝蒂.弗里丹著,程锡麟、朱微、王晓路译:《女性的奥秘》,四川人民出版社,1990年,第49-50页。
    ⑥埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1211页。
    ①争议集中于福利爆炸是否源自60年代以来女性单亲家庭、尤其是黑人女性单亲家庭的增多。此外,贫困人口结构性失业、民权运动、福利部门专业化程度的提高等等,均被不同学者视为福利爆炸的成因而加以讨论。详见Sanford F. Schram and J. Patrick Turbett, The Welfare Explosion: Mass Society versus Social Control, The Social Service Review, Vol.57, No.4 (Dec., 1983):614-625。
    ②梁茂信:《美国人力培训与就业政策》,人民出版社,2006年;杨立雄:“贫困理论范式的转向与美国福利制度改革”,《美国研究》, 2006年第2期;张玉柯:“美国社会福利制度及其改革趋势”,《世界经济》,1998年第2期。
    ③美国的社会福利主要分为现金项目与实物项目两大类。包括食品券、医疗援助、住房援助与就业培训在内的实物项目主要服务于现金项目所涵盖的人群,而现金项目共有两个,即本文讨论的“对有未成年子女的家庭援助”,以及“补充性保障收入”(Supplemental Security Income,简称SSI)。“补充性保障收入”项目面向老年人与残疾人,自1972年开始实施,因此60、70年代美国福利爆炸实际上主要体现在“对有未成年子女的家庭援助”项目。详见Rebecca M. Blank, It Takes a Nation : a New Agenda for Fighting Poverty,New York : Russell Sage Foundation,1997,pp.98-132.
    ④代表观点见:United States Department of Health and Human Service, AFDC Baseline Report, 1998, January
    23,2001, http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/afdc/afdcbase98.htm, 2010-09-07; Rebecca M. Blank, It Takes a Nation : a New Agenda for Fighting Poverty,pp.84、99. Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: Free Press,1994,p.1.
    ⑤Marisa Chappell, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform: The Politics of AFDC, 1964-1984, Northwest University, 2005, pp.89-90.
    ①Richard C. Fording.“Laboratories of Democracy”or Symbolic Politics? in Sanford F. Schram, Joe Soss, and Richard C. Fording, ed., Race and the Politics of Welfare Reform, Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press,2003,p.74.
    ②U.S. House of Representatives, Ways and Means Committee, Background Material and Data on Program 1986, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office,1986,p.391.
    ③Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State from Roosevelt to Reagan,Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991,p.118.
    ④U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1977, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office,1977,p.319.
    ⑥深南部(Deep South)一般指阿拉巴马、佐治亚、路易斯安那、密西西比和南卡罗来纳,有时德克萨斯和佛罗里达也被视为深南部的一部分。
    ⑦Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, New York: Pantheon Books, 1971, pp.334-336.
    ①Steven M. Teles, Whose Welfare? AFDC and Elite Politics, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1996, p.24.
    ②Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, p.276.
    ③Martin Gilens, Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy, Chicago:University Of Chicago Press,1999, p.106.
    ④Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989, p.321.
    ⑤Steven M. Teles, Whose Welfare? AFDC and Elite Politics, p.25.
    ⑥U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2003,No. HS-29. Employment Status of the
    ①Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, p.186.
    ②详见胡锦山:“1940-1970年美国黑人大迁徙概论”,《美国研究》,1995年第4期。
    ③U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States,1969,p11.其中,黑人在非白人群体中比重为94%。就整体而言这一时期白人失业率约为非白人的一半。
    ④U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1967, p.97.
    ⑤Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, p.218.
    ⑧详见胡锦山:“20世纪60、70年代美国城市黑人参政原因初探”,《东北师范大学学报》,2000年第
    ③Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, p.245.
    ④Heather L. Ross and Isabel V. Sawhill, Time of Transition: the Growth of Families Headed by Women, Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute, 1975, p.105.
    ⑤所谓“适宜的家”,主要针对单身妈妈的性行为和非婚生育行为。她们在接受福利援助之前,须与福利
    ①Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989,p.324.
    ②U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Statement of Secretary Abraham Ribicoff, Annual Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961, pp.62-63.
    ③Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989, p. 318.
    ④Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single mothers and the History of Welfare, p.276.
    ⑤Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, p.306.
    ①U.S. Supreme Court, King v. Smith, 392 U.S. 309,315(1968), http://supreme.justia.com/us/392/309/case.html , Visited on: 10/18/2011. Walter Goodman,“The Case of Mrs. Sylvester Smith,”NYT Magazine, August 25, 1968.
    ②Marta F. Davis, Brutal Need, Lawyers and the Welfare Rights Movement, 1960-1973, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993, p.64.
    ③U.S. Supreme Court, King v. Smith, 392 U.S. 309,334(1968). http://supreme.justia.com/us/392/309/case.html. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ④U.S. Supreme Court,Shapiro v. Thompson, 394 U.S. 618,657 (1969). http://supreme.justia.com/us/394/618/case.html,2010-09-07.
    ⑤Sar V. Levitan, Garth L. Mangum, Ray Marshall, Human Resources and Labor Markets, New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1972, p.403.
    ①Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, p.309.
    ②R.Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It,Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,2000, p.18.
    ③Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, pp.312-313.
    ④Steven M. Teles, Whose Welfare? AFDC and Elite Politics, p.100.
    ①Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989, p.129.
    ②Guida West, The National Welfare Rights Movement: the Social Protest of Poor Women, New York: Praeger, 1981, p.295.
    ③Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, p.302.
    ①Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, pp.330-331.
    ②D.M.迪尼托著,何敬、葛其伟译:《社会福利:政治与公共政策》,中国人民大学出版社,2007年,第81页。
    ③Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Regulating the Poor: The Functions of Public Welfare, p.332.
    ④U.S.Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, The Administration of Aid to Families With Dependent Children in New York City, November 1968-February 1969, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 1969, p.49.
    ①即崇尚英国维多利亚女王时代男外女内式的家庭结构,女人作为所谓的“家庭天使”,履行贤妻良母的职责。详见:郭俊、梅雪芹:“维多利亚时代中期英国中产阶级中上层的家庭意识探究”,《世界历史》2003年第1期。20世纪90年代前后,国外部分学者开始将维多利亚式家庭观念做为解释美国政府家庭福利政策史的意识根源,代表作:Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothersand the History of Welfare, 1890– 1935, New York: Free Press,1994.
    ②参见梁茂信:《美国人力培训与就业政策》,北京:人民出版社,2006年,第397页。
    ③Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989, p.315.
    ④U.S. Census Bureau, Families, by Presence of Own Children Under 18:1950 to Present.
    ⑤Nancy F. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 2000, p.204.
    ⑥Lawrence L. Wu and Babara Wolfe, ed., Out of Wedlock: Causes and Consequences of Nonmarital Fertilit, New York : Russell Sage Foundation, 2001, pp. 43-48.
    ①David T. Ellwood, Poor Support: Poverty in the American Family. New York: Basic Books, 1988, pp.144-145.
    ②Gossman A.S.“Divorced and Separated Women in the Labor Force: an Update”, Monthly Labor Review, 1978,Vol.101, p.43.
    ③Johnnie Tillmon,“Welfare is a Women’s Issue,”in Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.177-179, Document 27.
    ④卡普洛:《美国社会发展趋势》,商务印书馆,1997年,第69页。
    ⑤Carol B. Stack, All Our Kin: Strategies for Survival in a Black Community, New York: Basic Books , 1997.
    ⑥美国女性单亲家庭的处境要比其它西方工业化国家的同类家庭更为糟糕,53%的美国女性单亲家庭收入
    不足平均家庭收入的一半,而加拿大、法国、德国、荷兰、瑞典和英国该比例分别为45%、16%、25%、7%、6%和18%。见:Irwin Garfinkeland Sara McLanahan. Single Mother Families, Economic Insecurity, and Government Policy , University of Wisconsin Press, 1992,p.6.
    ①President’s Commission on Income Maintenance Programs, Poverty Amid Plenty:The American Paradox, Government Printing Office ,1969, p.220.
    ②Rickie Solinger, Beggars and Choosers: How the Politics of Choice Shapes Adoption, Abortion, and Welfare in the United States, New York: Hill and Wang, 2001, p.33.
    ③Sara McLanahan and Gary Sandefur,Growing Up With A Single Parent: What Hurts, What Helps, Harvard University Press, 1997
    ④U.S. Census Bureau, Number of Families Below the Poverty Level and Poverty Rate: 1959 to 2010. http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/data/historical/hstpov13.xls. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ①June O’Neill,“The Gender Gap in Wages, Circa 2000”, American Economic Review, 2003, Vol.93, No.2, pp.309-314.
    ②U.S. House, Committee on Ways and Means, 1996 Green Book, 1999, Table 8-28.
    ③David T. Ellwood, Poor Support: Poverty in the American Family. New York: Basic Books, 1988, p.52.
    ①U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 2000, p.367.
    ②Nancy F. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation, Harvard University Press, 2000, p.3.
    ③Rebecca M. Blank, Ron Haskins, ed., The New World of Welfare, Brookings Institution Press, 2001, p.421.
    ①David T. Ellwood, Poor Support: Poverty in the American Family. New York: Basic Books, 1988, pp.63-64.
    ②Wendy Brown, States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity, Princeton University Press 1995, p.137.
    ③David T. Ellwood, Poor Support: Poverty in the American Family. New York: Basic Books, 1988, p.197.
    ④Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass, Harvard University Press, 1993,p.13.
    ⑤Jane Juffer, Single Mother: The Emergence of the Domestic Intellectual, 2006, p.15.
    ⑥Elijah Anderson,“Sex Codes and Family Life among Poor Inner-city Youths”,The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1989, Vol.501, No.1, pp.59-78; Linda J. Waite and Christine Bachrach ed., The Ties that Bind: Perspectives on Marriage and Cohabitation, New York : Aldine de Gruyter, 2000, pp. 147-165; AkinrinolaBankole and Jacqueline E.Darroch,“Determinants of Trends in Condom Use In the United States, 1980-1995”, Family Planning Perspectives, 1999, Vol.31,pp.264-271.
    ①Kathryn Edin, Maria Kefalas,Promises I Can Keep: Why Poor Women Put Motherhood Before Marriage,California University Press, 2007, p.10.
    ②卡普洛:《美国社会发展趋势》,第64页。
    ③Jane Juffer, Single Mother: The Emergence of the Domestic Intellectual, New York: New York University Press, 2006, p.14.
    ①U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P60-185,“Poverty in the United States: 1992”,pp. 8-10.
    ②U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office,1992, p.43.
    ③David T. Ellwood and Jonathan Crane,“Family Change Among Black Americans: What Do We Know?”The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 1990, Vol. 4, No.4, pp.65-84.
    ④U.S.Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office,1990, p.395.
    ⑤U.S.Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office, 2001, p.368.
    ①陈志杰:“试论美国奴隶制时期的黑人家庭”,《史学集刊》,2006年第1期,第53-59页。黄兆群:“也谈美国黑人民族的特征”,《世界历史》,1991年第4期,第106-112页;张立新:“论重建后工业化对美国黑人社会的影响”,《史学月刊》,2003年第3期,第109-115页;胡锦山:“美国中心城市的‘隔都化’与黑人社会问题”,《厦门大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2007年第2期,第121-128页。
    ②吕洪艳:“美国女性单亲家庭研究中的几个热点问题概述”,《社会科学战线》,2007年第3期,第201页。
    ③Melvin Zelnik and John F. Kanter,“Sexual Experience of Young Unmarried Women in the United States”, Family Planning Perspectives, 1972, Vol. 4, No.1.
    ④U.S. Census Bureau, The Impact of Family Structure Variations among Black Families on the Underenumeration of Black Males, http://www.census.gov/srd/papers/pdf/ex90-07.pdf,. Visited on : 04/20/2010.
    ⑤Kathryn Neckerman, Robert Aponte, and William Julius Wilson,“Family Structure, Black Unemployment, and American Social Policy”in Margaret Weir, Ann Shola Orloff, and Theda Skocpol, ed., The Politics of Social Policy in the United States, Princeton Unveristy Press, 1988.
    ①即福利机构调查人员会在深夜或凌晨对领取福利的黑人女性单亲家庭居所进行突击检查,看是否存在不合法的同居关系,如果有,则终止援助。如果受援者拒绝配合,她的福利资格一样会被取消。详见Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989.
    ②Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890– 1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994, p.276.
    ③Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989, p.321.
    ④Martin Gilens, Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy, Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1999, p.106.
    ⑤Rebecca M. Blank, It Takes a Nation : a New Agenda for Fighting Poverty, New York : Russell Sage Foundation, 1997;Rebecca M. Blank and Ron Haskins, The New World of Welfare, Brookings Institution Press, 2001;Mark Robert Rank ,Living on the Edge: the Realities of Welfare in America, New York : Columbia University Press, 1994.
    ⑥Charles A. Murray,Losing Ground : American Social Policy, 1950-1980, New York : Basic Books, 1984.
    ①James T. Patterson, America's Struggle Against Poverty, 1900-1980, Harvard University Press, 1981, p.172.
    ②Michael B.Katz, The Undeserving Poor: from the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare, New York: Pantheon Books, 1989, p.125.
    ③埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1344页。
    ①埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1346页。
    ②这种说法由美国学者迈克尔·凯茨首次提出,见:Michael B. Katz ,The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare, New York: Pantheon Books, 1989.
    ③U.S. Census Bureau, Families, by Presence of Own Children Under 18:1950 to Present. http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hh-fam/fm1.xls. Visited on : 04/20/2010.
    ①埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1333页。
    ②U.S. Census Bureau, Children Under 18 Years Living With Mother Only, by Marital Status of Mother: 1960 to Present. http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hh-fam/ch5.xls. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ③Andrew J.Cherlin,Marriage,Divorce, Remarriage, Harvard University Press, 1992, p.48.
    ④埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1332页。
    ⑤此种说法的由来,见Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life, The Free Press, 1988, chap.9.
    ①Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life, The Free Press, 1988, p.240.
    ②Heather L. Ross and Isabel V. Sawhill, Time of Transition: the Growth of Families Headed by Women Washington: Urban Institute,1975, p.102, Table 24.
    ③Heather L. Ross and Isabel V. Sawhill, Time of Transition: the Growth of Families Headed by Women
    ①相关研究动态,见Heather L. Ross and Isabel V. Sawhill, Time of Transition: the Growth of Families Headed by Women Washington: Urban Institute,1975, pp.110-112.
    ②Ange-Marie Hancock, The Politics of Disgust: The Public Identity of the Welfare Queen, New YorkUniversity Press, 2004, p. 41.
    ③Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty, Oxford University Press, 1994, p.117.
    ①丹尼尔·帕特里克·莫伊尼汉历任肯尼迪政府和约翰逊政府劳工部部长助理、尼克松政府都市事务顾问、福特政府驻联合国大使。此后至2003年去世前一直任国会参议员,提出多项有影响力的议案。详见美国国会成员名录:http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M001054. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ②Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action, U.S. Department of Labor: Office of Policy Planning and Research, 1965, pp.5,12-13,29-30.
    ①李剑鸣:“民主的考验和考验中的民主”,《读书》,1999年第2期,第27页。
    ②Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single mothers and the History of Welfare, New York: The Free Press, 1994, p.276.
    ③U.S. House of Representatives, 1996 Green Book, Table 8-23.
    ④Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single mothers and the History of Welfare, New York: The Free Press, 1994, p.276.
    ⑤Mimi Abramovitz, Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present, South End Press, 1989, p.321.
    ⑥Martin Gilens ,Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy, University Of Chicago Press,1999, p. 106.
    ⑦李剑鸣:“民主的考验和考验中的民主”,《读书》,1999年第2期,第30页。
    ①Martin Gilens ,Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy, University Of Chicago Press, 1999, p. 107.
    ②Ibid, p. 123.
    ③Johnnie Tillmon,“Welfare is a Women’s Issue,”in Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009,pp.177-179, Document 27.
    ①Steven Mintz , Susan Kellogg,Domestic revolutions: a social history of American family life,The Free Press,1989,pp.233-237.国内学者自90年代以来也开始捕捉到美国主流政治哲学的这一重要转向,见胡金平:“宗教右翼与美国政治”,《世界历史》,1991年第3期;刘澎:“美国70年代的新保守主义”,《美国研究》,1997年第4期;王恩铭:“当代美国新保守主义的兴起”,《国际观察》,2006年第2期。
    ②Marisa Chappell, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform: The Politics of AFDC, 1964-1984, Northwest University, 2005, p. 143.
    ③Michael B. Katz, The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare New York: Pantheon Books, 1989.
    ④Marisa Chappell, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform: The Politics of AFDC, 1964-1984, Northwest University, 2005, p.89.
    ①Jennifer Mittelstadt, From Welfare to Workfare: The Unintended Consequences of Liberal Reform, 1945-1965. The University of North Carolina Press, 2005, pp.162-163.
    ②“Welfare Out of Control: Story of Financial Crisis Cities Face,”US. News and World Report, 8 February 1971, 30-34;“Welfare: Trying to End the Nightmare,”Time, 8, February 1971, 14-23;“Welfare-The Shame of a Nation,”Newsweek, 8 February 1971, 22-30.
    ③“Welfare Out of Control: Story of Financial Crisis Cities Face,”US. News and World Report, 8 February 1971, 30-34.
    ②Marisa Chappell, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform: The Politics of AFDC, 1964-1984, Northwest University, 2005, p.153.
    ③Marisa Chappell, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform: The Politics of AFDC, 1964-1984, Northwest University, 2005, p.143.
    ④也译作“白人的强烈反应”,见埃里克·方纳著,王希译:《给我自由!一部美国的历史》,商务印书馆,2010年,第1313页。
    ⑤Jane Juffer, Single Mother: The Emergence of the Domestic Intellectual, New York: New York University Press, 2006, p.18.
    ⑥Marisa Chappell, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform: The Politics of AFDC, 1964-1984, Northwest University, 2005, p.140.
    ①Marisa Chappell, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform: The Politics of AFDC, 1964-1984, Northwest University, 2005, pp.150-151.
    ②Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.174-176, Document 26.
    ②Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, p.184.
    ③Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History withDocuments, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.189-191,Document 31.
    ②米尔顿?弗里德曼夫妇:《自由选择:个人声明》,商务印书馆,1982年,第131-152页。
    ③米尔顿?弗里德曼:《资本主义与自由》,商务印书馆,2006年,第194页。
    ①“New Weapon Against Poverty,”New York Times, 16 November 1969;“Welfare: Time for Reform,”Saturday Review, 23 May 1970.
    ②Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty, Oxford University Press, 1994,p.121.也有另外一种说法,认为当时签署请愿书的经济学家数量为1200名。见Moynihan, The Politics of Guaranteed Annual Income, p.126.
    ①Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.124.
    ①Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.129.
    ②Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.132.
    ③Ibid.
    ④Federal Archives and Record Center, RG235, Box I,“Suggested Modification in H.R.I.”cited in Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp.125-126.
    ①Merrillee A. Dolan, Moynihan, Poverty Programs and Women: A Female Viewpoint, in Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.180-183, Document 28.
    ②U.S. Congress, Hearings on H.R.16311, p.1518, cited in Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty, Oxford University Press, 1994, p.129.
    ③Moynihan, The Politics of Guaranteed Annual Income, p.455.
    ①Marisa Chappell, From Welfare Rights to Welfare Reform: The Politics of AFDC, 1964-1984,p.86.
    ②Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.175-176, Document 26.
    ③Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.132.
    ④Ibid.
    ⑤The history of FAP Planning, May 6, 1970.
    ①R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.62.
    ②Joseph Califano, Governing America: An Insider's Report from the White House and the Cabinet, Simon and Schuster,1981, p.323.
    ①Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009,p.61.
    ①Irving Kristol,“The Poverty of Equality”, Wall Street Journal, July 12, 1976.
    ②“Bill Moyers Examines the Black Family.”Newsweek, January 27, 1986.
    ③“The American Underclass: Destitute and Desperate in the Land of Plenty.”Time, August 29, 1977:14-27.
    ④Ibid.
    ⑤Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University
    ①Mary Jo Bane and David T. Ellwood, Welfare Realities: From Rhetoric to Reform. Cmabridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    ②William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy, Chicago University Press, 1987.
    ③乔治·吉尔德著,储玉坤、钟淦恩、杨思正等译:《财富与贫困》,上海译文出社,1985年。
    ①Charles A. Murray, Losing Ground : American Social Policy, 1950-1980, pp.9,12,11,46.
    ②Sheldon H. Danziger, George Jakubson, Saul Schwartz and Eugene Smolensky, 1982. "Work and Welfare as Determinants of Female Poverty and Household Headship." Quarterly Journal of Economics, 97 (August): 519-534. David R. Ellwood and Mary Jo Bane, 1985 ,“The Impact of AFDC on Family Structure and Living Arrangements”. Research in Labor Economics7(2):137-149. Irwin Garfinkel and Sara McLanahan, Single Mothers and their Children: A New American Dilemma, New York: Russell Sage Foundation. 1986.
    ③尤尔根·哈贝马斯著,刘北成、曹卫东译:《合法化危机》,上海人民出版社, 2000年,第55页。
    ①Lawrence Mead, Beyond Entitlement: the Socail Obligations of Citizenship, New York : Free Press, 1986.
    ②U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Overview of the Final Report of the Seattle-Denver Income Maintenance Experiment. http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/SIME-DIME83/index.htm. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ③Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life, The Free Press, 1988,p.240.
    ④Ronald Reagan, Radio Address to the Nation on the American Family, December 3, 1983. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=40829&st=&st1=#axzz1b1hpDQEv. Visited on:
    ①Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University
    ③U. Vogel & M. Moran, ed., The Frontiers of Citizenship, Macmillan, 1991, p.26.
    ④R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000,p.70.
    ⑤Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.146.
    ①1988年《家庭支持法》的内容要点,可参见梁茂信:《美国人力培训与就业政策》,人民出版社,2006年,第402-405页。
    ②Edward D. Berkowitz, America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991, p.146.
    ①U.S. Department of Health and Human Servies, Setting the Baseline: A Report on State Welfare Waivers. June 1997. Available at: Http:// aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/isp/waiver2/title.htm. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ②House Committee on Ways and Means, 1996 Green Book, pp.386-387.
    ③U.S. House of Representatives, Ways and Means Committee, 1996 Green Book, p.325.
    ①U.S. House of Representatives, Ways and Means Committee, 1996 Green Book: Background Material and Data on Programs within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means ,Government Printing Office, 1996, pp.1215-1217.
    ②Ibid, p.471.
    ③Ibid, p.458.
    ④National Center for Health Statistics,“Health, United States, 1999, with Health and Aging Chartbook”, p.8. www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus99ncb.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ⑤U.S. House of Representatives, Ways and Means Committee, 1992 Green Book: Background Material and Data on Programs within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means ,Government Printing Office, 1992, pp.689-691.
    ①Charles Murray,“The Coming White Underclass”, Wall Street Journal, October 29, 1993, p.A14.
    ②Ron Haskins, Work over Welfare: The Inside Story of the 1996 Welfare Reform Law, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2006, p.10.
    ③U.S. Congress, Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, in U.S. Code, Congressional and Administrative News, vol.2, St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1997, p.2110.
    ④Folbern N. Albeldar, The War on the Poor: A Defense Manual, New York: The New Press, 1996, pp.30-31.
    ⑤David T. Ellwood and Mary Jo Bane,“The Impact of AFDC on Family Structure and Living Arrangements,”in Research in Labor Economics, vol.7, edited by R.G. Ehrenberg, Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1985; Rebecca M. Blank, It Takes a Nation: A New Agenda for Fighting Poverty, New York: Russell Sage, 1997, pp.37-39; Irwin Garfinkel and Sara S. Mclanahan, Single Mothers and Their Children: A New American Dilemma,Washington: Urban Institute, 1986, pp.58-69.
    ①Ron Hankins,“Does Welfare Encourage Illegitimacy?”American Enterprise 7 (1996): 48-49; Charles Murray,“Family Formation,”in The New World of Welfare, edited by Rebecca Blank and Ron Haskins, Brookings Institution Press, 2001.
    ②Mary Jo Bane and David Ellwood, Welfare Realities: From Rhetoric to Reform, Harvard University Press, 1994, p.28.
    ③Ibid, pp.28-39.
    ④Ron Haskins, Work over Welfare: The Inside Story of the 1996 Welfare Reform Law, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2006, p.7.
    ⑤House Ways and Means Committee, 1996 Green Book , Government Printing Office, 1996, p.505.
    ①Michael Tanner, Stephen Moore and David Hartman, The Welfare Versus Work Trade-Off: An Analysis of the Total Level of Welfare Benefits by State, Washington: Cato Institute, 1995.
    ②Ron Haskins, Work over Welfare: The Inside Story of the 1996 Welfare Reform Law, Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2006, p.11.
    ③House Ways and Means Committee, 1996 Green Book , Government Printing Office, 1996, pp.1321-1324.
    ④R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.147.
    
    ①R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.148.
    ①Tom W. Smith,“That Which We Call Welfare by Any Other Name Would Smell Sweeter: An Analysis of the Impact of Question Wording on Response Patterns”, Public Opinion, 1987, Quarterly 51:75-83. R.Kent Weaver, Robert Y. Shapiro and Lawrence R.Jacobs,“The Polls-Trends: Welfare,”Public Opinion, 1995, Quarterly 59: 606-627.
    ②Hugh Heclo,“Poverty Politics”, in Sheldon Danziger and Daniel Weinberg, eds., Confronting Poverty: Prescriptions for Change, Harvard University Press, 1994, pp.396-437.
    ③Maureen Dowd,“Americans Like G.O.P. Agenda But Split on How to Reach Goals”, New York Times, December 15, 1994 .
    ④Claudia Strauss,“Not-So-Rugged Individualists: U.S.Americans’Conflicting Ideas about Poverty”, in Francesco Fox Piven, Joan Acker, Margaret Hallock and Sandra Morgen eds., Work, Welfare and Politics: Confronting Poverty in the Wake of Welfare Reform, University of Oregon Press, 2002, pp.59-60.
    ①R. Kent Weaver, Robert Y. Shapiro, and Lawrence R. Jacobs.“Poll Trends: Welfare”, Public Opinion Quarterly, 1995,59(4):606–627.
    ②Francesco Fox Piven, Joan Acker, Margaret Hallock and Sandra Morgen eds., Work, Welfare and Politics: Confronting Poverty in the Wake of Welfare Reform, University of Oregon Press, 2002,p.37.
    ③二者差距一直在1%-2%之间而已。http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/afdc/baseline/3characteristics.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ④Maureen Dowd,“Americans Like G.O.P. Agenda But Split on How to Reach Goals”, New York Times, December 15, 1994.
    ⑤Steven M. Teles, Whose Welfare? AFDC and Elite Politics. University Press of Kansas, 1996, p.44.
    ⑥Ibid, chap.3.
    ①Mary Ann Mortorana, Congress, House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Public Assistance and Unemployment Compensation of the Committee on Ways and Means, Hearing on Administration’s Fiscal Year 1983 Legislative Proposals for Unemployment Compensation and Public Assistance, Ninety-seventh Congress, Second Session, April 21, 1982, pp.390-392,398, cited in Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009,p.75.
    ②“Why Every Woman in America Should Beware of Welfare Cuts”, in Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell, Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.208-209, Document 36.
    ①拉雷·N·格斯顿著,朱子文译:《公共政策的制定—程序和原理》,重庆出版社,2001年,第60页。
    ②U.S. House of Representatives, Ways and Means Committee, 1996 Green Book, p.402.
    ③Martin Gilens, Why Americans Hate Welfare: Race, Media, and the Politics of Antipoverty Policy, University Of Chicago Press, 1999, p.114.
    ①Ange-Marie Hancock, The Politics of Disgust: The Public Identity of the Welfare Queen, New YorkUniversity Press, 2004.
    ②Allen Schick,“Informed Legislation: Policy Research versus Ordinary Knoledge,”in William Robinson and Clay Wellborn, eds., Knowledge, Power and Congress (Congressional Quarterly Press, 1991), pp.99-119.
    ③Leon Dash, Washington Post, between September 18 and 25,1994.
    ④“美国卫生与人类服务部”(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,简称HHS)的前身,1979年因教育部的单独成立而改成现在的名称。
    ⑤Steven M. Teles, Whose Welfare? AFDC and Elite Politics. University Press of Kansas, 1996,pp.130-134.
    ⑥Harvey, Carol, Michael J. Camasso, and RadhaJagannathan. 2000.“Evaluating Welfare Reform Waivers under Section 1115”, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol.14, no. 4(Fall): 165-188.
    ①由于各资料对这些实验性改革的时间和特征各有出入,笔者以健康与人类服务部的信息为准:DHHS 1997, Crouse, Gil. 1999. State Implementation of Major Changes to Welfare Policies 1992-1998. Available at: http://aspe. Hhs.ogv/hsp/waiver-policies99/Table_B.htm. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ①Steven M. Teles, Whose Welfare? AFDC and Elite Politics. University Press of Kansas, 1996,chap.7.
    ①Wisconsin Legislative Reference Bureau, Wisconsin Works(W-2), in Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.210-213, Document 37.
    ②Thomas J. Corbett,“Welfare Reform in Wisconsin: The Rhetoric and the Reality”, in Donald F. Norris and Lyke Thompson, eds., The Politics of Welfare Reform, Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1995, p.42.
    ③Barbara Vobejda,“Most States Are Shaping Their Own Welfare Reform”, Washington Post, February 3, 1996, p. A1.
    ④Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, p.64.
    ①R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.235.
    ②William J. Cliton,Remarks to the National Baptist Convention, September 9, 1994.
    ①R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.240.
    ②Elizabeth Shogren and Paul Richter,“White House Plans Bipartisan Summit to Create Strategy for Welfare Reform Policy”, Los Angeles Times, December 9, 1994, p. A18.
    ③Hilary Stout,“Democrats and GOP Fail to Narrow Rift on Welfare, Hurting Chances for a Bill,”Wall Street Journal, January 30, 1995, p. A5.
    ④美国国会中的议案(bill)一般经过提出、委员会审议、全院大会审议等程序。一院通过后,送交另一院。法案经两院通过后交总统签署;若总统不否决,或虽否决但经两院2/3议员重新通过,即正式成为法律。参众两院均设有许多委员会,国会工作大多在各委员会中进行。其中,众议院方式方法委员会(House Committee on Ways and Means)和参议院金融委员会(Senate Finance Committee)跻身最为资深的委员会,分别负责两院税收与贸易、社会保障、失业保险、医疗保险、贫困家庭援助和儿童领养等相关议程的审议。
    ①Barbara Vobejda,“GOP Outlines Broad Welfare Reform”, Washington Post, January 7, 1995, p.A1.
    ②R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.288.
    ③House Committee on Ways and Means, Contract with America: Overview, pp.325-326.
    ①House Committee on Ways and Means, Contract with America: Overview, p.361.
    
    ①Robert Pear,“House Backs Bill Undoing Decades of Welfare Policy,”New York Times, March 25, 1995.
    ②House Committee on Ways and Means, Child Care and Child Welfare: Joint Hearing, p.119.
    ③Rich Lowry,“The Big Squeeze”, National Review, April 17, 1995, pp.25-26.
    ①R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.296.
    ②Elizabeth Shogren,“Senate Welfare Reform Proposal Goes Easier on the States,”Los Angeles Times, May 16, 1995, p.A4.
    ③Senate Finance Committee,“The Family Self-Sufficiency Act of 1995: Brief Summary,”May 1995.
    ④Robert Pear,“Senate Committee Approves a Vast Overhaul of Welfare”, New York Times, May 27, 1995, p.1.
    ②Jeffrey L. Katz,“GOP May Move to Split Medicine, Welfare”, Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, June 22, 1996, pp. 1761-1762, cited in R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.326.
    ③Elizabeth Shogren,“House and Senate Conferees Approve Welfare Overhaul,”Los Angeles Times, July 31, 1996, p. A1.
    ②R. Kent Weaver,“Deficits and Devolution in the 104th Congress”, The Journal o f Federalism, vol. 20, no.3, Summer 1996, pp. 45-87.
    
    
    ①有学者提出国会新的预算原则对于1996年福利改革也有有直接影响,代表观点见:R. Kent Weaver, Ending Welfare as We Know It, Brookings Institution Press, 2000, p.226.
    ②Barbara Vobejda,“Most States Are Shaping Their Own Welfare Reform”, Washington Post, February 3, 1996,
    ①U.S. Congress, Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, in U.S. Code, Congressional and Administrative News, vol.2, St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1997, 110 STAT. 2113.
    ①U.S. Congress, Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996, in U.S. Code, Congressional and Administrative News, vol.2, St. Paul: West Publishing Co., 1997, 110 STAT. 2113-2185. http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-104publ193/pdf/PLAW-104publ193.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ②White House, Working Toward Independence, 2002, http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/02/welfare-reform-announcement-book-all.html. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ③Administration for Children and Families, Changes in TANF Caseloads, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, December 1999.
    ④Jason DeParle,“Shrinking Welfare Rolls Leave Record High Share of Minorities,”New York Times, July 27, 1998, p. A1.
    ⑤Bruce Katz and Katherine Allen, The State of Welfare Caseloads in America’s Cities, May 1998. http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Files/rc/reports/1998/04metropolitanpolicy_katz/welfarekate.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ⑥Council of Economic Advisers, Explaining the Decline in Welfare Receipt, 1993-1996, Washington, 1997.
    ①U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Temporary Assistance to Needy Families Program, First Annual Report to Congress, August 1998, section 9.
    ②U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, TANF, Second Annual Report, August 1999, section13,Government Printing Office, 1999.
    ③General Accounting Office, States Are Restructing Programs to Reduce Welfare Dependence, HEHS-98-109, June 17, 1998. http://www.gao.gov/archive/1998/he98109.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ④U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, TANF, Second Annual Report, August 1999, section13,Government Printing Office, 1999.
    ⑤General Accounting Office, States’Experiences in Providing Employment Assistance to TANF Clients, HEHS-99-22, February 1999. www.gao.gov/archive/1999/he99022.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ①Gary Burtless,“Can the Labor Market Absorb Three Million welfare Recipients?”in The Low-WageLabor Market: Challenges and Opportunities for Economic Self-Sufficiency, Department of Health and Human Services, December 1999, p.65.
    ②U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Temporary Assistance to Needy Families Program: Third Annual Report to Congress. Washington D.C.: Government Printing Office, 2000, p.3.
    ③Ibid.
    ④Patricia Donovan,“The‘Illegitimacy Bonus’and State Efforts To Reduce Out-of-Wedlock Births”, Family Planning Perspectives,1999, 31(2):94-97; J.L.Dye and Harriet B. Presser,“The State Bonus to Reward a Decrease in‘Illgitimacy’: Flawed Methods and Questionable Effects.”Family Planning Perspectives, 1999, 31(3): 142-147.
    ⑤Andrew J Cherlin ,“How is the 1996 Welfare Reform Law Affecting Poor Families”. in Public and Private Families: A Reader, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.
    ①D.Landry, L. Kaeser and C. Richards,“Abstinence Promotion and the Provision of Information About Contraception in Public School District Sexuality Education Polices”, Family Planning Perspectives, 1999, 31(6):280-286.
    ②Douglas Kirby, No Easy Answers: Research Findings on Programs to Reduce Teen Pregnancy, Washington D.C.: The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 1997.
    ③Judith Gueron,“Work and Welfare: Lessons on Employment Programs”, Journal of Economic Perspectives 1990,4(No.1):79-98.
    ④TANF详细就业要求,见U.S.General Accounting Office, Welfare Reform: States' Experiences in Providing Employment Assistance to TANF Clients. GAO/HEHS-99-22, Washington, DC: U.S.General Accounting Office,1999,p.5. www.gao.gov/archive/1999/he99022.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ⑤Gordon Lafer, Job Training for Welfare Recipients: A Hand Up or a Slap Down? In Francesco Fox Piven, Joan Acker, Margaret Hallock and Sandra Morgen eds., Work, Welfare and Politics: Confronting Poverty in the Wake of Welfare Reform, University of Oregon Press, 2002,p.178.
    ①Stephen Freedman, Jean Tansey Knab, Lisa Gennetian, and David Navarro, The Los Angeles Jobs-First GAIN Evaluation: Final Report on a Work First Program in a Major Urban Center, New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation,2000. http://www.mdrc.org/Reports2000/LA-GAIN/LA-GAINExecSum.htm. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ②U.S.General Accounting Office, Welfare to Work: Current AFDC Program Not Sufficiently Focused on Employment GAO/HEHS-95-28, Washington, DC: U.S.General Accounting Office, 1994, p.10. http://www.gao.gov/archive/1995/he95028.pdf. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ③Stephen Freedman, Jean Tansey Knab, Lisa Gennetian, and David Navarro, The Los Angeles Jobs-First GAIN Evaluation: Final Report on a Work First Program in a Major Urban Cente,. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation,2000. http://www.mdrc.org/Reports2000/LA-GAIN/LA-GAINExecSum.htm. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ④Ibid.
    ⑤John Horton and Linda Shaw,“Opportunity, Control and Resistance: Living Welfare Reform in Los Angeles County”, in Francesco Fox Piven, Joan Acker, Margaret Hallock and Sandra Morgen eds., Work, Welfare and Politics: Confronting Poverty in the Wake of Welfare Reform, University of Oregon Press, 2002,p.200.
    ⑥Ibid, p.201.
    ①Kathryn Edin and Laura Lein, Making Ends Meet: How Single Mothers Survive Welfare and Low-Wage Work, New York: Russell Sage, 1997, p.74.
    ②Kimberly Freeman, Welfare Reform as We Know It: First Hand Accounts from the Front Lines, Washington, D.C.: Jobs With Justice, 1997,p.2, cited in Francesco Fox Piven, Joan Acker, Margaret Hallock and Sandra Morgen eds., Work, Welfare and Politics: Confronting Poverty in the Wake of Welfare Reform, University of Oregon Press, 2002, p.185.
    ①Renee A.Monson,“Ties That Bind: Child Support Enforcement and Welfare Reform in Wisconsin”, in Francesco Fox Piven, Joan Acker, Margaret Hallock and Sandra Morgen eds., Work, Welfare and Politics: Confronting Poverty in the Wake of Welfare Reform, University of Oregon Press, 2002, pp.232-233.
    ②Wendy Wedland,“Welfare Rolls Slashed, Many People Find Jobs,”Free Press, August 12, 1997.
    ③General Accounting Office, State Sanction Policies and the Number of Families Affected, p.34.
    ④Wendy CHavkin, Diana Romero, and Paul H.Wise,“What Do Sex and Reproduction Have to Do with Welfare?“, in Francesco Fox Piven, Joan Acker, Margaret Hallock and Sandra Morgen eds., Work, Welfare and Politics: Confronting Poverty in the Wake of Welfare Reform, University of Oregon Press, 2002,p.97.
    ⑤Jason DeParle, Shrinking Welfare Rolls Leave Record High Share of Minorities, New York Times, July 27,1998.
    ①Laura Meckler,“Whites Beat Minorities Off Welfare”, Associated Press Online Report, March 29, 1999.
    ②官方统计数据尚存不足,对于寄居于父母或亲属家中的单亲家庭,以及曾经有过单亲家庭经历的家庭无法统计,有学者估算,考虑上述因素,1998年人口普查局提供的女性单亲家庭数量为770万户,实际上应该在950万户左右。Lynne M. Casper, Suzanne M. Bianchi, Continuity and Change in the American Family, Sage Publications, 2002, p.97.
    ③笔者依据以下资料计算所得:U.S. Census Bureau,Household and Family Characteristics: March 1994,http://www.census.gov/prod/1/pop/p20-483.pdf, Visited on: 04/20/2010.
    ④U.S. Census Bureau, Families, by Presence of Own Children Under 18:1950 to Present. http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hh-fam/fm1.xls. Visited on : 04/20/2010.
    ⑤U.S. Census Bureau, Children Under 18 Years Living With Mother Only, by Marital Status of Mother: 1960 to Present. http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/hh-fam/ch5.xls. Visited on : 04/20/2010.
    ⑥拉美裔与非洲裔女性单亲家庭有共性之处,但后者更具代表性,因此文中主要以非洲裔女性单亲家庭作为种族视角的考察对象。
    ⑦National Center for Health Statistics, Advance Report of Final Natality Statistics, 1986. Monthly Vital Statistics Report, Vol. 37, No.3,p.1120. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/mvsr/supp/mv37_03s.pdf. Visited on : 04/20/2010.
    ⑧Nancy F. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard UniversityPress, 2000, p.204.
    ①U.S. House of Representatives, Ways and Means Committee, Overview of Entitlement Programs: 1994 Green Book),Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1997, pp.357-377.
    ②美国女性单亲家庭的处境要比其它西方工业化国家的同类家庭更为糟糕,53%的美国女性单亲家庭收入不足平均家庭收入的一半。而加拿大、法国、德国、荷兰、瑞典和英国该比例分别为45%、16%、25%、7%、6%和18%。见:Irwin Garfinkeland Sara McLanahan. Single Mother Families, Economic Insecurity, and Government Policy, University of Wisconsin Press, p.6.
    ③梁茂信:《美国人力培训与就业政策》,人民出版社2006年版,第401-402页。
    ④U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, Series P60-185,“Poverty in the United States: 1992”, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1992,pp.8-10.
    ⑤Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.81-82.
    ⑥June O’Neill,“The Gender Gap in Wages, Circa 2000”, American Economic Review,2003, Vol.93, No.2, pp.309-314.
    ⑦U.S. House, Committee on Ways and Means, 1996 Green Book,1999, Table 8-28.
    ①Kathryn Edin and Laura Lein, Making Ends Meet: How Single Mothers Survive Welfare and Low-Wage Work, New York: Russell. Sage Foundation, 1997.
    ②Pamela J. Loprest,“How Families that Left Welfare are Doing:A National Picture”, Number B-1 in Series, "New Federalism: National Survey of America's Families".1999. http://www.urban.org/publications/309170.html. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ③Mary Jo Bane and David Ellwood, Welfare Realities: From Rhetoric to Reform, Harvard University Press, 1994.
    ④Sarah Brauner, Pamela J. Loprest, Where Are They Now? What States' Studies of People Who Left Welfare Tell Us. Number A-32 in Series, "New Federalism: Issues and Options for States”, 1999. http://www.urban.org/publications/309065.html. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ⑤Pamela J. Loprest,“How Families that Left Welfare are Doing: A National Picture”, Number B-1 in Series, "New Federalism: National Survey of America's Families".1999. http://www.urban.org/publications/309170.html. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ⑥U.S.Departmentof Health and Human Services,“New Statistics Show Only Small Percentage of Eligible Families Receive Child Care Help”, http://archive.hhs.gov/news/press/2000pres/20001206.html. Visited on: 10/18/2011.
    ①Barbara Omolade,“It’s A Family Affair: The Real Lives of Black Single Mothers”, in Premilla Nadasen, Jennifer Mittelstadt, Marisa Chappell,Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935-1996, New York : Routledge, 2009, pp.201-207, Document 35.
    ①拉雷·N·格斯顿著,朱子文译:《公共政策的制定——程序和原理》,重庆出版社,2001年,第67页。
    ②Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life, New York: The Free Press, 1988, p.1.
    ③Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, Good Wives: Image and Reality in the Lives of Women in Northern New England, 1650-1750, pp.9-10, 15,23, 28, 50-51,70-71, cited in Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life, New York: The Free Press, 1988, p.12.
    ④Ruth H. Block,“American Feminine Ideals in Transition: The Rise of the Moral Mother, 1785-1815,”Feminist
    ①Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the Nineteen-Twenties, New York: Harper & Brothers,1931, pp.92-93.
    ②Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: A Social History of American Family Life, New York: The Free Press, 1988, chap. 9.
    ③马克斯·韦伯著,彭强、黄晓京译:《新教伦理与资本主义精神》,陕西师范大学出版社,2002年,第149-150页。
    
    ①美国驻华大使馆新闻文化处:《美国历史文献选集》,1985年,第188页。
    ②这种说法由美国学者迈克尔·凯茨首次提出,见:Michael B. Katz ,The Undeserving Poor: From the War on Poverty to the War on Welfare, New York: Pantheon Books, 1989.
    ①刘瑜:《民主的细节:当代美国政治观察随笔》,上海三联书店,2009年,第19页。
    ②T.H. Marshal, Social Policy, Allen and Unwin, London, 1974.
    ③Stephen B. Page, Mary B. Larner, Introduction to the AFDC Program, The Future of Children, Vol.7. No.1, Welfare to Work (Spring, 1997), p.21.
    ④戈斯塔·埃斯平-安德森:杨刚译:《转型中的福利国家——全球经济中的国家调整》,商务印书馆,2010年。
    ①Linda Gordon, Pitied But Not Entitled: Single Mothers and the History of Welfare, 1890-1935, New York: The Free Press, 1994, p.287.
    ②U.S.Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Bureau of Family Services, Division of Program Statistics and Analysis, Advance Release of Statistics on Public Assistance, January 1964, Table 12.
    ①U.S.House of Representatives, Ways and Means Committee. Overview of Entitlement Programs:1994 Green Book. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1994, p.415.Table 10-33.
    ②Ibid, pp.366-367, Table 10-11.
    ③Ibid, p.416, Table 10-34.
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