隐形性、家庭生活与平等主义
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摘要
本?
本文探讨作者玛丽·雪莱通过《弗兰肯斯坦》阐述得出的关于十九世纪早期中产阶级家庭价值观念方面的观点的复杂性和矛盾性。她一方面赞成沃尔斯通克拉夫特关于家庭每个成员应达到真正意义上的平等的主张，另一方面却对这种平等主义能否实现表示怀疑。她深入剖析了并存于当时中产阶级家庭文化的排他性和包容性，指出利己主义是其根本特征，也是无法在家庭内部实现平等主义的根本原因。
第一章首先对《弗兰肯斯坦》自1818年问世以来获得的评论作出了简要的回顾和总结。该小说的批评方法和角度很多，并不断更新发展，1985年以后女权主义批评占据了主要位置。然后概述了作者玛丽·雪莱的生平，指出她的生活对其作品产生的重要影响。
第二章分析了平等主义在中产阶级家庭存在的必要性。从隐形性着手，指出小说中不仅仅是怪物，弗兰肯斯坦，弗兰肯斯坦家里的所有女性以及沃尔顿的姐姐在内的许多人实际上都处于隐形状态之中。这种家长制和女主内、男主外的制度造成的隐形状态压抑了人的个性，无法认识自我和真实的世界，还形成了家庭成员之间，比如父母与子女，男性家庭成员与女性家庭成员之间的精神交流障碍，对悲剧的发生有不可推卸的责任。
第三章从中产阶级家庭结构出发，指出这种基于社会契约关系建立起来的家庭模式存在着由财产多少决定的不平等关系是物质性的。小说中弗兰肯斯坦家庭实际上是由感恩还债的关系维系的，不仅内部岌岌可危，还使弗兰肯斯坦、怪物以及弗兰肯斯坦家里的女性沦为了这种关系下的牺牲品。
第四章从雪莱所处的特定历史语境出发，分别对小说中的三个家庭作了另一角度的分析。指出在当时的社会条件下，婚姻关系受到了金钱的冲击，很有可能沦为可用金钱自由买卖的商品。同时，家庭关系存在着的排他性和包容性特征表明，十九世纪早期中产阶级家庭文化的本质特征是利己性，它也是家庭平等主义无法实现的根本原因。
The present thesis means to explore the complexity of and inherent contradiction in Mary Shelley's view concerning the values of the bourgeois family in the early nineteenth century. On the one hand, she agrees with what her mother advocates that every family member should enjoy the equality within the family; on the other hand, she casts doubt on the realization of the egalitarianism. She goes on analyzing the exclusivity and inclusivity lying in her contemporary bourgeois family culture, noting that the self-interestedness is the essential in the culture, and also the source contributing to the failure of the realization of egalitarianism.
The first chapter makes a brief review of the criticism Frankenstein has received since its publication. There is a wide range of critical approaches, but after 1985, the primary criticism turns to be Feminism. Then, the chapter makes a brief introduction of Mary Shelley's life, and pointing out the important connection of her life and Frankenstein.
The second chapter devotes on the necessity of egalitarianism applied to the bourgeois family. It begins with the invisibility, pointing out that not only the monster, but also Frankenstein, all the females in his household as well as Walton's sister are in fact in the state of invisibility. The invisibility, resulting from the patriarchal system and also the division of public and private spheres, represses one's individuality and set barriers to understanding the self and the real world, meanwhile getting in the way of the communication among the family members, which contributes a big part to the happening of the tragic fate.
The third chapter starts with the structure of the bourgeois family, noting this family mode based on the social contract forms the hierarchal relationship within the family decided by the amount of the property, which is materialistic. In the novel, Frankenstein's family is established mostly on the family indebtedness, which makes victims of Frankenstein, the monster and the women in Frankenstein's household.
The fourth chapter studies the bourgeois family by placing the novel's families in
their contemporary political context. Under such circumstances, Shelley observes that domestic affections are vulnerable to the influence of the money, in some cases can be reduced to the commodity sold in the market. At the same time, the coexistence of inclusivity and exclusivity in the bourgeois family proves that self-interestedness is the essential characteristic of the family mode, and also the source contributing to the failure of realization of egalitarianism in the bourgeois family in the early nineteenth century.
The conclusion part makes a brief review of the former chapters, and reiterates Mary Shelley's complicated view on the egalitarian bourgeois family.
本文探讨作者玛丽·雪莱通过《弗兰肯斯坦》阐述得出的关于十九世纪早期中产阶级家庭价值观念方面的观点的复杂性和矛盾性。她一方面赞成沃尔斯通克拉夫特关于家庭每个成员应达到真正意义上的平等的主张，另一方面却对这种平等主义能否实现表示怀疑。她深入剖析了并存于当时中产阶级家庭文化的排他性和包容性，指出利己主义是其根本特征，也是无法在家庭内部实现平等主义的根本原因。
第一章首先对《弗兰肯斯坦》自1818年问世以来获得的评论作出了简要的回顾和总结。该小说的批评方法和角度很多，并不断更新发展，1985年以后女权主义批评占据了主要位置。然后概述了作者玛丽·雪莱的生平，指出她的生活对其作品产生的重要影响。
第二章分析了平等主义在中产阶级家庭存在的必要性。从隐形性着手，指出小说中不仅仅是怪物，弗兰肯斯坦，弗兰肯斯坦家里的所有女性以及沃尔顿的姐姐在内的许多人实际上都处于隐形状态之中。这种家长制和女主内、男主外的制度造成的隐形状态压抑了人的个性，无法认识自我和真实的世界，还形成了家庭成员之间，比如父母与子女，男性家庭成员与女性家庭成员之间的精神交流障碍，对悲剧的发生有不可推卸的责任。
第三章从中产阶级家庭结构出发，指出这种基于社会契约关系建立起来的家庭模式存在着由财产多少决定的不平等关系是物质性的。小说中弗兰肯斯坦家庭实际上是由感恩还债的关系维系的，不仅内部岌岌可危，还使弗兰肯斯坦、怪物以及弗兰肯斯坦家里的女性沦为了这种关系下的牺牲品。
第四章从雪莱所处的特定历史语境出发，分别对小说中的三个家庭作了另一角度的分析。指出在当时的社会条件下，婚姻关系受到了金钱的冲击，很有可能沦为可用金钱自由买卖的商品。同时，家庭关系存在着的排他性和包容性特征表明，十九世纪早期中产阶级家庭文化的本质特征是利己性，它也是家庭平等主义无法实现的根本原因。
The present thesis means to explore the complexity of and inherent contradiction in Mary Shelley's view concerning the values of the bourgeois family in the early nineteenth century. On the one hand, she agrees with what her mother advocates that every family member should enjoy the equality within the family; on the other hand, she casts doubt on the realization of the egalitarianism. She goes on analyzing the exclusivity and inclusivity lying in her contemporary bourgeois family culture, noting that the self-interestedness is the essential in the culture, and also the source contributing to the failure of the realization of egalitarianism.
The first chapter makes a brief review of the criticism Frankenstein has received since its publication. There is a wide range of critical approaches, but after 1985, the primary criticism turns to be Feminism. Then, the chapter makes a brief introduction of Mary Shelley's life, and pointing out the important connection of her life and Frankenstein.
The second chapter devotes on the necessity of egalitarianism applied to the bourgeois family. It begins with the invisibility, pointing out that not only the monster, but also Frankenstein, all the females in his household as well as Walton's sister are in fact in the state of invisibility. The invisibility, resulting from the patriarchal system and also the division of public and private spheres, represses one's individuality and set barriers to understanding the self and the real world, meanwhile getting in the way of the communication among the family members, which contributes a big part to the happening of the tragic fate.
The third chapter starts with the structure of the bourgeois family, noting this family mode based on the social contract forms the hierarchal relationship within the family decided by the amount of the property, which is materialistic. In the novel, Frankenstein's family is established mostly on the family indebtedness, which makes victims of Frankenstein, the monster and the women in Frankenstein's household.
The fourth chapter studies the bourgeois family by placing the novel's families in
their contemporary political context. Under such circumstances, Shelley observes that domestic affections are vulnerable to the influence of the money, in some cases can be reduced to the commodity sold in the market. At the same time, the coexistence of inclusivity and exclusivity in the bourgeois family proves that self-interestedness is the essential characteristic of the family mode, and also the source contributing to the failure of realization of egalitarianism in the bourgeois family in the early nineteenth century.
The conclusion part makes a brief review of the former chapters, and reiterates Mary Shelley's complicated view on the egalitarian bourgeois family.
引文
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1 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (New York: Routledge,1988), p. 15.
2 Percy Bysshe Shelley, "On Frankenstein", in The Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley in Verse and Prose. Vol. 5. ed. Harry Buxton Forman (London: Reeves and Turner, 1880), p. 12.
3 Harold Bloom, ed. Modern Critical Views: Mary Shelley (New York: Chelsea, 1985), p. 62.
4 William Walling, Mary Shelley (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972), p. 34.
5 See Sehlueter, Paul and June Schlueter, eds. "Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley", in The Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 18. (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 29-31. See also Janet Todd, ed. "Mary Wollstoncraft Shelley", in British Women Writers: A Critical Reference (New York: Continuum Press, 1989), p. 605-610. See also George Watson, ed. "Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley", in The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969-1977), p. 761-764.
6 William Walling, Mary Shelley (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972), p. 36.
7 M. A. Goldberg, "Moral and Myth in Mrs. Shelley's Frankenstein". in Keats-Shelley Journal.8. 1. (Winter 1959): 213-247.
8 Harold Bloom, "Introduction. Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein'", in Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein ". ed. Harold Bloom (New York: Chelsea, 1987), p. 9.
9 Elsie B Michie, "Production Replaces Creation: Market Forces and Frankenstein as Critique of Romanticism". in Nineteenth-Century Contexts. 12.1. (1988): 32.
10 O'Rourke, Paul, "Production and Reproduction: The Case of Frankenstein". in Literature and History. 9.2. (Autumn 1983): 194-213.
11 See Laura Kranzler, "Frankenstein and the Technological Future". Foundation. 44. (Winter 1988-1989): 42-49. also see Burton R. Pollin, "Philosophical and Literary Sources of Frankenstein". Comparative Literature. 17.2. (Spring 1965): 97-108.
12 Katherine Richardson Powers, The Influence of William Godwin on the Novels of Mary Shelley (New York: Arno Press, 1980), p. 66.
13 Margaret Homans, Bearing the Word." Language and Female Experience in Nineteenth-Century Women's Writing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 133.
14 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (New York: Routledge,1988), p. 6.
15 Ibid., p. 114.
16 Ibid., p. 120.
17 Ibid., p. 126.
18 Mary Shelley." Romance and Reality. (Boston: Little Brown & Co, 1989) and Daughter of Earth and Water: A Biography of Mary Wollstonecraft (New York: William Morrow, 1993) are among those biographies after Anne's.
19 Ibid., p. 40.
20 Mary Poovey, The Proper Lady and The Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), p. 55.
21 Ibid., p. 116.
22 The thesis refers mainly to the 1831 edition and pays attention to the 1818 edition as well. In some cases, comparison will be made between these two editions. The 1818 edition referred to is Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818) (New York: W. W.Norton, 1996); the 1831 edition in use is Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1831) (London: Penguin, 1994).
23 Mary Shelley, "Introduction", in Frankenstein; or The Modern Prometheus (London: Penguin Books, 1994), p. 5.
24 Ibid., p. 19.
25 Ibid., p. 20.
26 Ibid.
27 See "Review of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus". in The Quarterly Review. 18. (January 1818): 379-385. http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/mschronology/reviews/qrrev.html ed. Shanon Lawson (12 September 1999).
28 Walter Scott, "Remark on Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus; a Novel". in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. 2. (20 March/ 1 April 1818): 613-620. http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/mschronology/reviews/bemrev.html ed. Shanon Lawson (12 September 1999).
29 See "Review of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus". in The British Critic n. s. 9.(April 1818): 432-438. http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/mschronology/reviews/bcrev.html ed. Shanon Lawson (12 September 1999).
30 See "Review of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus". in The Literary Panorama and National Register, n. s. 8. (1 June 1818): 410-419. http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/mschronology/reviews/lprev.html ed. Shanon Lawson (12 September 1999).
31 C. Kegan Paul, William Godwin, His Friend and Contemporaries (London: Henry S. King & Co., 1876), p. 365.
32 Mary Shelley, The Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. ed. Betty T. Bennett (Ⅱ. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), p. 215.
33 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley, Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. (New York: Routledge,1988), p. 13.
34 Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (New York: Penguin Books, 1994), p. 8. All further references are to this edition.
35 U. C. Knoepflmacher, "Thoughts on the Aggression of Daughters", in The Endurance of Frankenstein: Essays on Mary Shelley's Novel, eds. George Levine and U. C. Knoepflmacher
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. 19.
36 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley, Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. (New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 25.
37 George Levine, "Frankenstein and the Tradition of Realism", in Frankenstein: The 1818 Text, Contexts, Nineteenth-Century Response, Modern Criticis. ed. J. Paul Hunter (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996), p. 221.
38 Christopher Small, Ariel Like a Harpy: Shelley, Mary and Frankenstein (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1972), p. 102.
39 Ibid., p. 103.
40 Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: the Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-century Literary Imagination (New Heaven, Yale University Press, 1979), p. 231.
41 Mary Poovey, The Proper Lady and The Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), p. 122.
42 Ellen Moers, Literary Women (New York: Doubleday Books, 1976), p. 98.
43 Barbara Johnson, "My Monster/My Self", in Diacritics. 12. (1982): 52.
44 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley, Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. (New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 39.
45 Ibid., p. 43-44.
46 Ibid., p. 43.
47 Mary Shelley, "Lodore", in The Novels and Selected Works of Mary Shelley, ed. Nora Crook (London and Vermont: Piekering and Chatto Ltd, 1996), Vol.6. p. 30.
48 William Veeder, Mary Shelley and Frankenstein: The Fate of Androgyny (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), pp. 142-143.
49 Ibid., p. 139.
50 D. W. Winnicott, Mirror-role of Mother and Family in Child Development (London: Routledge, 1967), p. 112.
51 Ibid., p. 115.
52 D. W. Winnicott, Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena (London: Routledge, 1953), p. 2.
53 D. W. Winnicott, Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self (New York: Routledge, 1960), p. 160.
54 Ibid., p. 142.
55 Judith Weissman, Half Savage and Hardy and Free: Women and Rural Radicalism in the Nineteenth-Century Novel (CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1987), p. 123.
56 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (England: Routledge, 1988), p. 56.
57 Mary Jacobus, "Is There a Woman in This Text?" New Literary History. 14.1. (Autumn 1982):
133.
58 Harem is a place of exclusion and restriction, which confirms sexual and economic privilege for men, but denies these same privileges to women who are objects and have no sexual desire that is not determined by the male.
59 Mary Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the Rights of Woman. ed. Mirian Kramnick (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 4.
60 Ibid., p. 150.
61 Mary Shelley, The Journals of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. ed. Paula R. Feldman and Diana Kilvert-Scott (Oxford: Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1987), p. 103.
62 John A. Dussinger, "Kinship and Guilt in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein". in Studies in the Novel. 8. (1976): 52.
63 William Veeder, Mary Shelley and "Frankenstein": The Fate of Androgyny (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 190.
64 William Sayres, "Compounding the Crime: Ingratitude and the Murder Conviction of Justine Moritz in Frankenstein". in English Language Notes. 31.4. (1994): 48.
65 Ibid., p. 50.
66 Mary Jacobus, "Is There a Woman in This Text?" New Literary History. 14.1. (Autumn 1982): 133.
67 Sarah Stickney Ellis, "The Women of England: Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits", in The Select Works of Mrs. Ellis (New York: Langley Ltd, 1854), p. 16.
68 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 46.
69 Ibid., p. 170.
70 Ibid., p. 217.
71 Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800 (San Francisco: Harper & Row Ltd, 1979), p. 62.
72 See Mellor, Mary Shelley 54-55 and 237-38 for the argument that the "time frame of Mary Shelley's novel," calculated to be roughly summer 1789-autumn 1797. This calendar would date Walton's first letter at 11 December 1796 and the master's love affair probably not more than a few years earlier--the high point of Anglo-Russian tensions.
73 Herbert Kaplan, "Russian Overseas Commerce with Great Britain during the Reign of Catherine 11 ". in Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. 218. (1995): 145.
74 Ibid., p. 171.
75 Kate Ellis, "Monsters in the Garden: Mary Shelley and the Bourgeois Family", in The Endurance of Frankenstein: Essays on Mary Shelley's Novel, eds. George Levine and U. C. Knoepflmacher (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. 128.
76 See Derek Beales, The Risorgimento and the Unification of Italy (New York: Longman Inc, 1981), pp. 42-45.
77 Ibid., p. 45.
78 Mary Shelley, "Travel Writing", in The Novels and Selected Works of Mary Shelley ed. Nora Crook (London and Vermont: Pickering and Chatto Ltd, 1996), Vol. 5. p. 286.
79 We may add the role of"mother" to Elizabeth's many identities, since Caroline bequeathes to her the care of the younger children before dying. In marrying her, perhaps Victor completes the Oedipal pattern implicit in his lifelong contest of wills with Alphonse.
80 John Milton, Paradise Lost (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 460-469.
81 Constantine Francis Chassebeuf de Volney, The Ruins, or, Mediation on the Revolution of Empires: and the Law of Nature (New York: Peter Eckler Publishing Company, 1890), p. 64.
82 Ibid., p. 39.
83 Ibid., p. 33.
84 Alfred Cecil Wood, A History of the Levant Company (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1964), p. 140.
85 Russia occupies Georgia in 1801, Eastern Armenia in 1804 and Bessarabia in 1812.
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1 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (New York: Routledge,1988), p. 15.
2 Percy Bysshe Shelley, "On Frankenstein", in The Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley in Verse and Prose. Vol. 5. ed. Harry Buxton Forman (London: Reeves and Turner, 1880), p. 12.
3 Harold Bloom, ed. Modern Critical Views: Mary Shelley (New York: Chelsea, 1985), p. 62.
4 William Walling, Mary Shelley (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972), p. 34.
5 See Sehlueter, Paul and June Schlueter, eds. "Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley", in The Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 18. (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), p. 29-31. See also Janet Todd, ed. "Mary Wollstoncraft Shelley", in British Women Writers: A Critical Reference (New York: Continuum Press, 1989), p. 605-610. See also George Watson, ed. "Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley", in The New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969-1977), p. 761-764.
6 William Walling, Mary Shelley (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1972), p. 36.
7 M. A. Goldberg, "Moral and Myth in Mrs. Shelley's Frankenstein". in Keats-Shelley Journal.8. 1. (Winter 1959): 213-247.
8 Harold Bloom, "Introduction. Mary Shelley's 'Frankenstein'", in Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein ". ed. Harold Bloom (New York: Chelsea, 1987), p. 9.
9 Elsie B Michie, "Production Replaces Creation: Market Forces and Frankenstein as Critique of Romanticism". in Nineteenth-Century Contexts. 12.1. (1988): 32.
10 O'Rourke, Paul, "Production and Reproduction: The Case of Frankenstein". in Literature and History. 9.2. (Autumn 1983): 194-213.
11 See Laura Kranzler, "Frankenstein and the Technological Future". Foundation. 44. (Winter 1988-1989): 42-49. also see Burton R. Pollin, "Philosophical and Literary Sources of Frankenstein". Comparative Literature. 17.2. (Spring 1965): 97-108.
12 Katherine Richardson Powers, The Influence of William Godwin on the Novels of Mary Shelley (New York: Arno Press, 1980), p. 66.
13 Margaret Homans, Bearing the Word." Language and Female Experience in Nineteenth-Century Women's Writing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 133.
14 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (New York: Routledge,1988), p. 6.
15 Ibid., p. 114.
16 Ibid., p. 120.
17 Ibid., p. 126.
18 Mary Shelley." Romance and Reality. (Boston: Little Brown & Co, 1989) and Daughter of Earth and Water: A Biography of Mary Wollstonecraft (New York: William Morrow, 1993) are among those biographies after Anne's.
19 Ibid., p. 40.
20 Mary Poovey, The Proper Lady and The Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), p. 55.
21 Ibid., p. 116.
22 The thesis refers mainly to the 1831 edition and pays attention to the 1818 edition as well. In some cases, comparison will be made between these two editions. The 1818 edition referred to is Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1818) (New York: W. W.Norton, 1996); the 1831 edition in use is Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (1831) (London: Penguin, 1994).
23 Mary Shelley, "Introduction", in Frankenstein; or The Modern Prometheus (London: Penguin Books, 1994), p. 5.
24 Ibid., p. 19.
25 Ibid., p. 20.
26 Ibid.
27 See "Review of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus". in The Quarterly Review. 18. (January 1818): 379-385. http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/mschronology/reviews/qrrev.html ed. Shanon Lawson (12 September 1999).
28 Walter Scott, "Remark on Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus; a Novel". in Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine. 2. (20 March/ 1 April 1818): 613-620. http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/mschronology/reviews/bemrev.html ed. Shanon Lawson (12 September 1999).
29 See "Review of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus". in The British Critic n. s. 9.(April 1818): 432-438. http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/mschronology/reviews/bcrev.html ed. Shanon Lawson (12 September 1999).
30 See "Review of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus". in The Literary Panorama and National Register, n. s. 8. (1 June 1818): 410-419. http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/mschronology/reviews/lprev.html ed. Shanon Lawson (12 September 1999).
31 C. Kegan Paul, William Godwin, His Friend and Contemporaries (London: Henry S. King & Co., 1876), p. 365.
32 Mary Shelley, The Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. ed. Betty T. Bennett (Ⅱ. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), p. 215.
33 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley, Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. (New York: Routledge,1988), p. 13.
34 Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus (New York: Penguin Books, 1994), p. 8. All further references are to this edition.
35 U. C. Knoepflmacher, "Thoughts on the Aggression of Daughters", in The Endurance of Frankenstein: Essays on Mary Shelley's Novel, eds. George Levine and U. C. Knoepflmacher
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. 19.
36 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley, Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. (New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 25.
37 George Levine, "Frankenstein and the Tradition of Realism", in Frankenstein: The 1818 Text, Contexts, Nineteenth-Century Response, Modern Criticis. ed. J. Paul Hunter (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996), p. 221.
38 Christopher Small, Ariel Like a Harpy: Shelley, Mary and Frankenstein (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1972), p. 102.
39 Ibid., p. 103.
40 Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: the Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-century Literary Imagination (New Heaven, Yale University Press, 1979), p. 231.
41 Mary Poovey, The Proper Lady and The Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), p. 122.
42 Ellen Moers, Literary Women (New York: Doubleday Books, 1976), p. 98.
43 Barbara Johnson, "My Monster/My Self", in Diacritics. 12. (1982): 52.
44 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley, Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. (New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 39.
45 Ibid., p. 43-44.
46 Ibid., p. 43.
47 Mary Shelley, "Lodore", in The Novels and Selected Works of Mary Shelley, ed. Nora Crook (London and Vermont: Piekering and Chatto Ltd, 1996), Vol.6. p. 30.
48 William Veeder, Mary Shelley and Frankenstein: The Fate of Androgyny (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), pp. 142-143.
49 Ibid., p. 139.
50 D. W. Winnicott, Mirror-role of Mother and Family in Child Development (London: Routledge, 1967), p. 112.
51 Ibid., p. 115.
52 D. W. Winnicott, Transitional Objects and Transitional Phenomena (London: Routledge, 1953), p. 2.
53 D. W. Winnicott, Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self (New York: Routledge, 1960), p. 160.
54 Ibid., p. 142.
55 Judith Weissman, Half Savage and Hardy and Free: Women and Rural Radicalism in the Nineteenth-Century Novel (CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1987), p. 123.
56 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (England: Routledge, 1988), p. 56.
57 Mary Jacobus, "Is There a Woman in This Text?" New Literary History. 14.1. (Autumn 1982):
133.
58 Harem is a place of exclusion and restriction, which confirms sexual and economic privilege for men, but denies these same privileges to women who are objects and have no sexual desire that is not determined by the male.
59 Mary Wollstonecraft, Vindication of the Rights of Woman. ed. Mirian Kramnick (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 4.
60 Ibid., p. 150.
61 Mary Shelley, The Journals of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. ed. Paula R. Feldman and Diana Kilvert-Scott (Oxford: Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 1987), p. 103.
62 John A. Dussinger, "Kinship and Guilt in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein". in Studies in the Novel. 8. (1976): 52.
63 William Veeder, Mary Shelley and "Frankenstein": The Fate of Androgyny (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 190.
64 William Sayres, "Compounding the Crime: Ingratitude and the Murder Conviction of Justine Moritz in Frankenstein". in English Language Notes. 31.4. (1994): 48.
65 Ibid., p. 50.
66 Mary Jacobus, "Is There a Woman in This Text?" New Literary History. 14.1. (Autumn 1982): 133.
67 Sarah Stickney Ellis, "The Women of England: Their Social Duties and Domestic Habits", in The Select Works of Mrs. Ellis (New York: Langley Ltd, 1854), p. 16.
68 Anne K. Mellor, Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters (New York: Routledge, 1988), p. 46.
69 Ibid., p. 170.
70 Ibid., p. 217.
71 Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800 (San Francisco: Harper & Row Ltd, 1979), p. 62.
72 See Mellor, Mary Shelley 54-55 and 237-38 for the argument that the "time frame of Mary Shelley's novel," calculated to be roughly summer 1789-autumn 1797. This calendar would date Walton's first letter at 11 December 1796 and the master's love affair probably not more than a few years earlier--the high point of Anglo-Russian tensions.
73 Herbert Kaplan, "Russian Overseas Commerce with Great Britain during the Reign of Catherine 11 ". in Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. 218. (1995): 145.
74 Ibid., p. 171.
75 Kate Ellis, "Monsters in the Garden: Mary Shelley and the Bourgeois Family", in The Endurance of Frankenstein: Essays on Mary Shelley's Novel, eds. George Levine and U. C. Knoepflmacher (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. 128.
76 See Derek Beales, The Risorgimento and the Unification of Italy (New York: Longman Inc, 1981), pp. 42-45.
77 Ibid., p. 45.
78 Mary Shelley, "Travel Writing", in The Novels and Selected Works of Mary Shelley ed. Nora Crook (London and Vermont: Pickering and Chatto Ltd, 1996), Vol. 5. p. 286.
79 We may add the role of"mother" to Elizabeth's many identities, since Caroline bequeathes to her the care of the younger children before dying. In marrying her, perhaps Victor completes the Oedipal pattern implicit in his lifelong contest of wills with Alphonse.
80 John Milton, Paradise Lost (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 460-469.
81 Constantine Francis Chassebeuf de Volney, The Ruins, or, Mediation on the Revolution of Empires: and the Law of Nature (New York: Peter Eckler Publishing Company, 1890), p. 64.
82 Ibid., p. 39.
83 Ibid., p. 33.
84 Alfred Cecil Wood, A History of the Levant Company (London: Frank Cass & Co., 1964), p. 140.
85 Russia occupies Georgia in 1801, Eastern Armenia in 1804 and Bessarabia in 1812.
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