咨询公司跨国团队中的知识传递及其障碍
|
摘要
知识是企业最宝贵的财富之一,这一认识已经开始激励企业投入到知识管理工作中去。知识普遍贯穿于整个组织,而跨国公司们也在持续不断地探索新的知识和有效运用新知识的各种方法。越来越多的跨国公司开始组建跨功能团队,选择来自不同职能或部门的员工,通过跨边界的员工调转,来普及最佳的实践经验,并大大增加了公司价值。由于组织中工作的复杂性,需要提供大量可行的解决办案,而这来源于拥有不同背景、不同文化并一起工作的专家提供的专业知识。
本论文研究的问题是:如何在不同文化的团队成员之间进行知识传递,以及知识传递过程中所面临的障碍,尤其是如咨询公司一类的知识密集型组织。本文选择的研究对象是:
(1)Hill & Associates,风险管理公司,本文着重研究其上海子公司,由30名左右员工组成,其中包括本土和外籍人士。
(2)复旦大学-沃顿商学院全球商业咨询项目,由12名来自沃顿商学院和复旦大学管理学院的MBA学生组成的咨询项目组。
本论文研究的目的是更好的了解知识是如何在团队内部流动的,以及组织通过哪些因素的实施来达到团队成员间更好的知识传递。本论文在指出各种抑制和妨碍团队成员间知识传递的因素的同时,也描述了知识和知识传递在跨国团队中的重要性。此外,本论文还将从技术以外的文化和组织等方面来研究如何达到更大程度的知识共享。
本论文研究过程中,作者采用的搜集信息的方法,主要是:分别两个咨询机构内部展开面谈和调查;以及作者作为复旦大学-沃顿商学院全球咨询项目成员,在该咨询项目组工作其间的个人经验和观察。
本项研究的结论包括,1)当团队成员来自不同背景时,很重要的一点,就是要认识到知识传递过程中团队内存在的各种障碍;2)为达到组织的价值增加,需要管理和克服这些障碍,在此过程中所遇到的挑战。由于咨询项目中运用的知识往往是内隐的知识,而且这些隐性知识又与咨询公司的不同经营背景密切相关,本文中提到的用于克服障碍、促进团队成员间知识传递的方法,不一定可以一成不变地适用于其他行业中的组织。尽管如此,更重要的是对团队内知识传递的步骤的认识,了解如何在各团队成员间进行知识传递,以便发挥组织的更大效用,而这些认识确实可以适用于某种多元文化的团队。本文的研究结果表明,尽管目前有需要从组织和技术方面考虑促进知识传递,但当涉及到多元文化团队的知识传递时,这些可能还是不够的。因为在多元文化团队的知识传递中,来自不同文化背景的个人是关键。
The recognition of knowledge as one of the most valuable resources has motivated firms to engage in knowledge management. Knowledge is prevalent throughout the organization and multinational corporations are constantly exploring for new knowledge and ways to apply it effectively. Increasingly, multinational corporations are using cross-functional teams from various functions or departments and transferring their employees across borders to spread best practices and to greatly increase value to the firm. While the complex nature of work in organizations requires a multitude of possible solutions, this translates to requiring the expertise of different people with different backgrounds from various cultures to work together.
This thesis deals with the question of how knowledge is transferred among team members from different cultures and the barriers that they face, particularly in knowledge intensive organizations such as consulting companies. The organizations studied are:
(1) Hill & Associates, a risk management company, with the focus on the Shanghai subsidiary that consist of an average of 30 people including locals and expatriates
(2) The Fudan - Wharton Global Consulting Practicum, which is a consulting project that is catered towards a total of 12 MBA students from The Wharton School and Fudan University School of Management
The purpose of this thesis is to gain better understanding of how knowledge flows between the team and what are the factors implemented by the organizations to allow greater transfer of knowledge between the team members. This research describes the importance of knowledge and its transfer in transnational teams while exploring the various factors that inhibit or hamper the transfer between the members. Also, this research will look at ways other than the technical aspects that create greater sharing of knowledge, including the cultural and organizational aspects.
The methods used to gather information in this study were primarily through interviews for both consulting organizations and observation through personal experience as a member of the Fudan - Wharton Global Consulting Practicum.
Results of this study pointed to 1) the importance of recognizing the various knowledge barriers that exist in teams with diverse people from backgrounds and 2) the challenge of managing and overcoming the barriers in order to value add to the organization. Due to the tacit nature of the knowledge in consulting projects and its relationship to knowledge of the diverse operating contexts of consulting firms, this study proposes that the ways to overcome knowledge transfer among the team members may not all be a one-size-fits-all to organizations in other industries. However more importantly recognizing the steps of how knowledge is transferred among the various team members for greater performance does apply for certain multicultural teams. Results indicate that albeit there is a need to organizational and technical aspects that facilitate knowledge transfer, it might still not be adequate when it comes down to multicultural team knowledge transfer as individuals from various cultural backgrounds are the key.
本论文研究的问题是:如何在不同文化的团队成员之间进行知识传递,以及知识传递过程中所面临的障碍,尤其是如咨询公司一类的知识密集型组织。本文选择的研究对象是:
(1)Hill & Associates,风险管理公司,本文着重研究其上海子公司,由30名左右员工组成,其中包括本土和外籍人士。
(2)复旦大学-沃顿商学院全球商业咨询项目,由12名来自沃顿商学院和复旦大学管理学院的MBA学生组成的咨询项目组。
本论文研究的目的是更好的了解知识是如何在团队内部流动的,以及组织通过哪些因素的实施来达到团队成员间更好的知识传递。本论文在指出各种抑制和妨碍团队成员间知识传递的因素的同时,也描述了知识和知识传递在跨国团队中的重要性。此外,本论文还将从技术以外的文化和组织等方面来研究如何达到更大程度的知识共享。
本论文研究过程中,作者采用的搜集信息的方法,主要是:分别两个咨询机构内部展开面谈和调查;以及作者作为复旦大学-沃顿商学院全球咨询项目成员,在该咨询项目组工作其间的个人经验和观察。
本项研究的结论包括,1)当团队成员来自不同背景时,很重要的一点,就是要认识到知识传递过程中团队内存在的各种障碍;2)为达到组织的价值增加,需要管理和克服这些障碍,在此过程中所遇到的挑战。由于咨询项目中运用的知识往往是内隐的知识,而且这些隐性知识又与咨询公司的不同经营背景密切相关,本文中提到的用于克服障碍、促进团队成员间知识传递的方法,不一定可以一成不变地适用于其他行业中的组织。尽管如此,更重要的是对团队内知识传递的步骤的认识,了解如何在各团队成员间进行知识传递,以便发挥组织的更大效用,而这些认识确实可以适用于某种多元文化的团队。本文的研究结果表明,尽管目前有需要从组织和技术方面考虑促进知识传递,但当涉及到多元文化团队的知识传递时,这些可能还是不够的。因为在多元文化团队的知识传递中,来自不同文化背景的个人是关键。
The recognition of knowledge as one of the most valuable resources has motivated firms to engage in knowledge management. Knowledge is prevalent throughout the organization and multinational corporations are constantly exploring for new knowledge and ways to apply it effectively. Increasingly, multinational corporations are using cross-functional teams from various functions or departments and transferring their employees across borders to spread best practices and to greatly increase value to the firm. While the complex nature of work in organizations requires a multitude of possible solutions, this translates to requiring the expertise of different people with different backgrounds from various cultures to work together.
This thesis deals with the question of how knowledge is transferred among team members from different cultures and the barriers that they face, particularly in knowledge intensive organizations such as consulting companies. The organizations studied are:
(1) Hill & Associates, a risk management company, with the focus on the Shanghai subsidiary that consist of an average of 30 people including locals and expatriates
(2) The Fudan - Wharton Global Consulting Practicum, which is a consulting project that is catered towards a total of 12 MBA students from The Wharton School and Fudan University School of Management
The purpose of this thesis is to gain better understanding of how knowledge flows between the team and what are the factors implemented by the organizations to allow greater transfer of knowledge between the team members. This research describes the importance of knowledge and its transfer in transnational teams while exploring the various factors that inhibit or hamper the transfer between the members. Also, this research will look at ways other than the technical aspects that create greater sharing of knowledge, including the cultural and organizational aspects.
The methods used to gather information in this study were primarily through interviews for both consulting organizations and observation through personal experience as a member of the Fudan - Wharton Global Consulting Practicum.
Results of this study pointed to 1) the importance of recognizing the various knowledge barriers that exist in teams with diverse people from backgrounds and 2) the challenge of managing and overcoming the barriers in order to value add to the organization. Due to the tacit nature of the knowledge in consulting projects and its relationship to knowledge of the diverse operating contexts of consulting firms, this study proposes that the ways to overcome knowledge transfer among the team members may not all be a one-size-fits-all to organizations in other industries. However more importantly recognizing the steps of how knowledge is transferred among the various team members for greater performance does apply for certain multicultural teams. Results indicate that albeit there is a need to organizational and technical aspects that facilitate knowledge transfer, it might still not be adequate when it comes down to multicultural team knowledge transfer as individuals from various cultural backgrounds are the key.
引文
Adenfelt, M. & Lagerstrom, K. (2004), "Enabling knowledge creation and sharing in transnational projects", International Journal of Project Management, pp. 191-198.
Ahuja, G. (2000), The duality of collaboration: inducements and opportunities in the formation of interfirm linkages, Strategic Management Journal 21, pp.317-343.
Argote L. and Ingram P. (2000), Knowledge transfer: a basis for competitive advantage in firms. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 82(1), pp. 150-169.
Baldwin, T., Magjuka R., and Loher B. (1991), The perils of participation: Effects of choice of training on trainee motivation and learning, Personal Psychology, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 51-65.
Barker, S.A.,(2004), Improving interpersonal job skills by applying cross-cultural training, Journal of European Industrial Training
Barney, J.B. (1986), "Strategic factor markets: Expectations, luck and business strategy," Management Science, Vol. 32, pp.1231-1241.
Barczak G, McDonough III EF. (2003), Leading global product development teams. Res Technology Management, Vol. 46, No.6, pp.14-8.
Barker, S.A., 2004. Improving interpersonal job skills by applying cross-cultural training, Journal of European Industrial Training.
Bartlett, C. A. & Ghoshal, S. (1989), Managing Across Borders, Boston, MS: Harvard Business School Press.
Bjorkman I, Barner-Rasmussen W and Li L. (2004), Managing knowledge transfer in MNCs: the impact of headquarters control mechanisms. Journal of International Business Studies 34(5), pp.443-455.
Bose, R. (2001). Customer relationship management: key components for IT success, Industrial Management & data systems, 102(2), 89-97.
Boyacigiller, N. (1990), The role of expatriates in the management of independence, complexity and risk in multinational corporations, Journal of International Business Studies, 21 (3), pp.357-381.
Brock, E.N., & Anthony, W.P. (2002, December). Tacit knowledge and strategic decision-making, Group & Organization Management, Vol.27, pp.436-455.
Burt, R.S. (1992), Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Chen, C.C. et al, (1998), "How can cooperation be fostered? The cultural effects of individualism-collectivism", Academy of Management Review, Vol.23, pp. 285-304.
Ciabushi F. (2005), On IT systems and knowledge sharing in MNCs: a lesson from Siemens AG. Knowledge Management Research & Practice 3, pp.87-96.
Cohen W.M. and Levinthal D.A. (1990) Absorptive capacity: a new perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly 35(1), pp. 128-152.
Coleman, J.S. (1988), Social capital in the creation of human capital, American Journal of Sociology 94, pp.95-120.
Darr, E. D., L. Argote & D. Epple (1995), The acquisition, transfer and depreciation of knowledge in service organizations: Productivity in franchises, Management Science, Vol. 41, No. 11, pp.1750-1762.
Davis, A. (2002). The four pillars of knowledge management success. Biopharmaceuticals, Vol. 15 No.7,pp.44-46.
Davis, M.M., Heineke, J. (1004), "Understanding the roles of the customer and the operation for better queue management", International Journal of Production & Operations Management, Vol. 13 No.5,pp.21-34.
Dierickx, I., Cool, K., (1989), Asset stock accumulation and sustainability of competitive advantage, Management Science 35, pp.1504-1511.
Drucker, P. (1993), Post Capitalist Society, Harper Row, New York, NY.
Earley, P. C, Mosakowski, E. M. (2000), Creating hybrid team cultures: An empirical test of international team functioning. Academy of Management Journal, 43: pp.26-49.
Epple D, Argote L and Mrphy K (1996), An empirical investigation of the microstructure of knowledge acquisition and transfer through learning by doing, Operations Research Vol. 44, No.1, pp.77-86.
Frank, R. H., & Cook P.J. (1996), The winner-take-all society, New York: Viking Penguin.
Frist C. and Zhou T. (2005), R&D co-practice and 'reverse' knowledge integration in multinational firms, Journal of International Business Studies 36(6), pp.676-687.
Ghoshal, S. & C. A. Bartlett, 1988, Creation, adoption and diffusion of innovations by subsidiaries of multinational corporations. Journal of International Business Studies, Fall, pp. 365-388.
Gold, A. H., Malhotra, A., & Segars, A. H. (2001), "Knowledge management: An organizational capabilities perspective," Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol. 18, No.1, pp.185-214.
Grant, R.M. (1996a), "Prospersing in dynamically-competitive environments: Organizational capability as knowledge integration, Organization Science, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp.375-387.
Grover, V., & Davenport, T. H. (2001), "General perspectives on knowledge management: Fostering a research agenda," Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol.18, No.1, pp. 5-21.
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2001), Converting global presence into global competitive advantage. Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 15, No. 2,, pp.45-58.
Haas M.R. and Hansen M.T. (2005), When using knowledge can hurt performance: the value of organizational capabilities in a management consulting company. Strategic Management Journal 26(1),pp.1-24.
Hansen, M. T., Nohria, N. and Tierrney, T., "What's your strategy for managing knowledge?," Harvard Business Review, march-April, 1999, pp. 106-116.
Hayek F.A (1945), The use of knowledge in society. American Economic Review 25(4), pp. 519-530.
Holtbrugge, D. and Berg, N. (2004), "Knowledge transfer in multinational corporations: evidence from German firms", Management International Review, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 129-45.
Holsapple, C. W., & Singh, M. (2001), The knowledge chain model:activities for competitiveness, Expert Systems with Application, Vol.20, No.1, pp.77-98.
Hofstede, G. (1997), Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill Co., New York, NY.
Hofstede, G. (2001), Culture's Consequences, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
Hoopes D.G. and Postrel S. (1999), Shared knowledge, 'glitches', and product development performance, Strategic Management Journal 29,pp.837-865.
Iansiti, M. (1993), Real-world R & D: Jumping the product generation gap, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 71, No.3, pp.138-147.
Inkpen A.C. and Tsang E.W.K (2005), Social capital, networks, and knowledge transfer. Academy of Management Review 30(1), pp.146-165.
Johansson C, Dittrich Y., Juustila A.. (1999), Software Engineering Across Boundaries - Student Project in Distributed Collaboration IEEE Transaction on Professional Communication.
Johnson B., Lorenz E. and Lundvall B-A° (2002), Why all this fuss about codified and tacit knowledge? Industrial and Corporate Change 11(2), pp.245-262.
Kane AA, Argot L and Levine JM. (2005), Knowledge transfer between groups via personnel rotation: Effects of social identity and knowledge quality. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 96(1), pp. 56-71.
Kedia, B.L. and Bhagat, R.S. (1988)," Cultural Constraints on transfer of technology across nations: implications for research in international and comparative management", Academy of Management Review, Vol. 13, pp. 558-71.
Kim, W.C. and Mauborgne, R., "Strategy, value innovation, and the knowledge economy," Sloan Management Review, Vol. 40, No. 3, Spring, 1999, pp.41-54.
Kim L. (2001), Absorptive Capacity, Co-operation, and Knowledge Creation: Samsung's
Leapfrogging in Semiconductors, in Nonaka, I., Nishiguchi, T. (eds.), Knowledge Emergence: Social, Technical, and Evolutionary Dimensions of Knowledge Creation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.270-286.
Kluge, J., Stein, W., & Light, S. (2001), Knowledge unplugged, Houndsmill, Basingstoke, Hampeshire, UK, Palgrave.
Kogut, B., & Zander, U. (1992). Knowledge of the firm, combinative capabilities, and the replication of technology, Organization Science, Vol. 3, pp.383-397.
Kostova, T. (1996), "Success of the transnational transfer of organizational practices within multinational corporations", unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
Lagerstrom, K., & Andersson, M. (2003), Creation and sharing knowledge within a transnational team-Development of a global business system, Journal of World Business, 38(2), pp.84-95.
Laroche L. 2003, Managing Cultural Diversity in Technical Professions, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Lee H, Choi B. (2003), Knowledge management enablers, processes, and organizational performance: an integrative view and empirical examination. Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.179-228.
Lewis R. (2000), When cultures collide: managing successfully across cultures; Nicholas Brealey Publishing Ltd 2., rev. ed.
Liebowitz, J. (2001), Knowledge management and its link to artificial intelligence. Expert Systems with Application, Vol.20, pp.1-6.
Lubit R. (2001), "Tacit Knowledge and Knowledge Management: The keys to sustainable competitive advantage", Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 164-178.
Lucas, L.M (2006), The role of culture on knowledge transfer: the case of the multinational corporation, The Learning Organization, Vol.13, No. 2/3, pp. 257-275.
Lyles M.A. and Salk J.E. (1996), Knowledge acquisition from foreign parents in international joint ventures: An empirical examination in the Hungarian context, Journal of International Business Studies 27(5), pp.877-903.
Maholtra, Y. (1998, February 19). Knowledge management, knowledge organizations and knowledge workers: A view from the front lines. Interview with Maeil Business Newspaper, Korea, Maeil Business Newspaper. Available: Brint.com.
Mahoney, J.T., and Pandian, J. R. (1992), "The resource based view within the conversation of strategic management," Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 13, pp.363-380.
Manner Solomon, C. (1998). Building teams across borders. Global Workforce, November, 13-17.
Maybury, M., D'Amore, R., & House, D. (2000), Automating the finding of experts, Research Technology Management, Vol. 43 No. 6, pp.12.
McDermott,R.and O'Dell,C.(2001),"Overcoming cultural barriers to sharing knowledge",Journal of Knowledge Management,Vol.5,pp.76-85.
Mendenhall,M.,Dunbar,E.,& Oddou,G.(1987).Expatriate selection,training and careerpathing:a review and critique.Human Resource Management,26(3),pp.331-345.
Miesing P,Kriger MP and Slough N(2007) Towards a model of effective knowledge transfer within transnationals:the case of Chinese foreign invested enterprises.The Journal of Technology Transfer 32(1),pp.109-122.
Miller,D.A.,& Shamsie,J.(1996),The resource-based view of the firm in two environments:The Hollywood film studios form 1936 to 1965.Academy of Management Journal,39,pp.519-543.
Mowrey,D.,Oxley,J.and Silverman,B.(1996),Strategic alliances and Interfirm Knowledge Transfer,Strategic Management Journal,Vol 17.,Special Issue,pp.77-91.
Nahapiet,J.,Ghoshal,S.(1998),Social capital,intellectual capital,and the organizational advantage.Academy of Management Review 23,pp.242-266.
Nelson,R & S.(1982,Winter),"An evolutionary theory of economic change",Cambridge,Belknap Press.
Nonaka,I.(1994),"A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge",Creation,Organization Science,Vol.5,pp.14-37.
Nonaka,I.(1998),"The knowledge-creating company",Harvard Business Review,July/August,special issue on Knowledge Management,pp.21-46.
Nonaka I.and Takeuchi,H.(1995),The Knowledge-Creating Company,Oxford University Press,Oxford.
Nonaka,I.& Konno,N.(1998),"The Concept of"Ba":Building a Foundation For Knowledge Creation",California Management Review,Vol.40,No.3,pp.40-54.
Pablos,P.(2004),"Knowledge flow transfers in multinational corporations:knowledge properties and implications for management",Journal of Knowledge Management,Vol.8 pp.105-116.
Pan,S.,& Scarbrouth,H.(1998),"A socio-technical view of knowledge sharing at Buckman laboratories," Journal of Knowledge Management,Vol.2,No.1,pp.55-66.
Patel & Tebelius,U,1987,grundbok I forskningsmetodik Lurid:Student literature.
Probst,G.,Raub,S.and Romhardt,K.(2000),Managing Knowledge:Building-Blocks for Success,John Wiley & Sons,Chichester.
Penrose E.(1959),The Theory of the Growth of the Firm.Blackwell,Oxford.
Phene,A.et al.(2005),"Knowledge transfer within the multinational firm:what drives the speed of transfer?",Management International Review,Vol.45,pp.53-74.
Prahalad, C. K., and Hamel, G. (1999, March), "The core competence of the corporation," Harvard Business Review, pp.79-91.
Prusak L. and Camson B. (2006), How Cultures Filter Knowledge and What Can Be Done About It, Babson Executive Education.
Quintas, P., Lefere, P. and Jones, G. (1997), "Knowledge management: A strategic agenda," Long Range Planning, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp.385-391.
Raven, A., & Prasser, S. G. (1996), "Information technology support for the creation and transfer of tacit knowledge in organizations." In R. Ramsower (Ed.), (1996). Association for Information Systems 1996 Americas Conference. Phoenix: CAIS, available at hsb.Baylor.edu/ramsower/ais.ac.96/papers/RAVEN.htm.
Reagans R. and Mcevily B. (2003), Network structure and knowledge transfer: the effects of Cohesion and Range. Administrative Science Quarterly 48(2), pp.240-267.
Savolainen, T., Beeckman, D., Groumpos, P, and Jagdev, H. (1995), "Positioning of modeling approaches, methods and tools, Computers in Industry, Vol.25, pp.255-262.
Savary, Miklos (1999, Winter), "Knowledge management and competition in the consulting industry", California Management Review, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp.95-107.
Schein, E. (1985), Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey-Bass, San Fransisco, CA.
Schweiger, D. M. (1998). Networking global style. Business and Economic Review, January-March, pp.3-6.
Senge, P. M. (199b, October), "Developing an effective knowledge strategy", Paper presented at Chief Learning Officer Conference, Boston.
Simon, R. (1994), "How new top managers use control systems as levers of strategic renewal, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 15, pp.169-189.
Skyrme, David J. (1997), "Knowledge management: Making sense of an oxymoron", http://www.skyrme.com/insights/22km.htm.
Snell, S. A., Snow, C. C, Davison, S. C, & Hambrick, D. C. (1998). Designing and supporting transnational teams: The human resource agenda. Human Resource Management, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 147-158.
Snell, S. A., Snow, C. C, Davison, S. C, & Hambrick, D. C. (1996). Use transnational teams to globalize your company, Organization Dynamics, pp.50-67.
Song J. et al. (2003), "Learning by hiring, when is mobility more likely to facilitate interfirm knowledge transfer", Management Science, Vol. 49, pp. 351-65.
Stonehouse, G. H., & Pemberton, J. D. (1999), "Learning and knowledge management in the intelligent organization," Participation and Empowerment: An International Journal, Vol.7, No.5, pp.131-144.
Subramaniam, M., & Venkatraman, N. (2001). Determinants of transnational new product development capability: Testing the influence of transferring and deploying tacit overseas knowledge. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 22, pp. 359-378.
Szulanski, G. (1993), "Intra-firm transfer of best practice, appropriatice capabilities, and organizational barriers to appropriation", Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings, pp.47-51.
Szulanski, G. (1996, Winter), Exploring internal stickiness: Impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firm, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 17, pp.27-43.
Tjosvold D., Leung K., (2003)Cross-Cultural Management: Foundations and Future. Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Triandis, H.C. (1995), Individualism and Collectivism, Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Triandis H.C. (2003), Forty-Five Years of Researching the Culture and Behavior Link, Chapter 1 of Tjosvold and Leung, Cross-Cultural Management: Foundations and Future. Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Turati C, Usai A. and Ravagnani R. (1998), Antecedents of co-ordination in academic international project research, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 3 No. 13, pp. 188-198
Tull, D.S. & Hawkins, D.I. (1990), Marketing Research, 5tl Ed. New York: Macmillian Publishing Company.
Von Krogh, G., Ichigo, K, & Nonaka, I. (2000), Enabling knowledge creation: How to unlock the mystery of tacit knowledge and release the power of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Von Krogh G, Nonaka I, Aben M. (2001), Making the most of your company's knowledge: A strategic framework. Long Range Planning, Vol. 34, pp.421-39.
Von Hippel E. (1994), 'Sticky' information and the locus of problem solving: implications for innovation. Management Science 40(4), pp.429-439.
Vroom, V. (1964), Work and Motivation, New York, London and Sydney, John Wiley and Sons.
Walczak S. (2005), "Organizational knowledge management structure", The Learning Organization, Vol.12, No. 4.
Wernerfelt, B. (1984), "A resource based view of the firm," Strategy Management Journal, Vol. 5, pp.171-180.
Yin, R.K. (1994), Case study research: design and methods, (2nd ed), Thousand Oaks, Sage, cop. CA
Zander, I. and Solvell, O. (2000), "Cross-border innovation in the multinational corporation: a research agenda", International Studies of Management & Organization, Vol. 30, pp. 44-67.Appendix Asd
Ahuja, G. (2000), The duality of collaboration: inducements and opportunities in the formation of interfirm linkages, Strategic Management Journal 21, pp.317-343.
Argote L. and Ingram P. (2000), Knowledge transfer: a basis for competitive advantage in firms. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 82(1), pp. 150-169.
Baldwin, T., Magjuka R., and Loher B. (1991), The perils of participation: Effects of choice of training on trainee motivation and learning, Personal Psychology, Vol. 44, No. 1, pp. 51-65.
Barker, S.A.,(2004), Improving interpersonal job skills by applying cross-cultural training, Journal of European Industrial Training
Barney, J.B. (1986), "Strategic factor markets: Expectations, luck and business strategy," Management Science, Vol. 32, pp.1231-1241.
Barczak G, McDonough III EF. (2003), Leading global product development teams. Res Technology Management, Vol. 46, No.6, pp.14-8.
Barker, S.A., 2004. Improving interpersonal job skills by applying cross-cultural training, Journal of European Industrial Training.
Bartlett, C. A. & Ghoshal, S. (1989), Managing Across Borders, Boston, MS: Harvard Business School Press.
Bjorkman I, Barner-Rasmussen W and Li L. (2004), Managing knowledge transfer in MNCs: the impact of headquarters control mechanisms. Journal of International Business Studies 34(5), pp.443-455.
Bose, R. (2001). Customer relationship management: key components for IT success, Industrial Management & data systems, 102(2), 89-97.
Boyacigiller, N. (1990), The role of expatriates in the management of independence, complexity and risk in multinational corporations, Journal of International Business Studies, 21 (3), pp.357-381.
Brock, E.N., & Anthony, W.P. (2002, December). Tacit knowledge and strategic decision-making, Group & Organization Management, Vol.27, pp.436-455.
Burt, R.S. (1992), Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
Chen, C.C. et al, (1998), "How can cooperation be fostered? The cultural effects of individualism-collectivism", Academy of Management Review, Vol.23, pp. 285-304.
Ciabushi F. (2005), On IT systems and knowledge sharing in MNCs: a lesson from Siemens AG. Knowledge Management Research & Practice 3, pp.87-96.
Cohen W.M. and Levinthal D.A. (1990) Absorptive capacity: a new perspective on learning and innovation. Administrative Science Quarterly 35(1), pp. 128-152.
Coleman, J.S. (1988), Social capital in the creation of human capital, American Journal of Sociology 94, pp.95-120.
Darr, E. D., L. Argote & D. Epple (1995), The acquisition, transfer and depreciation of knowledge in service organizations: Productivity in franchises, Management Science, Vol. 41, No. 11, pp.1750-1762.
Davis, A. (2002). The four pillars of knowledge management success. Biopharmaceuticals, Vol. 15 No.7,pp.44-46.
Davis, M.M., Heineke, J. (1004), "Understanding the roles of the customer and the operation for better queue management", International Journal of Production & Operations Management, Vol. 13 No.5,pp.21-34.
Dierickx, I., Cool, K., (1989), Asset stock accumulation and sustainability of competitive advantage, Management Science 35, pp.1504-1511.
Drucker, P. (1993), Post Capitalist Society, Harper Row, New York, NY.
Earley, P. C, Mosakowski, E. M. (2000), Creating hybrid team cultures: An empirical test of international team functioning. Academy of Management Journal, 43: pp.26-49.
Epple D, Argote L and Mrphy K (1996), An empirical investigation of the microstructure of knowledge acquisition and transfer through learning by doing, Operations Research Vol. 44, No.1, pp.77-86.
Frank, R. H., & Cook P.J. (1996), The winner-take-all society, New York: Viking Penguin.
Frist C. and Zhou T. (2005), R&D co-practice and 'reverse' knowledge integration in multinational firms, Journal of International Business Studies 36(6), pp.676-687.
Ghoshal, S. & C. A. Bartlett, 1988, Creation, adoption and diffusion of innovations by subsidiaries of multinational corporations. Journal of International Business Studies, Fall, pp. 365-388.
Gold, A. H., Malhotra, A., & Segars, A. H. (2001), "Knowledge management: An organizational capabilities perspective," Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol. 18, No.1, pp.185-214.
Grant, R.M. (1996a), "Prospersing in dynamically-competitive environments: Organizational capability as knowledge integration, Organization Science, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp.375-387.
Grover, V., & Davenport, T. H. (2001), "General perspectives on knowledge management: Fostering a research agenda," Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol.18, No.1, pp. 5-21.
Gupta, A., & Govindarajan, V. (2001), Converting global presence into global competitive advantage. Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 15, No. 2,, pp.45-58.
Haas M.R. and Hansen M.T. (2005), When using knowledge can hurt performance: the value of organizational capabilities in a management consulting company. Strategic Management Journal 26(1),pp.1-24.
Hansen, M. T., Nohria, N. and Tierrney, T., "What's your strategy for managing knowledge?," Harvard Business Review, march-April, 1999, pp. 106-116.
Hayek F.A (1945), The use of knowledge in society. American Economic Review 25(4), pp. 519-530.
Holtbrugge, D. and Berg, N. (2004), "Knowledge transfer in multinational corporations: evidence from German firms", Management International Review, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 129-45.
Holsapple, C. W., & Singh, M. (2001), The knowledge chain model:activities for competitiveness, Expert Systems with Application, Vol.20, No.1, pp.77-98.
Hofstede, G. (1997), Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill Co., New York, NY.
Hofstede, G. (2001), Culture's Consequences, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
Hoopes D.G. and Postrel S. (1999), Shared knowledge, 'glitches', and product development performance, Strategic Management Journal 29,pp.837-865.
Iansiti, M. (1993), Real-world R & D: Jumping the product generation gap, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 71, No.3, pp.138-147.
Inkpen A.C. and Tsang E.W.K (2005), Social capital, networks, and knowledge transfer. Academy of Management Review 30(1), pp.146-165.
Johansson C, Dittrich Y., Juustila A.. (1999), Software Engineering Across Boundaries - Student Project in Distributed Collaboration IEEE Transaction on Professional Communication.
Johnson B., Lorenz E. and Lundvall B-A° (2002), Why all this fuss about codified and tacit knowledge? Industrial and Corporate Change 11(2), pp.245-262.
Kane AA, Argot L and Levine JM. (2005), Knowledge transfer between groups via personnel rotation: Effects of social identity and knowledge quality. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 96(1), pp. 56-71.
Kedia, B.L. and Bhagat, R.S. (1988)," Cultural Constraints on transfer of technology across nations: implications for research in international and comparative management", Academy of Management Review, Vol. 13, pp. 558-71.
Kim, W.C. and Mauborgne, R., "Strategy, value innovation, and the knowledge economy," Sloan Management Review, Vol. 40, No. 3, Spring, 1999, pp.41-54.
Kim L. (2001), Absorptive Capacity, Co-operation, and Knowledge Creation: Samsung's
Leapfrogging in Semiconductors, in Nonaka, I., Nishiguchi, T. (eds.), Knowledge Emergence: Social, Technical, and Evolutionary Dimensions of Knowledge Creation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp.270-286.
Kluge, J., Stein, W., & Light, S. (2001), Knowledge unplugged, Houndsmill, Basingstoke, Hampeshire, UK, Palgrave.
Kogut, B., & Zander, U. (1992). Knowledge of the firm, combinative capabilities, and the replication of technology, Organization Science, Vol. 3, pp.383-397.
Kostova, T. (1996), "Success of the transnational transfer of organizational practices within multinational corporations", unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
Lagerstrom, K., & Andersson, M. (2003), Creation and sharing knowledge within a transnational team-Development of a global business system, Journal of World Business, 38(2), pp.84-95.
Laroche L. 2003, Managing Cultural Diversity in Technical Professions, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Lee H, Choi B. (2003), Knowledge management enablers, processes, and organizational performance: an integrative view and empirical examination. Journal of Management Information Systems, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp.179-228.
Lewis R. (2000), When cultures collide: managing successfully across cultures; Nicholas Brealey Publishing Ltd 2., rev. ed.
Liebowitz, J. (2001), Knowledge management and its link to artificial intelligence. Expert Systems with Application, Vol.20, pp.1-6.
Lubit R. (2001), "Tacit Knowledge and Knowledge Management: The keys to sustainable competitive advantage", Organizational Dynamics, Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 164-178.
Lucas, L.M (2006), The role of culture on knowledge transfer: the case of the multinational corporation, The Learning Organization, Vol.13, No. 2/3, pp. 257-275.
Lyles M.A. and Salk J.E. (1996), Knowledge acquisition from foreign parents in international joint ventures: An empirical examination in the Hungarian context, Journal of International Business Studies 27(5), pp.877-903.
Maholtra, Y. (1998, February 19). Knowledge management, knowledge organizations and knowledge workers: A view from the front lines. Interview with Maeil Business Newspaper, Korea, Maeil Business Newspaper. Available: Brint.com.
Mahoney, J.T., and Pandian, J. R. (1992), "The resource based view within the conversation of strategic management," Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 13, pp.363-380.
Manner Solomon, C. (1998). Building teams across borders. Global Workforce, November, 13-17.
Maybury, M., D'Amore, R., & House, D. (2000), Automating the finding of experts, Research Technology Management, Vol. 43 No. 6, pp.12.
McDermott,R.and O'Dell,C.(2001),"Overcoming cultural barriers to sharing knowledge",Journal of Knowledge Management,Vol.5,pp.76-85.
Mendenhall,M.,Dunbar,E.,& Oddou,G.(1987).Expatriate selection,training and careerpathing:a review and critique.Human Resource Management,26(3),pp.331-345.
Miesing P,Kriger MP and Slough N(2007) Towards a model of effective knowledge transfer within transnationals:the case of Chinese foreign invested enterprises.The Journal of Technology Transfer 32(1),pp.109-122.
Miller,D.A.,& Shamsie,J.(1996),The resource-based view of the firm in two environments:The Hollywood film studios form 1936 to 1965.Academy of Management Journal,39,pp.519-543.
Mowrey,D.,Oxley,J.and Silverman,B.(1996),Strategic alliances and Interfirm Knowledge Transfer,Strategic Management Journal,Vol 17.,Special Issue,pp.77-91.
Nahapiet,J.,Ghoshal,S.(1998),Social capital,intellectual capital,and the organizational advantage.Academy of Management Review 23,pp.242-266.
Nelson,R & S.(1982,Winter),"An evolutionary theory of economic change",Cambridge,Belknap Press.
Nonaka,I.(1994),"A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge",Creation,Organization Science,Vol.5,pp.14-37.
Nonaka,I.(1998),"The knowledge-creating company",Harvard Business Review,July/August,special issue on Knowledge Management,pp.21-46.
Nonaka I.and Takeuchi,H.(1995),The Knowledge-Creating Company,Oxford University Press,Oxford.
Nonaka,I.& Konno,N.(1998),"The Concept of"Ba":Building a Foundation For Knowledge Creation",California Management Review,Vol.40,No.3,pp.40-54.
Pablos,P.(2004),"Knowledge flow transfers in multinational corporations:knowledge properties and implications for management",Journal of Knowledge Management,Vol.8 pp.105-116.
Pan,S.,& Scarbrouth,H.(1998),"A socio-technical view of knowledge sharing at Buckman laboratories," Journal of Knowledge Management,Vol.2,No.1,pp.55-66.
Patel & Tebelius,U,1987,grundbok I forskningsmetodik Lurid:Student literature.
Probst,G.,Raub,S.and Romhardt,K.(2000),Managing Knowledge:Building-Blocks for Success,John Wiley & Sons,Chichester.
Penrose E.(1959),The Theory of the Growth of the Firm.Blackwell,Oxford.
Phene,A.et al.(2005),"Knowledge transfer within the multinational firm:what drives the speed of transfer?",Management International Review,Vol.45,pp.53-74.
Prahalad, C. K., and Hamel, G. (1999, March), "The core competence of the corporation," Harvard Business Review, pp.79-91.
Prusak L. and Camson B. (2006), How Cultures Filter Knowledge and What Can Be Done About It, Babson Executive Education.
Quintas, P., Lefere, P. and Jones, G. (1997), "Knowledge management: A strategic agenda," Long Range Planning, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp.385-391.
Raven, A., & Prasser, S. G. (1996), "Information technology support for the creation and transfer of tacit knowledge in organizations." In R. Ramsower (Ed.), (1996). Association for Information Systems 1996 Americas Conference. Phoenix: CAIS, available at hsb.Baylor.edu/ramsower/ais.ac.96/papers/RAVEN.htm.
Reagans R. and Mcevily B. (2003), Network structure and knowledge transfer: the effects of Cohesion and Range. Administrative Science Quarterly 48(2), pp.240-267.
Savolainen, T., Beeckman, D., Groumpos, P, and Jagdev, H. (1995), "Positioning of modeling approaches, methods and tools, Computers in Industry, Vol.25, pp.255-262.
Savary, Miklos (1999, Winter), "Knowledge management and competition in the consulting industry", California Management Review, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp.95-107.
Schein, E. (1985), Organizational Culture and Leadership, Jossey-Bass, San Fransisco, CA.
Schweiger, D. M. (1998). Networking global style. Business and Economic Review, January-March, pp.3-6.
Senge, P. M. (199b, October), "Developing an effective knowledge strategy", Paper presented at Chief Learning Officer Conference, Boston.
Simon, R. (1994), "How new top managers use control systems as levers of strategic renewal, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 15, pp.169-189.
Skyrme, David J. (1997), "Knowledge management: Making sense of an oxymoron", http://www.skyrme.com/insights/22km.htm.
Snell, S. A., Snow, C. C, Davison, S. C, & Hambrick, D. C. (1998). Designing and supporting transnational teams: The human resource agenda. Human Resource Management, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 147-158.
Snell, S. A., Snow, C. C, Davison, S. C, & Hambrick, D. C. (1996). Use transnational teams to globalize your company, Organization Dynamics, pp.50-67.
Song J. et al. (2003), "Learning by hiring, when is mobility more likely to facilitate interfirm knowledge transfer", Management Science, Vol. 49, pp. 351-65.
Stonehouse, G. H., & Pemberton, J. D. (1999), "Learning and knowledge management in the intelligent organization," Participation and Empowerment: An International Journal, Vol.7, No.5, pp.131-144.
Subramaniam, M., & Venkatraman, N. (2001). Determinants of transnational new product development capability: Testing the influence of transferring and deploying tacit overseas knowledge. Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 22, pp. 359-378.
Szulanski, G. (1993), "Intra-firm transfer of best practice, appropriatice capabilities, and organizational barriers to appropriation", Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings, pp.47-51.
Szulanski, G. (1996, Winter), Exploring internal stickiness: Impediments to the transfer of best practice within the firm, Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 17, pp.27-43.
Tjosvold D., Leung K., (2003)Cross-Cultural Management: Foundations and Future. Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Triandis, H.C. (1995), Individualism and Collectivism, Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
Triandis H.C. (2003), Forty-Five Years of Researching the Culture and Behavior Link, Chapter 1 of Tjosvold and Leung, Cross-Cultural Management: Foundations and Future. Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Turati C, Usai A. and Ravagnani R. (1998), Antecedents of co-ordination in academic international project research, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 3 No. 13, pp. 188-198
Tull, D.S. & Hawkins, D.I. (1990), Marketing Research, 5tl Ed. New York: Macmillian Publishing Company.
Von Krogh, G., Ichigo, K, & Nonaka, I. (2000), Enabling knowledge creation: How to unlock the mystery of tacit knowledge and release the power of innovation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Von Krogh G, Nonaka I, Aben M. (2001), Making the most of your company's knowledge: A strategic framework. Long Range Planning, Vol. 34, pp.421-39.
Von Hippel E. (1994), 'Sticky' information and the locus of problem solving: implications for innovation. Management Science 40(4), pp.429-439.
Vroom, V. (1964), Work and Motivation, New York, London and Sydney, John Wiley and Sons.
Walczak S. (2005), "Organizational knowledge management structure", The Learning Organization, Vol.12, No. 4.
Wernerfelt, B. (1984), "A resource based view of the firm," Strategy Management Journal, Vol. 5, pp.171-180.
Yin, R.K. (1994), Case study research: design and methods, (2nd ed), Thousand Oaks, Sage, cop. CA
Zander, I. and Solvell, O. (2000), "Cross-border innovation in the multinational corporation: a research agenda", International Studies of Management & Organization, Vol. 30, pp. 44-67.Appendix Asd