从功能的视角考察外来词的生存规律
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摘要
在过去的20年里,受到全球一体化和中国经济迅速发展的作用与影响,现代汉语中出现了大量的外来词,特别是和中文传统的象形文字不相容的字母词。我们是否应该开展一场纯洁汉语运动?应该以何种态度对待外来词?外来词是否会把中文弄得面目全非?政策层面的考虑,社会方面的声音,语言学家的忧虑,引起了我们对外来词的关注和对它们进行全面考察的兴趣。
本研究从《现代汉语词典》第5版的65,000条词条中摘选出1,735条外来词,对每条外来词标注词性、借入语、类型和所属领域,并在对该语料库信息进行统计和分析的基础上进行了如下研究和尝试:
首先,本研究构建了一个对汉语中的各种外来词进行分类的新模式,该模式从音、意、形三方面的借用入手将汉语中的外来词分为三大类共十种,并在此基础上重新将外来词界定为:一种语言通过借音、借意或借形从另一种语言中借入的词汇。该定义有利于消除长期以来汉语界对意译外来词的归属问题的争论。此外,新的分类模式有利于统一至今仍然十分混乱的术语,为外来词的进一步研究铺路。
其次,本研究对长期以来不受关注的借形现象予以足够的重视,将其看成语言进化的显著特征。我们对字母词的小规模的调查研究显示,多数受试者熟悉相当一部分字母词并乐于在交流中使用字母词。
第三,本研究首次从功能的角度构建外来词的生存模式。我们利用功能语言学的理论总结出外来词的指称、人际和元语言三大显性功能,并从外来词所承担的语言功能的角度来解释和预测外来词的生存规律。外来词的功能是通过语域的三个组成部分,即语场、语旨和语式实现的。
在语场即话语范围中,我们通过比较英语和汉语中的外来词在所填补的词项空白的领域上的不对称性以及在借入语的数量和外来词在总词汇中的比例上的不平衡性讨论外来词的指称功能,指出外来词的生存取决于使用者对其进行的功能性选择。外来词从专业领域进入共核词汇是其生存的一个重要标志。
在语旨即话语基调中,我们探讨了外来词的人际功能,展示人们如何通过对外来词的选择运用来构建身份、暗示社会地位、表现变化、满足虚荣以及加强权势和认同。
在语式即话语方式中,我们介绍了一种介于书面和口语的新型的话语媒介—网络语言,以及它对其他两种话语方式的影响。我们对字母词的实证研究表明现代汉语的方块字中已经接纳了拉丁字母的书写形式。同时,通过对汉语中的外来词的同化过程的详细描述来揭示外来词的元语言功能以及外来词生存的另外三个重要标志—词缀的借用、语素化过程和词类转换。
在研究中我们发现,外来词能生存下来是因为它们承担了语言的各种功能,外来词经过不同程度的同化后不仅完美地融入受惠语中,而且在一定的程度上对借入语产生影响。这些影响是人们的选择和语言自然发展的结果,是任何“善良”的愿望所无法阻挡的。
本研究从普通语言学和社会语言学的角度审视外来词,旨在通过对外来词的研究来丰富语言学的理论。
A by-product of the globalization and China’s economy development is the emergence of a large number of loanwords in modern Chinese in the past 20 years, especially the letter words, which are alien from the traditional Chinese pictographic characters. Should we start a campaign to purify Chinese? What will be the right attitude toward loanwords? Will loanwords affect Chinese to the extent that Chinese is not Chinese any more? The considerations of language policies, the calls of the society and the worries of patriotic linguists arouse our interest to make a general survey on loanwords.
The present study builds a corpus of loanwords in Chinese by picking up 1,735 loanwords from the 65,000 entries in the 5th edition of The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary. For every loanword we labeled its part of speech, donor language, type and the subject matter it belongs to. From the statistics and analysis of the information in this corpus we have focused our attention on the following aspects.
First, we set up a model to provide a new way of classification on different kinds of loanwords in Chinese, which falls in three groups and ten kinds based on the manner of borrowing, that is, the phonetic, semantic or graphic element(s) a loanword borrowed. Then we are able to redefine loanwords as“a lexical item taken in by one language from another phonetically, semantically, or graphically”. This definition helps to clarify the long existing dispute over the recognition of semantically adopted loanwords in Chinese. What’s more, this new way of classification contributes to unifying the still confusing terminology concerning loanwords which paves the way for further study.
Second, the present study pays enough attention to graphic loan, the long neglected form of borrowing and regards it as a prominent feature in language innovation. Our small scale survey on letter words proves that most of our subjects are familiar with a certain number of letter words and are happy to use them in their communications.
Third, we have made a pilot study in taking a functional perspective to construct the survival model of loanwords and to explain and predict the survival law of loanwords from the three overt linguistic functions loanwords carrying out. The referential, interpersonal and metalingual functions of loanwords are realized through the three components of register—field, tenor and mode of discourse.
In the field of discourse, we discuss the referential function of loanwords through an examination of the asymmetry between loanwords in English and Chinese in the different fields of lexical gaps, the number of the donor languages and the percentage of loanwords in the total vocabulary. To fulfill the referential function, loanwords have to survive people’s preferential selections. And loanwords that can go from the technical field into the common core of vocabulary become one important survival symbol.
In the tenor of discourse we discuss the interpersonal function of loanwords which provides ample evidences to demonstrate how loanwords are chosen to construct identity, to indicate social status, to show variety, to satisfy vanity and to reinforce power and solidarity.
In the mode of discourse we introduce a new medium of communication between written and spoken, the cyber language and how the loanwords used in this medium affect the other two. Our empirical research in letter words proves that Chinese has adopted the Latin letters into its pictograph writing system. Our detail discussion on the assimilation process of loanwords on Chinese proves the metalingual function of loanwords and singles out three other important survival symbols of loanwords, the borrowing of affixes, the morphemic processes and the conversions of loanwords.
Our research leads to the discovery that loanwords survive because they shoulder the functions of language and because they adapt themselves so well to the recipient language that they can influence it to some degree. Such influence is due to people’s preferential selections and the natural development of language which defies any“good”will to hold it back.
The present study gives loanwords a close look from the viewpoints of general linguistics and sociolinguistics and aims at enriching the theories of general linguistics.
本研究从《现代汉语词典》第5版的65,000条词条中摘选出1,735条外来词,对每条外来词标注词性、借入语、类型和所属领域,并在对该语料库信息进行统计和分析的基础上进行了如下研究和尝试:
首先,本研究构建了一个对汉语中的各种外来词进行分类的新模式,该模式从音、意、形三方面的借用入手将汉语中的外来词分为三大类共十种,并在此基础上重新将外来词界定为:一种语言通过借音、借意或借形从另一种语言中借入的词汇。该定义有利于消除长期以来汉语界对意译外来词的归属问题的争论。此外,新的分类模式有利于统一至今仍然十分混乱的术语,为外来词的进一步研究铺路。
其次,本研究对长期以来不受关注的借形现象予以足够的重视,将其看成语言进化的显著特征。我们对字母词的小规模的调查研究显示,多数受试者熟悉相当一部分字母词并乐于在交流中使用字母词。
第三,本研究首次从功能的角度构建外来词的生存模式。我们利用功能语言学的理论总结出外来词的指称、人际和元语言三大显性功能,并从外来词所承担的语言功能的角度来解释和预测外来词的生存规律。外来词的功能是通过语域的三个组成部分,即语场、语旨和语式实现的。
在语场即话语范围中,我们通过比较英语和汉语中的外来词在所填补的词项空白的领域上的不对称性以及在借入语的数量和外来词在总词汇中的比例上的不平衡性讨论外来词的指称功能,指出外来词的生存取决于使用者对其进行的功能性选择。外来词从专业领域进入共核词汇是其生存的一个重要标志。
在语旨即话语基调中,我们探讨了外来词的人际功能,展示人们如何通过对外来词的选择运用来构建身份、暗示社会地位、表现变化、满足虚荣以及加强权势和认同。
在语式即话语方式中,我们介绍了一种介于书面和口语的新型的话语媒介—网络语言,以及它对其他两种话语方式的影响。我们对字母词的实证研究表明现代汉语的方块字中已经接纳了拉丁字母的书写形式。同时,通过对汉语中的外来词的同化过程的详细描述来揭示外来词的元语言功能以及外来词生存的另外三个重要标志—词缀的借用、语素化过程和词类转换。
在研究中我们发现,外来词能生存下来是因为它们承担了语言的各种功能,外来词经过不同程度的同化后不仅完美地融入受惠语中,而且在一定的程度上对借入语产生影响。这些影响是人们的选择和语言自然发展的结果,是任何“善良”的愿望所无法阻挡的。
本研究从普通语言学和社会语言学的角度审视外来词,旨在通过对外来词的研究来丰富语言学的理论。
A by-product of the globalization and China’s economy development is the emergence of a large number of loanwords in modern Chinese in the past 20 years, especially the letter words, which are alien from the traditional Chinese pictographic characters. Should we start a campaign to purify Chinese? What will be the right attitude toward loanwords? Will loanwords affect Chinese to the extent that Chinese is not Chinese any more? The considerations of language policies, the calls of the society and the worries of patriotic linguists arouse our interest to make a general survey on loanwords.
The present study builds a corpus of loanwords in Chinese by picking up 1,735 loanwords from the 65,000 entries in the 5th edition of The Contemporary Chinese Dictionary. For every loanword we labeled its part of speech, donor language, type and the subject matter it belongs to. From the statistics and analysis of the information in this corpus we have focused our attention on the following aspects.
First, we set up a model to provide a new way of classification on different kinds of loanwords in Chinese, which falls in three groups and ten kinds based on the manner of borrowing, that is, the phonetic, semantic or graphic element(s) a loanword borrowed. Then we are able to redefine loanwords as“a lexical item taken in by one language from another phonetically, semantically, or graphically”. This definition helps to clarify the long existing dispute over the recognition of semantically adopted loanwords in Chinese. What’s more, this new way of classification contributes to unifying the still confusing terminology concerning loanwords which paves the way for further study.
Second, the present study pays enough attention to graphic loan, the long neglected form of borrowing and regards it as a prominent feature in language innovation. Our small scale survey on letter words proves that most of our subjects are familiar with a certain number of letter words and are happy to use them in their communications.
Third, we have made a pilot study in taking a functional perspective to construct the survival model of loanwords and to explain and predict the survival law of loanwords from the three overt linguistic functions loanwords carrying out. The referential, interpersonal and metalingual functions of loanwords are realized through the three components of register—field, tenor and mode of discourse.
In the field of discourse, we discuss the referential function of loanwords through an examination of the asymmetry between loanwords in English and Chinese in the different fields of lexical gaps, the number of the donor languages and the percentage of loanwords in the total vocabulary. To fulfill the referential function, loanwords have to survive people’s preferential selections. And loanwords that can go from the technical field into the common core of vocabulary become one important survival symbol.
In the tenor of discourse we discuss the interpersonal function of loanwords which provides ample evidences to demonstrate how loanwords are chosen to construct identity, to indicate social status, to show variety, to satisfy vanity and to reinforce power and solidarity.
In the mode of discourse we introduce a new medium of communication between written and spoken, the cyber language and how the loanwords used in this medium affect the other two. Our empirical research in letter words proves that Chinese has adopted the Latin letters into its pictograph writing system. Our detail discussion on the assimilation process of loanwords on Chinese proves the metalingual function of loanwords and singles out three other important survival symbols of loanwords, the borrowing of affixes, the morphemic processes and the conversions of loanwords.
Our research leads to the discovery that loanwords survive because they shoulder the functions of language and because they adapt themselves so well to the recipient language that they can influence it to some degree. Such influence is due to people’s preferential selections and the natural development of language which defies any“good”will to hold it back.
The present study gives loanwords a close look from the viewpoints of general linguistics and sociolinguistics and aims at enriching the theories of general linguistics.
引文
1 史有为. 1991.《异文化的使者—外来词》
2 “如外来语,破纯粹之国语而驳之,亦非尽人理解,有时势所逼迫,非他语可以佣代,则用之可也…”《章太炎全集(三)》第 227 页, 1984 年上海人民出版社。
3 “将来大众语的语汇里头一定不免由外来语输入,但必须用本国文字写它的音,让大家说得出。照过去的经验来看,输入些外来语或起用些古典语,在大众也并不觉得十分不便,只要是当时大众所必需的。”载 1934 年 6 月 19日《申报》副刊《自由谈》。
4 “外来语”:一个语言常常从别的语言里输入许多词语,尤其是事物的名称;汉语里也很多这样的例子。译语有两种,意译的和译音的。意译的词,因为利用原语言里固有的词或词根去凑合,应归入合义复词,而且也不能算是严格的外来语。译音的词,浑然一体,不可分离,属于衍声的一类。…都是现代的外来语。 吕叔湘(1942:13)
5 “所谓‘借字’就是一国语言里所羼杂的外来语成分。”罗常培 (1989:222)
6 “外来词是外语来源的本语言的词,而借词则是借用外语的词,词还是外语的,只是借来用用而已。…在吸收外语的词的过程中,有的时候,我们是先借用外语的词,而再慢慢的把它改为外来词的;只要等到把外语的词安放在本语言的语音、语法、词汇体系里的时候,才有外来词的存在。” 高名凯,刘正埮（1958:13)
7中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编. 2006.《现代汉语词典》(第 5 版). 北京: 商务印书馆.
8 In Han Dynasty,the term refers to areas west of Yumenguan,including present Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia.
9《通报》, a French journalism
10《亚洲学报》
11《法国远东学校校刊》
12《大唐西域记》
13《西域南海史地考证译丛》
14《词库建设通讯》
15《语言与文化》
16《中西交通史料汇编》
17《现代汉语外来词研究》
18《汉语史稿(下)》
19 国语中的词,连音带义都接收过来时,叫借词,一般谓音译,用汉语的构词方式翻译外语词时,叫意译,只有音译的借词才能算外来语,而意译的借词不应该算作外来语。(王力 1958:516)
20 把外语中具有非本语言所具有的意义的词连音带义搬到本语言里来,这种词才是外来词。(高名凯,刘正埮 1958:8)
21 译词只用其义,不用其音,是吸收别的语言赐予的一种形式。外来词也叫借词,它不仅用别的语言词语的义,也借用其音。(符淮青 1997:184)
22 外来概念词指“汉语中表示本为外族词语的概念的那种词”。(香港中国语文学会词库工作组. 1993.《词库建设通讯》)
23 http://encyclopedia.laborlawtalk.com/Loanword
24 Overall, around 850 Japanese graphic loans currently exist in Chinese. Most of them are utilized in areas like philosophy, economy, politics, education and military affairs (in the order of importance). (Masini 1993:148)
27刘正埮, 高名凯, 麦永乾, 史有为编. 1984.《汉语外来词词典》[Z]. 上海:上海辞书出版社.
28岑麒祥编. 1990.《汉语外来语词典》[Z]. 北京:商务印书馆.
31 http://www.Chineseroots.com
32 MTBF is the abbreviation of Mean Time Between Failure 平均故障间隔时间
33 PK, the abbreviation of player killing, was one of the hottest loanwords in China in 2005.
39 鲁迅.《呐喊文集?头发的故事》. e 书时空. www.52ebook.com
40 鲁迅.《且介亭杂文末编?写于深夜里》. e 书时空. www.52ebook.com
42 温庭筠《病中抒怀呈友人》
43 Cf. 张在元《走出“城市流行病”的思考》http://www.whb.com.cn/wxpd/jy/whyjy/t20051122_730909.htm
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2 “如外来语,破纯粹之国语而驳之,亦非尽人理解,有时势所逼迫,非他语可以佣代,则用之可也…”《章太炎全集(三)》第 227 页, 1984 年上海人民出版社。
3 “将来大众语的语汇里头一定不免由外来语输入,但必须用本国文字写它的音,让大家说得出。照过去的经验来看,输入些外来语或起用些古典语,在大众也并不觉得十分不便,只要是当时大众所必需的。”载 1934 年 6 月 19日《申报》副刊《自由谈》。
4 “外来语”:一个语言常常从别的语言里输入许多词语,尤其是事物的名称;汉语里也很多这样的例子。译语有两种,意译的和译音的。意译的词,因为利用原语言里固有的词或词根去凑合,应归入合义复词,而且也不能算是严格的外来语。译音的词,浑然一体,不可分离,属于衍声的一类。…都是现代的外来语。 吕叔湘(1942:13)
5 “所谓‘借字’就是一国语言里所羼杂的外来语成分。”罗常培 (1989:222)
6 “外来词是外语来源的本语言的词,而借词则是借用外语的词,词还是外语的,只是借来用用而已。…在吸收外语的词的过程中,有的时候,我们是先借用外语的词,而再慢慢的把它改为外来词的;只要等到把外语的词安放在本语言的语音、语法、词汇体系里的时候,才有外来词的存在。” 高名凯,刘正埮（1958:13)
7中国社会科学院语言研究所词典编辑室编. 2006.《现代汉语词典》(第 5 版). 北京: 商务印书馆.
8 In Han Dynasty,the term refers to areas west of Yumenguan,including present Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia.
9《通报》, a French journalism
10《亚洲学报》
11《法国远东学校校刊》
12《大唐西域记》
13《西域南海史地考证译丛》
14《词库建设通讯》
15《语言与文化》
16《中西交通史料汇编》
17《现代汉语外来词研究》
18《汉语史稿(下)》
19 国语中的词,连音带义都接收过来时,叫借词,一般谓音译,用汉语的构词方式翻译外语词时,叫意译,只有音译的借词才能算外来语,而意译的借词不应该算作外来语。(王力 1958:516)
20 把外语中具有非本语言所具有的意义的词连音带义搬到本语言里来,这种词才是外来词。(高名凯,刘正埮 1958:8)
21 译词只用其义,不用其音,是吸收别的语言赐予的一种形式。外来词也叫借词,它不仅用别的语言词语的义,也借用其音。(符淮青 1997:184)
22 外来概念词指“汉语中表示本为外族词语的概念的那种词”。(香港中国语文学会词库工作组. 1993.《词库建设通讯》)
23 http://encyclopedia.laborlawtalk.com/Loanword
24 Overall, around 850 Japanese graphic loans currently exist in Chinese. Most of them are utilized in areas like philosophy, economy, politics, education and military affairs (in the order of importance). (Masini 1993:148)
27刘正埮, 高名凯, 麦永乾, 史有为编. 1984.《汉语外来词词典》[Z]. 上海:上海辞书出版社.
28岑麒祥编. 1990.《汉语外来语词典》[Z]. 北京:商务印书馆.
31 http://www.Chineseroots.com
32 MTBF is the abbreviation of Mean Time Between Failure 平均故障间隔时间
33 PK, the abbreviation of player killing, was one of the hottest loanwords in China in 2005.
39 鲁迅.《呐喊文集?头发的故事》. e 书时空. www.52ebook.com
40 鲁迅.《且介亭杂文末编?写于深夜里》. e 书时空. www.52ebook.com
42 温庭筠《病中抒怀呈友人》
43 Cf. 张在元《走出“城市流行病”的思考》http://www.whb.com.cn/wxpd/jy/whyjy/t20051122_730909.htm
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