摘要
教师教育课程价值取向对课程的设计、实施及评价起着重要作用,不同的价值取向表达了不同的教师教育课程改革诉求。20世纪90年代后半期,美国教师教育课程价值取向在历经知识取向、技术取向、反思取向的演变后开始朝儿童学习结果取向转型,价值追求从关注未来教师转向关注儿童,儿童的学习与发展成了建构教师教育课程的旨趣。改革开放以来,我国教师教育课程进行了一系列改革,取得了显著的成效;2011年教育部颁布了《教师教育课程标准(试行)》,为深化教师教育课程改革提供了政策依据。在这种背景下,研究美国儿童学习结果取向的课程价值观及其对教师教育课程改革的影响对于有效推进我国教师教育课程改革具有重要的借鉴意义。
论文采用文献分析法,从研究目的出发,通过多种途径搜集了从19世纪初(美国教师教育诞生)至21世纪初与美国教师教育课程研究直接或间接相关的文章、专著、论文、报告、法案及演说,并对资料进行了整理与分析,形成了论文的基本框架和观点。
论文梳理了美国教师教育课程价值取向的历史演变及其影响因素,分析了不同价值取向的内涵、特征以及相互之间存在的传承关系,重点分析了儿童学习结果取向的形成背景。论文从多元智能理论、学科教学知识(PCK)理论及高等教育质量理论阐释了儿童学习结果取向的理论基础,陈述了儿童学习结果取向的内涵,澄清了儿童学习结果取向对教师教育课程的要求,即从儿童学习与发展角度构建课程、突显儿童在课程实施中的作用以及通过儿童学习结果评价课程质量。
论文以美国数所著名大学的教师教育课程为例,全面而翔实地剖析了儿童学习结果取向如何影响美国教师教育课程的目标、体系、实施及评价。儿童学习结果取向的教师教育课程目标旨在让未来教师树立了解与热爱每一位儿童的道德情操、掌握提升儿童学习结果的基本知识与能力、具备指向儿童学习结果的反思与探究素养;将课程划分为由儿童类课程和学科教学类课程组成的理论部分以及与理论学习同步的实践部分;为了突显儿童的作用以及未来教师和儿童之间的互动交流,在课程实施中特别注重运用观察与记录儿童言行、研究儿童案例、制作收集儿童作品在内的教学档案袋、设计课程或教学单元等方式;在课程评价上,将儿童学习结果视为评价的核心指标,所采用的两种课程评价方法分别是通过儿童学习成绩以及通过指向儿童学习结果的未来教师教学表现评价课程质量。
论文对美国儿童学习结果取向及其对教师教育课程的影响进行了评析,从价值取向的角度揭示了我国教师教育课程所存在的问题。基于对问题的分析,论文对我国教师教育课程改革提出了三条建议:确立促进儿童发展的课程价值取向、设计体现儿童发展取向的课程目标和体系、通过课程实施与评价确保儿童发展取向的实现。
The value orientation of teacher education programs (TEPs) is crucial to the design, implementation and evaluation of TEPs, different value orientations shed distinct light on the reform of TEPs. During the late of1990s, the value orientation of American TEPs, originally emphasizing the knowledge, technical or reflective nature, came to place priority on children's learning outcomes. As a result, the attention initially revolving exclusively around prospective teachers is now focusing on children and children's learning and development becomes the core pursuit of TEPs. Since the policy of reform and opening up, TEPs in China have been subjected to a series of adjustments and significant achievements have been made. In2011,(Chinese) Ministry of Education issued Standards for Teacher Education Programs (Trial Implementation) which provides policy foundations for deepening the reform of TEPs. Under such a background, exploring American children-learning-outcomes-oriented curriculum outlook and its implications for reforming TEPs is of great significance to the innovation of TEPs of our country.
By means of documentary research method and in compliance of research purposes, this dissertation, through a variety of means, collected articles, monographs, theses, dissertations, reports, bills and remarks which are directly or indirectly relevant to American TEPs study. The time range of those literature is from the early19th century which marks the dawn of American Teacher Education to the beginning of the21st century. After the collection, the work of sorting and analyzing literature was carried out, based on which the main framework and viewpoints of the dissertation surfaced.
This dissertation first traces the historical revolution of American TEPs'value orientations, reveals the factors that influence those orientations, analyzes the connotation, characteristics and mutual relationship of different value orientations, and especially investigates the emergence background of children-learning-outcomes orientation (CLOO). Then, it discuses theoretical foundations of CLOO from the perspectives of multiple intelligences theory, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) theory and higher education quality theory respectively. After this, connotations of CLOO are presented which is followed by the elaboration of three requirements demanded by CLOO on TEPs, viz., the construction of TEPs based on children's learning and development, the reinforcement of children's roles in the implementation of TEPs and the judgment of the quality of TEPs through children's learning outcomes.
Taking TEPs from a couple of well-known American teacher training institutions as examples, this dissertation proceeds to dissect the impact of CLOO on the goals, structures, implementations and evaluations of American TEPs in an all-round and well-argued way. With respect to curriculum goals, TEPs of CLOO aim to make prospective teachers understand and love every child, possess the knowledge and abilities of promoting children's learning outcomes, and master the children-learning-outcomes-directed reflection. In terms of curriculum structures, TEPs are composed of theoretical coursework and field experiences. Theoretical coursework includes curriculum on children and that on subject teaching; field experiences are tightly interwoven with university-based coursework. In order to stress the role played by children and the interaction between prospective teachers and children, curriculum implementation in TEPs favors following methods:observing and recording children's words and behavior, conducting child case studies, making teaching portfolios which contain children work samples, and designing curriculum or teaching units. With regard to curriculum evaluation, children's learning outcomes are chief indices. In the practice, the quality of TEPs is evaluated by dint of children's scores in standardized tests or children-learning-outcomes-directed teaching performance of prospective teachers.
Next, the dissertation reviews American CLOO and its influences on TEPs. It then moves to expose problems of TEPs of our country from the perspective of value orientation. Based on the analysis of those problems, the dissertation finally puts forward three suggestions for the innovation of our TEPs, they are:identifying the promotion of children's development as TEPs' value orientation. Aligning curriculum goals and structures with the children-development orientation, and guaranteeing the realization of children-development orientation through curriculum implementation and evaluation.
引文
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3全美教育协会(NEA)于1959年发布的一份报告也曾明确指出教师的工资太低,比较而言,其它就业岗位(如工程、会计、销售等)为同样有着大学学位的人提供了更可观的经济收入。每一年都有大量的教师跳槽到其它工作领域。参见:National Education Association. Financial Incentives for Teachers[M]. Research Bulletin. Vol. 37.1959:48.
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1其它七个方面是:①实施学校改组,为教学创造一个专业的氛围;②改组教师队伍,为达到了一定专业造诣的高水平教师授予“领导型教师”称号;③在接受教育专业学习之前须获得文理学士学位;④开发一套严格的研究生层次的课程,学完该课程可获得教学硕士学位(Master in Teaching degree);⑤培养少数民族学生从事教师职业;⑥为学校提供必要的资源支持;⑦增涨教师工资,为教师终身发展提供机会。
5剩下的目标是:①教师教育在知识基础上应该更加牢固。未来教师不仅须学好学科专业知识,也应掌握传授这些知识的教学技能;②承认教师在知识、技能、态度、教育背景、资格证书等方面的差异,设立区分新手教师与资深教师的职业梯度;③建立专业发展学校,促进大学与中小学间的合作交流;④让学校成为教师能更好地工作与学习的地方,为此应减少官僚科层,赋予教师自主权,让教师适当担任领导角色等。
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2这是一个非营利性机构,其主要成员包括政府官员、企业人士、社区领袖、教育专家等,它于1994年在洛克非勒基金会(Rockefeller Foundation)和卡内基基金会的共同赞助下正式成立。
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5自由主义几百年来一直是西方国家的主流思想,其基本观点是崇尚个人主义,极力维护资本主义制度,被大多数西方国家确立为制定国策和治国方略的理论基础。新自由主义是20世纪30年代资本主义由私人垄断走向国家垄断,首先在西方经济学中出现的一种公开为资本主义制度辩护的思潮。
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1虽然反思性实践、反思型实践者概念由舍恩于20世纪80年代提出,但杜威在1933年所著的《我们怎样思维》(How We Think:A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process)一书中曾对反思进行过论述,他区分了三种行为:冲动的行为(impulsive action)、程式化的行为(routine action)、反思的行为(reflective action).第一种行为建立在“尝试-错误-尝试”的基础上,第二种行为依赖传统的、惯常的操作方式并受外界权威的影响。杜威认为这两种行为的实施者都没有认真思考自己是如何操作的。而反思性行为强调实施者持续、认真地思考自己正在做什么、又是如何做的,它源自解决某一特殊问题的需要。
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2三者不能等同。不同的名称源自不同的理智传统,背后有着不同的有关教学与研究的假设。
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1科克伦-史密斯是当今美国教师教育界权威人物之一,她是美国教育研究院(National Academy of Education)会员、美国国家研究委员会教师教育分会(National Research Council's Committee on Teacher Education)会员、美国教育研究协会(American Educational Research Association)前任会长、教师教育界国际顶尖杂志《教师教育杂志》(Journal of Teacher Education)前主编、第三版《教师教育研究手册》(Third Handbook of Research on Teacher Education:Enduring Questions in Changing Contexts)主编之一。
2也有的研究把其称为“结果”(outcomes)。为了不与下文中“儿童学习结果”中的“结果”产生混淆.本研究采用“证据”一说,特此说明。
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2 Gebhard. M., Austin. T.. Nieto. S.& Willett,J. "You Can't Step on Someone Else's Words":Preparing All Teachers to Teach Language Minority Students[A]. In Z. Beykont(Ed.). The Power of Culture:Teaching Across Language Difference[C]. Cambridge, MA:Harvard Publishing Group.2002:219-243.
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1 Darling-Hammond, L.& McDonald, M. Where There Is Learning There Is Hope:The Preparation of Teachers at the Bank Street College of Education[A]. In L. Darling-Hammond(Ed.), Studies of Excellence in Teacher Education:Preparation at the Graduate Level[C]. Washing DC:American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.2000a:43.
1 Miller. L.& Silvernail. D. L. Learning to Become a Teacher:The Wheelock Way[A]. In L. Darling-Hammond(Ed.). Studies of Excellence in Teacher Education:Preparation in the undergraduate YearsfC]. Washing DC:American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.2000c:80-81.
1 Shulman, L. S. Toward a Pedagogy of Cases[A]. In J. Shulman (Ed.), Case Methods in Teacher Education[C]. New York:Teachers College Press,1992:1-30.
2例如①Shulman, L. S. Toward a Pedagogy of Cases[A]. In J. Shulman (Ed.). Case Methods in Teacher Education[C]. New York:Teachers College Press.1992:1-30. ②Shulman, L. S. Just in Case:Reflections on Learning From Experience[A]. In J. Colbert. K. Trimble & P. Desberg (Eds.). The Case for Education: Contemporary Approaches for Using Case Methods[C]. Boston:Allyn and Bacon,1996:
3例如:Kleinfeld, J. The Use of Case Studies in Preparing Teachers for Cultural Diversity[J]. Theory Into Practice. 1998.37(2):140-147.
4例如:Roeser. R. Bringing a "Whole Adolescent" Perspective to Secondary Teacher Education:A Case Study of the Use of an Adolescent Case Study[J]. Teaching Education.2002,13(2):155-178.
5①Roeser, R. Bringing a " Whole Adolescent" Perspective to Secondary Teacher Education:A Case Study of the Use of an Adolescent Case Study[J]. Teaching Education,2002.13(2):155-178. ②Darling-Hammond. L.& Snvder, J. Authentic Assessment of Teaching in Context[J]. Teaching and Teacher Education.2000.16(5):523-545.
6 Darling-Hammond. L.& Snyder, J. Authentic Assessment of Teaching in Context[J]. Teaching and Teacher Education,2000,16(5):523-545.
1 Snyder, J. Knowing Children-Understanding Teaching:The Developmental Teacher Education Program at the University of California. Berkeley[A]. In L. Darling-Hammond(Ed.). Studies of Excellence in Teacher Education: Preparation at the Graduate Level[C]. Washing DC:American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. 2000a:97-172.
1 Darlins-Hammond. L.& McDonald. M. Where There Is Learning There Is Hope:The Preparation of Teachers at the Bank Street College of Education[A]. In L. DarLing-Hammond(Ed.), Studies of Excellence in Teacher Education:Preparation at the Graduate Level[C]. Washing DC:American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.2000a:43.
2①kleinfeld. J. The Special Virtues of the Case Method in Preparing Teachers for Minority Schools[J]. Teacher Education Quarterly.1990.17(1):43-51. ②Merseth. K. K. Cases and Case Methods in Teacher Education[A]. In J. P. Sikula. T. J. Buttery & E. Guyton(Eds.). Handbook of Research on Teacher Education[C]. New York: Macmillan.1996:722-744. ③Shulman. L. S. Knowledge and Teaching:Foundations of the New Reform[J]. Harvard Education Review.1987.57(1):1-22.
3 Shulman, L. S. Just in Case:Reflections on Learning From Experience[A]. In J. Colbert. K. Trimble & P. Desberg (Eds.). The Case for Education:Contemporary Approaches for Using Case Methods[C]. Boston:Allyn and Bacon,1996:197-217.
1①Athanases. S. Z. Teachers'Reports of the Effects of Preparing Portfolios of Literacy Instruction[J]. Elementary School Journal,1994.94(4):421-439. ②Bradley. A. Pioneers in Professionalism[J]. Education Week. 1994.13:18-21. ③Haynes. D. One Teacher s Experience with National Board Assessment[J]. Educational Leadership,1995:52(8):58-60. ④Tracz, S. M.. Sienty. S.& Mata. S. The Self-Reflection of Teachers Compiling Portfolios for National Certification:Work in Progress[Z]. Chicago:Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Colleges of Teacher Education.1995.
1Kirby, S.N..McCombs.J.S.,Barney, H.& Naftel.S.Reforming Teacher,Education: Something Old Somerthing New[M].Santa Monica.CA:RAND Corporation.2006:11-12.
1 ①Newton, X. Teacher Effectiveness and Pathways into Teaching in California[EB/OL]. http://suse-step.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/teacher effectiveness and pathways into teaching in california. df.2011-09-12. ②Newton. X.. Darling-Hammond. L., Haertel. E.& Thomas. E. Value-Added Modeling of Teacher Effectiveness:An Exploration of Stability Across Models and Contexts[J]. Education Policy Analysis Archives.2010.18(23):1-27.
1资料来源:Darling-Hammond, L., Newton, X.& Wei, R. C. Evaluating Teacher Education Outcomes:A Study of the Stanford Teacher Education Programme[J]. Journal of Education for Teaching,2010,36(4); 369-388.
1 ①English. S. J. Teacher Education Program Accountability:In Search of Meaningful Outcomes Evidence[D]. Capella University.2007:31-35. ②Chung. R. R. The Performance Assessment for California Teachers (PACT) and Beginning Teacher Development:Can a Performance Assessment Promote Expert Teaching Practice? [D]. Stanford University.2005:1-2.
2教学质量期望(TPEs)内容参见附录二,PACT与TPEs的对应关系参见附录三。另外,教学质量期望本身又是在加州教学专业标准(California Standards for Teaching Profession,简称CSTP)基础上制订出来的,CSTP内容参见附录一。
1 ①Darling-Hammond. L.. Newton. X.& Wei. R. C. Evaluating Teacher Education Outcomes:A Study of the Stanford Teacher Education Programme[J]. Journal of Education for Teaching.2010.36(4); 369-388. ② Darling-Hammond, L. Assessing Teacher Education:The Usefulness of Multiple Measures for Assessing Program Outcomes[J]. Journal of Teacher Education.2006,57(2):120-138.
1资料来源:Darling-Hammond, L., Newton, X.& Wei, R. C. Evaluating Teacher Education Outcomes:A Study of the Stanford Teacher Education Programme[J]. Journal of Education for Teaching,2010,36(4); 369-388.
2 ①Darling-Hammond, L. Assessing Teacher Education:The Usefulness of Multiple Measures for Assessing Program Outcomes[J]. Journal of Teacher Education,2006,57(2):120-138. ②Darling-Hammond, L., Newton, X. & Wei, R. C. Evaluating Teacher Education Outcomes:A Study of the Stanford Teacher Education Programme[J]. Journal of Education for Teaching,2010,36(4); 369-388.
1 United States Act of Congress, No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 [EB/OL], http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html2002,2010-10-6.
2Earley, P. M. Searching for the Common Good in Federal Policy:The Missing Essence in NCLB and HEA. Title Ⅱ[A]. In N. M. Michelli & D. L. Keiser (Eds.), Teacher Education for Democracy and Social Justice[C]. New York:Routledge.2005:63-65,69.
3 United States Department of Education. Race to the Top:Accelerating College and Career Readiness in States[EB/OL]. http://www.achieve.org/Racetothetop.2010-10-10.
4 Earley. P. M. Searching for the Common Good in Federal Policy:The Missing Essence in NCLB and HEA. Title Ⅱ[A]. In N. M. Michelli & D. L. Keiser (Eds.). Teacher Education for Democracy and Social Justice[C]. New York:Routledge.2005:63-65.69.
1 Selwyn, D. Highly Quantified Teachers:NCLB and Teacher Education[J]. Journal of Teacher Education,2007, 58(2):124-137. 2①McCaffrey, D. F., Koretz, D., Lockwood. J. R.& Hamilton, L. S. Evaluating Value-Added Models for Teacher Accountability[EB/OL]. http://www.and.org/pubs/monographs/2004/RAND_MG158.pdf.2011-12-23. ② McCaffrey. D. F., Lockwood, J. R., Koretz. D.. Louis, T. A.& Hamilton, L. S. Models for Value-Added Modeling of Teacher Effects[J]. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics,2004,29(1):67-101. ③Rubin, D. B., Stuart, E. A., Zanutto, E. L. A Potential Outcomes View of Value-Added Assessment in Education[J]. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics.2004,29(1):103-116. ④Braun, H. Using Student Progress to Evaluate Teachers:A Primer on Value-Added Models[EB/OL]. http://www.ets.org/Media/Research/pdf/PICVAM.pdf. 2011-12-23. ⑤BOTA (Board on Testing and Assessment, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Academy of Sciences). Letter Report to the U.S. Department of Education on the Race to the Top Fund[EB/OL]. http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record id=12780&page=1%20(and%20ff).2011-12-23. ⑥Braun, H., Chudowsky, N.& Koenig, J. (Eds.) Getting Value Out of Value-Added:Report of a Workshop[EB/OL]. http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12820.html.2011-12-23. ⑦Sass, T. The Stability of Value-Added Measures of Teacher Quality and Implications for Teacher Compensation Policy[EB/OL]. http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/1001266_stabilitvofvalue.pdf.2011-12-23. ⑧Baker, E. L., Barton. P. E., Darling-Hammond, L., Haertel, E., Ladd, H. F., Linn, R. L., Ravitch, D., Rothstein, R., Shavelson. R. J.& Shepard, L. A. Problems with the Use of Student Test Scores to Evaluate Teachers[EB/OL]. http://epi.3cdn.net/724cd9aleb91c40ff0_hwm6iii90.pdf.2011-12-23. ⑨Lockwood, J., Louis. T.& McCaffrey. D. F. Uncertainty in Rank Estimation:Implications for Value-Added Modeling Accountability Systems[J]. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics,2002,27(3):255-270. ⑩Schmidt W. H., Houang. R., McKnight, C. C. Value-Added Research:Right Idea but Wrong Solution?[A]. In R. Lissitz (Ed.) Value-added Models in Education: Theory and Applications[C]. Maple Grove, MN:JAM Press.2005:145-164. (11)Braun, H. Value-Added Modeling: What Does Due Diligence Require? [A]. In R. Lissitz (Ed.) Value-added Models in Education:Theory and Applications[C]. Maple Grove, MN:JAM Press,2005:19-39.
3Berliner. D. C. NCLB:Impact on Curriculum[A]. In T. L. Good (Ed.),21st Century Education:A Reference Handbook (Vol 2) [C]. Thousand Oaks, CA:SAGE Publications, Inc.,2008:363-373.
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