摘要
由于具备能够突破贸易的时空限制、降低交易的各类成本等诸多优势,电子商务自出现至今始终备受关注,但是近年来其发展却呈现出一定程度的震荡和萎缩,而目前电子商务研究的理论及应用不能适应商务活动中用户日益个性化和自动化的需求便是导致这种状况的一个主要原因。本文针对此问题,以第二代电子商务的发展为背景,将多Agent联盟形成技术同组合贸易相结合,从市场级宏观和Agent级微观这两个不同角度,对组合贸易中消费者联盟形成的若干关键问题进行了深入研究。
首先,本文从市场宏观层次的角度研究,将组合市场抽象为一个具有随机特性的群集系统,利用基于群集智能的多Agent系统分析方法,针对一种卖方主导的组合电子市场中大量消费者联盟形成的问题,为多Agent间交互的动态特性做出宏观层次的定量分析,根据群集系统的速率方程,给出了一个反映组合市场中市场结构动态变化的微分方程,通过数值仿真,验证了组合贸易中多Agent联盟形成的可行性和有效性;并给出一种简单但有效的中介主导的组合电子市场模型,对其中消费者联盟形成问题进行研究,说明了中介主导型商务系统这种电子市场模式存在的价值和先进性。
然后,本文转换研究视角,深入组合市场中智能Agent的微观层次,针对消费者具有多样性及个性化组合需求的自动规划问题,研究组合贸易中的规划技术及其与联盟形成过程的融合。在提出一种新的多Agent中介系统主导的组合市场模型IMASCM模型的基础上,首先介绍了一种组合贸易中适用的计划表示方法,然后研究了消费者组合购买问题的自动规划过程。本文将联盟过程看作规划过程的一环,通过单商品交易联盟形成、需求传播和剩余支付转移三个相继循环执行的过程形成整个联盟规划过程,为消费者生成包含联盟结果的购买计划。此研究创新性地提出了对消费者包含大量约束关系的个性化与多样化需求的解决方法,对电子商务的发展颇具实用价值。
最后,针对电子商务的实施与应用问题,基于IMASCM组合市场模型,本文研究了灵巧文档Agent及基于Web Services的元组中心组织技术,以此实现电子商务平台中各类Agent的结构和协作模型,设计了第三方平台的系统结构,并且实现一个商务原型系统,验证了联盟规划方法概念的正确性和算法的有效性。
Electronic Commerce has attracted much attention for it offers significant opportunities to make businesses faster, cheaper, and more agile. However these days, it is facing severe challenge because it cannot adapt itself to users’expanding demand for personality and automation of businesses. This dissertation investigates the problem of combinatorial trading and applies multi-agent coalition formation methodology for it. From two different points of view, namely, macroscopic level and microscopic level, several key techniques of customer coalition formation in combinatorial markets are deeply studied.
First, at the macroscopic level, we describe a combinatorial marketplace as a stochastic swarm system and propose a general mathematical analysis methodology for study the dynamics of this kind of multi-agent system. Based on the Rate Equation, a differential equation is derived, which gives a quantitative characteristic for coalition formation process of large-scale customers in our combinatorial market. Simulation experiments are performed to study the global behavior of the system and the effectiveness of the agent mediated combinatorial trading. Then, A new intermediary-driven combinatorial electronic market model is presented. Customer coalition formation in these marketplaces is studied.
Second, from the reversed view of above research, at the microscopic level, planning ability of deliberative buyers’agents is considered. An intermediary multiagent system-driven combinatorial electronic market model IMASCM is gived. A plan representation for combinatorial trading is presented. Then, automated planning process mixed with coalition formation process is studied, which consists of demand propagation, coalition formation for single article and overpay transmit. Feasible purchasing plans are derived from the coalition planning algorithm for customers.
End, based on the IMASCM model and the coalition planning algorithm, correlative theories of smart document agent and web services-based tuplecenters organization are investigated. Using them as agents’framework and communication model, architecture of the third-party platform in combinatorial markets is designed. And an experimental system is realized, which validates concepts and algorithms of above coalition planning.
引文
[1] E. Turban, J. Lee, D. King, and H. M. Chung, editors. Electronic Commerce: A Managerial Perspective. Prentice Hall, 1999
[2] S. N. Singh. Web Home Pages As Advertisement. Communications of the ACM, 1999, 42(8):91-98
[3] G. Zacharia, A. Moukas, and P. Maes. Collaborative Reputation Mechanisms for Electronic Marketplaces. Decision Support Systems, 2000, 29: 371-388
[4] S. Garfinkel, G. Spafford, and D. Russell. Web Security, Privacy And Commerce. O’Reilly, 2001
[5] 第十四次中国互联网络发展状况统计报告 . http://www.people.com.cn/ GB/it/8219/35521/35522/2653045.html. 2004.7
[6] Minghua He, Nicholas R. Jennings, Ho-fung Leung. On Agent-mediated Electronic Commerce. http://ecommerce.media.mit.edu.
[7] N. R. Jennings. An Agent-Based Approach for Building Complex Software Sys- tems. Communications of the ACM, 2001, 44(4):35-41
[8] 黄亚钧, 姜纬. 微观经济学教程. 上海, 复旦大学出版社, 1995.11
[9] M. Tsvetovat, K. Sycara. Customer Coalitions in the Electronic Marketplace. Proc. Fourth Int’l Conf. Autonomous Agents, 2000, 263-264
[10] O. Shehory, S. Kraus. Methods for Task Allocation via Agent Coalition Formati- on. Artificial Intelligence, 1998, 101(1-2), 165-200
[11] J. Yamamoto, K. Sycara. A Stable and Efficient Buyer Coalition Formation Scheme for E-Marketplaces. Proc. Fifth Int’l Conf. Autonomous Agents, 2001, 576-583
[12] Takayuki Ito, Hiroyuki Ochi, and Toramatsu Shintani. A Group Buy Protocol based on Coalition Formation for Agent-mediated E-Commerce. In the Interna- tional Journal of Computer and Information Science( IJCIS), 2002, 3(1), 11-20
[13] 姚莉, 张维明. 智能协作信息技术. 电子工业出版社, 2002.4
[14] Stuart Russell, Peter Norvig. 人工智能-一种现代方法(英文版). 人民邮电出版社, 2002.4
[15] O. Etzioni, D. S. Weld. Intelligent agents on the Internet: Fact, fiction, and force- ast. IEEE Expert, 1995, 10(4), 44-49
[16] S. Franklin, A. Grasser. Is It an Agent or Just a Program? A Taxonomy for Autonomous Agents. In Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Agent Theories, Architectures, and languages. New York: Springer-Verlag. 1996
[17] Peter Stone, Manuela Veloso. Multiagent Systems: A Survey From A Machine Learning Perspective. Autonomous Robots, 2000
[18] 赵国仁. 电子商务与智能型代理人. http://www.mba.ntu.edu.tw/~jtchiang/ StrategyEC/eec/craychu/index.html
[19] R. Till. Transforming the Way We Do Business. Electronic Commerce. T. Nash, ed., 1998, 9-12
[20] 方美琪. 电子商务概论(第二版). 清华大学出版社, 2000.1
[21] http://www.idc.com
[22] Ciborra, C. U. Transaction-Cost Analysis of Information Systems. Teams,Markets and System: Business Innovation and Information Technology. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993, 109-133
[23] Andrew, B., Whinston, D. and Choi, S. The Economics of Electronic Commerce. Macmillan Technical Publishing, 1997
[24] http://ccs.mit.edu
[25] R. G. Smith. The Contract-Net Protocol: High-Level Communication and Control in a Distributed Problem Solver. In IEEE Transaction on Computers, 1980, 19(12), 1104-1113
[26] R. Davis, R. G. Smith. Negotiation as a Metaphor for Distributed Problem Solving. Artificial Intelligence, 1993, 20(1), 63-109
[27] R. H. Guttman, A. G. Moukas, and P. Maes. Agent-Mediated Electronic Commerce: A Survey. The Knowledge Eng. Rev., 1998, 13(2), 147-159
[28] S. Garfinkel, G. Spafford, and D. Russell. Web Security, Privacy, and Commerce. O’Reilly, 2001
[29] P. McDermott. Building Trust into Online Business. Network Security, 2000, 10, 10-12
[30] S. S. Standifird. Reputation and E-Commerce: eBay Auctions and the Asymmetri- cal Impact of Positive and Negative Ratings. J. Management, 2001, 27, 279-295
[31] E. Turban, J. Lee, D. King, and H.M. Chung. Electronic Commerce: A Manage- rial Perspective. Prentice Hall, 1999
[32] D. Billsus, M. Pazzani. Learning Collaborative Information Filters. Proc. 15th Int’l Conf. Machine Learning, 1998, 46-54
[33] R.A. Ribeiro. Fuzzy Multiple Attribute Decision Making: A Review and New Preference Elicitation Techniques. Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 1996, 78, 155-181
[34] M. Dastani, N. Jacobs, C.M. Jonker, and J. Treuer. Modeling User Preferences and Mediating Agents in Electronic Commerce. Agent Mediated Electronic Commerce, F. Dignum and C. Sierra, eds., 2001, 163-193
[35] U. Shardanand, P. Maes. Social Information Filtering: Algorithms for Automating Word of Mouth. Proc. Computer Factors in Computing Systems, 1995, 210-217
[36] B. Krulwich. The Bargainfinder Agent: Comparison Price Shopping on the Internet. Bots, and Other Internet Beasties, J. Williams, ed., Macmillan Computer Publishing, 1996, 257-263
[37] D. Friedman. The Double Auction Market Institution: A Survey. The Double Auction Market: Institutions, Theories, and Evidence, D. Friedman and J. Rust, eds., Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1993, 3-25
[38] N. R. Jennings, P. Faratin, A. R. Lomuscio, S. Parsons, C. Sierra, and M. Wooldridge. Automated Negotiation: Prospects, Methods and Challenges. Int. J. Group Decision and Negotiation, 2001, 10(2), 199-215
[39] G. Adams, G. Rausser, and L. Simon. Modelling Multilateral Negotiations: An Application to California Water Policy. J. Economic Behavior and Organization, 1996, 30(1), 97-111
[40] P. Faratin. Automated Service Negotiation Between Autonomous Computational Agents. PhD thesis, Univ. of London, Queen Mary College, 2000
[41] D.C. Parkes, L.H. Ungar, and D.P. Foster. Accounting for Cognitive Costs in On-Line Auction Design. Agent Mediated Electronic Commerce, P. Noriega and C. Sierra, eds., 1998, 25-40
[42] P. R. Wurman. Dynamic Pricing in the Virtual Marketplace. IEEE Internet Computing, 2001, 5(Mar./Apr), 36-42
[43] P. Milgrom. Auctions and Bidding: A Primer. J. Economic Perspectives, 1989, 3-22
[44] P. Milgrom and J.W. Robert. A Theory of Auctions and Competitive Bidding. Econometrica, 1982, 1089-1122
[45] C. Sierra, P. Faratin, and N.R. Jennings. A Service-Oriented Negotiation Model between Autonomous Agents. Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, 1997, 1237, 17-35
[46] D. Zeng and K. Sycara. Bayesian Learning in Negotiation. Int’l J. Human- Computer Studies, 1998, 48, 125-141
[47] R. Kowalczyk, V. Bui. On Fuzzy E-Negotiation Agents: Autonomous Negotiatio- n with Incomplete and Imprecise Information. Proc. DEXA e-Negotiation Workshop, 2000
[48] A. Gomez-Perez, O. Corcho. Ontology Languages for the Semantic Web. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 2002, 17(1), 54-60
[49] S. S. Laurent. XML: Element of Style. McGraw-Hill, 2000
[50] Zlotkin Gilad, Rosenschein Jeffrey S. One, two, many: Coalition in multi-agent systems. In: Castelfranchi C, Pmuller J Eds. From Reaction to Cognition, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, Vol 957. Berlin: Springer, 1993, 96-110
[51] Onn Shehory, Sarit Kraus. Coalition formation among autonomous agents: Strategies and complexity. In: Castelfranchi C, Pmuller J Eds. From Reaction to Cognition, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, Vol 957. Berlin: Springer, 1993, 57-72
[52] Ketchpel S. Coalition formation among autonomous agents. In: Castelfranchi C, Pmuller J Eds. From Reaction to Cognition, Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence, Vol 957. Berlin: Springer, 1993, 73-88
[53] O. Shehory, S. Kraus, and O. Yadgar. Emergent cooperative goal satisfaction in large-scale automated-agent systems. Artificial Intelligence, 1999
[54] Tuomas Sandholm, Victor R. Lesser. Coalitions among Computationally Bound- ed Agents. Artificial Intelligence, 1994(1), 99-137
[55] R. Axelrod and W. D. Hamilton. The Evolution of Cooperation. Science, 1981(211), 1390–1396
[56] O. Guenter, T. Hogg and B. A. Huberman. Learning in Multiagent Control of Smart Matter. AAAI Workshop on Multiagent Learning, 1997
[57] A. Schaerf, Y. Shoham and M. Tennenholtz. Adaptive Load Balancing: A Study in Multi-Agent Learning. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 1995(2), 475–500
[58] J. von Neumann, O. Morgenstern. Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1944
[59] R. D. Luce, H. Raiffa. Games and Decisions. NY. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1957
[60] L. C. Thomas. Games, Theory and Applications. Chichester, 1984
[61] J. S. Rosenschein. Rational Interaction: Cooperation Among Intelligent Agents. Ph.D.Thesis, Stanford Univ, 1986
[62] J. S. Rosenschein, M. Genesereth. Cooperation without Communication, in Reading in DAI, 1986
[63] J. S. Rosenschein, M. Genesereth. Deals Among Rational Agents. In B. A. Huberman edt., The Ecology of Computation, 1988
[64] P. Gmytrasiewicz, E. Durfee. A Rigorous, Operational Formalization of Recur- sive Modeling. In: Proc. Of First International Conference on Multiagent System, 1995, San Francisco, USA, 125-132
[65] J. Vidal, E. Durfee. Recursive Agent Modeling Using Limited Rationality. In: Proc. Of First International Conference on Multiagent System, 1995, San Francisco, USA, 376-383
[66] J. F. Nash. Two-Person Cooperative Games. Econometrica, 1953, 128-140
[67] Zlotkin Gilad, Rosenschein Jeffrey S. Negotiation and Task Sharing Autonomous Agents in Cooperative Domains, IJCAI-89, 1989, 912-917
[68] Zlotkin Gilad, Rosenschein Jeffrey S. Cooperative and Conflict Resolution via Negotiation among Autonomous Agents in Non-cooperative Domains. IEEE Trans. SMC 21:6, 1991, 1317-1324
[69] Zlotkin Gilad, Rosenschein Jeffrey S. Incomplete Information and Deception in Multi-agent Negotiation. IJCAI-91, 1991, 225-231
[70] Zlotkin Gilad, Rosenschein Jeffrey S. A domain theory for task oriented negotiation. In; Proc IJCAI-93, Chambery, France, 1993, 416-422
[71] J. F. Nash. Non-Cooperative Games. Annals of Maths, 1951, 286-295
[72] K. Matsubashi, M. Tokoro. A Collaboration Mechanism on Positive Interactions in Multi-agent Environments, IJCAI-93, 1993, 346-351
[73] A. Rubinstein. A Bargaining Model with Incomplete Information about Prefernc- es. Econometrica, 53:5, 1985, 1151-1172
[74] S. Kraus. Negotiation over Time in a multi-agent Envirment: Preliminary Report. IJCAI-91, 1991, 56-61
[75] S. Ketchpel, Forming Coalitions in the Face of Uncertain Rewards, AAAI-94
[76] Tuomas Sandholm, Victor R. Lesser. Issues in Automated Negotiation and Electronic Commerce: Extending the Contract Net Framework. in Proc. of the First International Conference on Multi-Agent Systems. MIT Press, 1995, San Francisco, USA, 328-335
[77] Tuomas Sandholm, Victor R. Lesser. Coalition Formation among Bounded Rational Agents. IJCAI-95, 1995, Canada, 662-669
[78] S. Guiasu, M. Malitza. Coalition and Connection in Games. Pergamon, Oxford, 1980
[79] J. P. Kahan, A. Rapoport. Theories of Coalition Formation. Lawrence, Hillside, NJ, 1984
[80] www.grandcoalition.com
[81] 王学军. 多 Agent 系统中协调方法研究. 清华大学博士论文, 1996
[82] O. Shehory, S. Kraus. Feasible formation of coalitions among autonomous agents in non-super-additive environments. Computational Intelligence, 1999, 15(3), 218-251,
[83] R. Axelrod and W. D. Hamilton. The Evolution of Cooperation. Science, 1981, 211, 1390–1396
[84] T. Sandholm, K. Larson, M. Andersson, O. Shehory, and F. Tohme. Coalition structure generation with worst-case guarantees. Artificial Intelligence, 1999, 111(1-2), 209-238
[85] Maksim Tsvetovat, Katia Sycara. Customer Coalitions in Electronic Markets. ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce 2000, Minnesota, MN, USA, 121-138
[86] Takayuki Ito, Hiroyuki Ochi. A Group Buy Protocol based on Coalition Formation for Agent-mediated E-Commerce. International Journal of Computer & Information Science (IJCIS). 2002, 3(1) , 31-37
[87] Junichi Yamamoto, Katia Sycara. A Stable and Efficient Buyer Coalition Formation Scheme for E-Marketplaces. In Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Autonomous Agents (Agents-2001), Montreal, Canada, 2001, 576-583
[88] K. Lerman and O. Shehory. Coalition Formation for Large-Scale Electronic Markets. Proceedings of the International Conference on Multi-Agent Systems (ICMAS’2000), 2000, 167-174
[89] D. Walgraef. Spatio-Temporal Pattern Formation, with Examples from Physics, Chemistry, and Materials Science. Springer, New York, 1997
[90] K. Lerman. Design and mathematical analysis of agent-based systems. In Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence (LNAI 1871), Springer Verlag, 2001, 222-234
[91] G. Di Caro, M. Dorigo. Antnet: Distributed stigmergetic control for communica- tions networks. J. of Artificial Intelligence Research, 1998(9), 317-365
[92] Ruud Schoonderwoerd, Owen Holland, Janet Bruten. Ant-like agents for load balancing in telecommunications networks. In W. Lewis Johnson and Barbara Hayes-Roth, editors, Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Autonomous Agents, New York, ACM Press, 1997, 209-216
[93] Bernardo A. Huberman, Scott H. Clearwater. A multiagent system for controlling building environments. In Victor Lesser, editor, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Multi-Agent Systems, San Francisco, CA, MIT Press, 1995, 171-176
[94] Andrea Schaerf, Yoav Shoham, and Moshe Tennenholtz. Adaptive load balancing: a study in co-learning. In Sandip Sen, editor, IJCAI-95 Workshop on Adaptation and Learning in Multiagent Systems, 1995, 78-83
[95] J. Kennedy, R. Eberhart. Particle Swarm Optimizationy. In N. R. Jennings and M. Wooldridge, editors, Fourth IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks,IEEE Service Center, 1995
[96] Dani Goldberg, Maja J. Matari?. Coordinating mobile robot group behavior using a model of interaction dynamics. In Oren Etzioni, J?rg P. Müller, and Jeffrey M. Bradshaw, editors, Proceedings of the Third Annual Conference on Autonomous Agents (AGENTS-99), New York, ACM Press, 1999, 100-107
[97] H. Kitano, M. Asada, Y. Kuniyoshi, and I. Noda. RoboCup: A challenge problem for AI and robotics. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 1395(1), 1998
[98] Maja J. Matari?. Designing emergent behaviors: From local interactions to collective intelligence. In J-A. Meyer, H. Roitblat, and S. Wilson, editors, Second International Conference on Simulation of Adaptive Behavior (SAB-92), 1992, 432-441
[99] Maja J. Matari?. Designing and understanding adaptive group behavior. Adaptive Behavior, 1995, 4(1), 50-81
[100] A. Chavez and P. Maes. Kasbah: An agent marketplace for buying and selling goods. In First International Conference on the Practical Application of Intelligent Agents and Multi-Agent Technology, 1996, 75-90
[101] 陈景艳,苟娟琼. 电子商务技术基础. 电子工业出版社. 2003
[102] N. R. Jennings, M.Wooldridge. Applications of Agent Technology. In N. R. Jennings and M. Wooldridge, editors, Agent Technology: Foundations, Applications, and Markets, Springer-Verlag, 1998
[103] Simon Parsons, Carles Sierra, and Nick Jennings. Agents that reason and negotiate by arguing. Journal of Logic and Computation, 1998, 8(3), 261-292
[104] Katia Sycara, Anandeep S. Pannu. The RETSINA multiagent system: Towards integrating planning, execution and information gathering. In Katia P. Sycara and Michael Wooldridge, editors, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Autonomous Agents (AGENTS-98), New York, ACM Press, 1998, 350-351
[105] Simon Parsons, N. R. Jennings. Negotiation through argumentation - a preliminary report. In Victor Lesser, editor, Proceedings of the First International Conference on Multi-Agent Systems, MIT Press, 1995
[106] T. Hogg, B. A. Huberman. The behavior of computational ecologies. In B. A. Huberman, editor, The Ecology of Computation, Amsterdam, North-Holland, 1988
[107] K. Lerman, D. S. Cannell, and G. Ahlers. Different convection dynamics in mixtures with the same separation ratio. Physical Review, E53:R2041, 1996
[108] Z. Noszticzius, W. Horsthemke, W. D. McCormick, H. L. Swinney, and W. Y. Tam. Sustained chemical waves in an annular gel reactor: a chemical pinwheel. Nature, 1987
[109] A. M. Turing. The chemical basis of morphogenesis. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond., B327
[110] W. J. Rappel, A. Nicol, A. Sarkissian, H. Levine, and W. F. Loomis. Self-organized vortex state in two-dimensional dictyostelium dynamics. PhysicalReview Letters, 1999, 83, 1247-1250
[111] Eric Bonabeau, Marco Dorigo, and Guy Theraulaz. Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems. Oxford University Press, New York, 1999
[112] Maja J. Matari?. Issues and approaches in the design of collective autonomous agents. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 1995, 16(2-4), 321-331
[113] H. Chalupsky, Y. Gil, C. A. Knoblock, K. Lerman, J. Oh, D. V. Pynadath, T. A. Russ, M. Tambe. Electric elves: Applying agent technology to support human organizations. In Proceedings of IAAI-2001, Seattle, WA, 2001
[114] K. Sycara, A. S. Pannu. The RETSINA multiagent system: Towards integrating planning, execution and information gathering. In K. P. Sycara, M. Wooldridge (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Autonomous Agents (AGENTS-98), New York, ACM Press, 350-351
[115] G. Beni. The concept of cellular robotics. In Proc. of the 1988 IEEE Int. Symp. On Intelligent Control, Los Alamitos, CA, IEEE Computer Society Press, 1988, 57-62
[116] G. Beni, J. Wang. Swarm intelligence. In Proc. of the Seventh Annual Meeting of the Robotics Society of Japan, Tokyo, Japan, RSJ Press, 1989, 425-428
[117] E. Bonabeau, M. Dorigo, G. Theraulaz. Swarm Intelligence: From Natural to Artificial Systems. Oxford University Press, New York, 1999
[118] A. J. Ijspeert, A. Martinoli, A. Billard, L. M. Gambardella. Collaboration through the exploitation of local interactions in autonomous collective robotics: The stick pulling experiment. appear in Autonomous Robots.
[119] R. Schoonderwoerd, O. Holland, J. Bruten. Ant-like agents for load balancing in telecommunications networks. In W. L. Johnson, B. Hayes-Roth (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Autonomous Agents, New York, ACM Press, 1997, 209-216.
[120] K. Lerman, A. Galstyan. A General Methodology for Mathematical Analysis of Multi-Agent Systems. Tech. Rep. 529, Information Science Institute, Univ. of Southern California, 2001
[121] F. Schweitzer, K. Lao, F. Family. Active random walkers simulate trunk trail formation by ants. BioSystems, 1997, 41, 153-166
[122] R. Duncan, T. D. McCarson, R. Stewart, P. M. Alsing, R. P. Kale, R. R. binett. Statistical paradigms for robotic swarm modeling. 1998. http://www.mhpcc.edu/ research/ab98/98ab41.html
[123] S. Wolfram. Cellular Automata and Complexity. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass, 1994
[124] A. Martinoli. Swarm Intelligence in Autonomous Collective Robotics: From Tools to the Analysis and Synthesis of Distributed Collective Strategies. Ph.D. thesis, EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1999
[125] A. Martinoli, A. J. Ijspeert, L. M. Gambardella. A probabilistic model for understanding and comparing collective aggregation mechanisms. In D. Floreano,J. Nicoud, F. Mondada (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th European Conference on Advances in Artificial Life (ECAL-99), Vol. 1674 of LNAI, Berlin, Springer, 1999, 575-584
[126] A. J. Ijspeert, A. Martinoli, A. Billard, L. M. Gambardella. Collaboration through the exploitation of local interactions in autonomous collective robotics: The stick pulling experiment, 2001
[127] C. W. Garnier. Handbook of Stochastic Methods. Springer, New York, NY, 1983
[128] R. Mahnke, N. Pieret. Stochastic master-equation approach to aggregation in freeway traffic. Physical Review, 1997, E56(3), 2666-2671
[129] R. Mahnke, J. Kaupuzs. Stochastic theory of freeway traffic. Physical Review, 1999, E59(1), 117-125.
[130] A. Galstyan, K. Lerman. A stochastic model of platoon formation in traffic flow. In Proceedings of the TASK workshop, Santa Fe, NM, 2001
[131] D. Helbing. Quantitative Sociodynamics: Stochastic Methods and Models of Social Interaction Processes, Vol. 31 of THEORY AND DECISION LIBRARY B: Mathematical and Statistical Methods. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1995
[132] Yuzo Fujishima, Kevin Leyton-Brown, Yoav Shoham. Taming the computation complexity of combinatorial auctions: Optimal and approximate approaches. In Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-99), 1999, 548-553
[133] Kevin Leyton Brown, Mark Pearson, Yoav Shoham. Towards a universal test suite for combinatorial auction algorithms. In Proceedings of the Second ACM Conference on electronic Commerce (EC-00), 2000, 66-76
[134] Paul Klemperer. Auction theory: A guide to the literature. Journal of Economics Surveys, 1999, 13(3), 227-286
[135] Tuomas Sandholm. An algorithm for optimal winner determination in combinatorial auction. In Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-99), 1999, 542-547
[136] Daniel Lehmann, Liadan ItaO’Callaghan, Yoav Shoham. Truth revelation in approximately efficient combinatorial auction. In Proceedings of the First ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce (EC-99), 1999, 96–102
[137] Makoto Yokoo, Yuko Sakurai, Shigeo Matsubara. Bundle Design in Robust Combinatorial Auction Protocol against False-name Bids. 17th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-2001)
[138] Yiming Ye, Yuhai Tu. Dynamics of Coalition Formation in Combinatorial Trading. IJCAI-2003, 2003, 625-630
[139] M. E. Bratman, D. J. Israel, M. E. Pollack. Toward an architecture for resource-bounded agents. Technique report CSLI-87-104, Center of Study of Language and Information, SRI and Stanford University, 1987
[140] A. S. Rao, M. P. Georgeff. BDI Agents: From Theory to Practice. In Proceedingof 1st International Conference on Multiagent Systems, San Francisco, 1995
[141] A. S. Rao, M. P. Georgeff. Modeling rational agents within a BDI-architecture. In J. Allen, R. Fikes, and E. Sanewall (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Principles of KRR, Morgan Kaufmann, 1991
[142] M. Wooldridge, N. R. Jennings. Intelligent Agents: Theory and Practice. Knowledge Engineering, 1995, 10 (2): 115-152
[143] R. Brooks. Intelligence with reason. IJCAI-91, Sydney, Australia, 1991, 569-595
[144] M. P. Georgeff, A. L. Lansky. Reactive reasoning and planning. In: Proceedings of Sixth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI-87), 1987, 6
[145] I. A. Fergusion. Towards an architecture for adaptive, rational, mobile agents. In Proc. Of the 3rd European Workshop on Mod, 1991
[146] B. Hayes-Roth. BBI: An Architecture for Blackboard Systems that Control, Explain, and Learn About their Own Behavior. Heuristic Programming Poject. Report HPP84-16, Stanford University, Dec. 1984
[147] D. D. Corkill, K.Q. Gallagher and K. E. Murray. GBB: A Generic Blackboard Development System. In Proc. AAAI-96, phlidelphia, DA. 1986, 1008-1014
[148] H. P. Nii, N. Aiello and J. Rice. Experiment on CAGE and POLIGON: measuring the performance of parallel blackboard systems. In: L. Gasser and M. N. Huhns (eds.) Distributed Artificial Intelligence 2 Pitman/Kaufman, London, 1989, 314-389
[149] R. G. Smith, R. Davis. Frameworks for Cooperation in Distributed Problem Solving. In IEEE Transaction on System, Man and Cybernetics, 1981, 11(1), 61-70
[150] V. Lesser, D. Corkill. Function-Accurate, Cooperative Distributed Systems. In IEEE Transaction on Systems, Man and Cybernetics, 1981, 11(1), 81-96
[151] V. Lesser. A Retrospective View of FA/C Distributed Problem Solving. IEEE Transaction on Systems, man, and Cybernatics.1991.
[152] Nick R. Jennings. Coordination Techniques for Distributed Artificial Intelligen- ce. In Foundation of Distribution Artificial Intelligence (G. M. P. O’Hare and N. R. Jennings eds). John Willey&Sons, INC.,1996, 187-210
[153] D. Kinny, M. Georgeff. Commitment and effectiveness of situated agents. IJCAI’12, Sydney, Australia
[154] Zlotkin Gilad, Rosenschein Jeffrey. Coalition, cryptography, and stability: mechanisms for coalition formation in task oriented domains. In: Proc AAAI 1994, Seattle, US, 432-437
[155] 罗翊,石纯一. Agent 协作求解中形成联盟的行为策略. 计算机学报, 1997, 20(11), 961-965
[156] T. Sandholm. Distributed Rational Decision Making. Multiagent Systems: A Modern Approach to Distributed Artificial Intelligence. MIT Press, 1999, 201-257
[157] Tuomas Sandholm, Kate Larson, Martin Andersson, Onn Shehory, Fernando Tohme. Coalition Structure Generation with Worst Case Guarantees. Artificial Intelligence, 1999, 111(1-2), 209-238
[158] Kate Larson, Tuomas Sandholm. Anytime Coalition Structure Generation: An Average Case Study. Third International Conference on Autonomous Agents (AGENTS), 1999, Seattle, WA, USA, 40-47
[159] 胡山立, 石纯一. 一种任一时间联盟结构生成算法. 软件学报, 2001, 12(5), 729-734
[160] 胡山立, 石纯一. 给定限界要求的联盟结构生成. 计算机学报, 2001, 24(11), 1185-1190
[161] 徐晋晖, 石纯一. 一种基于等价的联盟演化机制. 计算机研究与发展, 1999, 36(5), 513-517
[162] S. J. Rassenti, V. L. Smith, R. L. Bulfin. A combinatorial auction mechanism for airport time slot allocation. Bell J. of Economics, 1982, 13, 402-417
[163] M. H. Rothkopf, A. Pekec, R. M. Harstad. Computationally manageable combinatorial auctions. Management Science, 1998, 44(8),1131-1147
[164] T. Sandholm, S. Suri. Improved algorithms for optimal winner determination in combinatorial auctions and generalizations. In Proceedings of the National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI), 2000, 90-97
[165] N. Nisan. Bidding and allocation in combinatorial auctions. In Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce (ACM-EC), 2000, 1-12
[166] T. Sandholm, S. Suri, A. Gilpin, D. Levine. CABOB: A fast optimal algorithm for combinatorial auctions. In Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI), 2001, 1102-1108.
[167] T. Sandholm, S. Suri, A. Gilpin, D. Levine. Winner determination in combinatorial auction generalizations. In International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multi-Agent Systems (AAMAS), 2002. Early version appeared at the AGENTS-01 Workshop on Agent-Based Approaches to B2B, Montreal, Canada, 2001, 35-41
[168] H. Hoos, C. Boutilier. Solving combinatorial auctions using stochastic local search. In Proceedings of the National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI), 2000, 22-29
[169] M. Tennenholtz. Some tractable combinatorial auctions. In Proceedings of the National Conference on Artificial Intelligence (AAAI), 2000.
[170] M. Penn, M. Tennenholtz. Constrained multi-object auctions and b-matching. Information Processing Letters, 2000, 75(1-2), 29-34
[171] Cuihong Li, Katia Sycara. Algorithm for combinatorial coalition formation and payoff division in an electronic marketplace. AAMAS-02, Italy, 2002, 120-127
[172] T. Sandholm. eMediator: A next generation electronic commerce server. AGENTS-00, 2000, 73-96
[173] D. Chapman. Planning for conjunctive goals. AI, 1987(32), 333-387
[174] B. J. Grosz, S. Kraus. Collaborative plans for complex group action. AI, 1996(86), 269-357
[175] B. J. Grosz, S. Kraus. The evolution of sharedplans. In A. Rao and M. Wooldridge, Foundations and Theories of Rational Agency, 1998
[176] T. Bylander. The computational complexity of propositional strips planning. Artificial Intelligence, 1994, 69, 165-204
[177] R. E. Fikes, N. J. Nilsson. STRIPS: A new approach to the application of theorem proving to problem solving. Artificial Intelligence, 1971, 2(3–4), 189-208
[178] R. E. Fikes, N. J. Nilsson. STRIPS, a retrospective. Artificial Intelligence, 1993, 59(1–2), 27–232
[179] E. Pednault. ADL: Exploringthe middle ground between strips and the situation calculus. In Proceedings of the First International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR'89), Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc., 1989, 324-332
[180] D. Wilkins, K. Myers. A common knowledge representation for plan generation and reactive execution. Journal of Logic and Computation, 1995, 5(6), 731-761
[181] A. Tate. Towards a Plan Ontology. AI-IA Notizie, Special Issue on "Aspects of Planning Research", 1996, 9(1), 19-26
[182] 刘志忠, 姚莉. 基于本体的计划表示模型. 第七届中国人工智能联合会议, 2002
[183] 史忠植. 智能 Agent 及其应用. 科学出版社, 2000.11
[184] N. J. Nilsson. 人工智能. 郑扣根, 庄越挺译. 机械工业出版社, 2000.9
[185] L. Bompani, P. Ciancarini, F. Vitali. Active Documents in XML. ACM SigWeb Newsletter. 1999, 8(1), 27-32
[186] P. Ciancarini, R. Tolksdorf, F. Zambonelli. Coordination Middleware for XML-centric Application. In: Proceedings of the 16th ACM Symposium on Applied Computing, Madrid, March 2002
[187] C. Sayers. XML Document Agent. HP Labs Technical Report HPL-2001-288
[188] R. P. Terry, R. Singh, K..Sycara. RCAL: A Case Study on Semantic Web Agents. AAMAS’02, July 2002
[189] 武强. 灵巧文档 Agent 技术及其在知识管理中的应用. 国防科学技术大学硕士论文. 2004
[190] Andrea Omicini, George A. Papadopoulos. Why Coordination Models and Languages in AI? Applied Artificial Intelligence, 2001, 15(1), 1-10
[191] http://java.sun.com/products/jsp/
[192] 陈磊. 开放系统异质 Agent 协作模型研究. 国防科学技术大学硕士论文. 2004
[193] D. Gelernter. Generative Communication in Linda. ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems, 1985, 7(1), 80-112
[194] G. A. Papadopoulos, F. Arbab. Coordination Models and Languages. Advances in Computers. Academic Press. 1998. 329-400
[195] A. Rowstron. WCL: A Web Coordination Language. World Wide Web Journal, 1998, 1(3). 167-179
[196] Rocco De Nicola, Gian Luigi Ferrari, Rosario Pugliese. KLAIM: A Kernel Language for Agents Interaction and Mobility. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, 1998, 24(5). 315-330
[197] E. Denti, A. Omicini. An Architecture for Tuple-based Coordination of Multi- Agent Systems. Software – Practice and Experience, 1999, 29(12). 1103-1121
[198] G. Cabri, L. Leonardi, F. Zambonelli. MARS: a Programmable Coordination Architecture for Mobile Agents. IEEE Internet Computing, 2000
[199] Carriero N, Gelernter D, Zuck L. Bauhaus Linda. In Ciancarini P, Nierstrasz O, Yonezawa A, eds. Objecte-Based Models and Languages for Concurrent Systems, volume 924 of LNCS. Springer-Verlag, 1995. 66-76
[200] Tolksdorf R. Coordination Services in open distributed systems with LAURA. In Ciancarini P, Hankin C, eds. Coordination Languages and Models – Proceed- ings of COORDINATION’96, 1996. 386-402
[201] G. A. Papadopoulos. Models and technologies for the coordination of Internet agents: A survey. In A. Omicini, F. Zambonelli, M. Klusch, and R. Tolksdorf, editors, Coordination of Internet Agents: Models, Technologies, and Applications. 2000. 25-56
[202] http://www.w3c.org/xml
[203] Luc Steels. Cooperation Between Distributed Agents Through Self-organization. D.A.I.,1990
[204] 杨志华. 证券法律制度研究. 中国政法大学出版社, 1995. 184
[205] 薛峰. 论我国证券公司经纪人的法律地位. 中国人民大学学报, 1999, 06. 74-80
[206] 王利明等. 民法新论(上). 中国政法大学出版社, 1988. 415
[207] 何美欢. 香港代理法(上). 北京大学出版社, 1996
[208] 王泽鉴. 民法实例研习民法总则. 三民书局, 1996
[209] 吴弘. 证券法论. 世界图书出版公司, 1998. 53-55
[210] 董安生. 英国商法. 法律出版社, 1991. 188
[211] 干春晖. 企业电子商务的市场战略. http://www.oursmarket.com/272.htm
[212] 罗荣等. 经济法教程. 华南理工大学出版社, 2003. 236
[213] 朱家亮. 多 Agent 系统建模方法的研究. 国防科学技术大学硕士论文. 2004
[214] Michael Wooldridge, Nicholas R. Jennings, David Kinny. The Gaia Methodolo- gy for Agent-Oriented Analysis and Design. 2000. from http://www.ecs.soton. ac.uk /~nrj/download-files/jaamas2000.pdf
[215] Mark F. Wood, Scott A. DeLoach. An Overview of the Multiagent Systems Engineering Methodology. In Agent-Oriented Software Engineering – Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Agent-Oriented Software Engineering, 10th June 2000, Limerick, Ireland. P. Ciancarini, M. Wooldridge, (Eds.) Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 1957, Springer Verlag, Berlin, January 2001
[216] Scott A. DeLoach, Mark F. Wood, Clint H. Sparkman. Multiagent Systems Engineering. International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering Vol. 11, No. 3 (2001) 231-258
[217] 姚莉, 张维明, 王长缨, 龚勇. 基于多智能体的复杂信息系统开发方法研究,管理科学学报
[218] 姚莉, 张维明, 汪浩, 陈文伟. 关于多 Agent 系统建造技术的研究,计算机研究与发展, 1999
[219] Yao Li, Feng Xiaosheng, Zhang Weiming. A Methodology for Developing Complex Information System based Multiple Intelligent Agents. In proceedings of IRMA 2003, Philadelphia, America, 2003.5
[220] 刘润东. UML 对象设计与编程. 北京:希望电子出版社,2001
[221] Gerd Wagner. A UML Profile for External AOR Models. from www.auml.org
[222] Bernhard Bauer, Jorg P.Muller, James Odell. Agent UML:A Formalism for Specifying Multiagent Interaction. 2001, from http://www.auml.org
[223] Giovanni Caire, Francisco Leal, Paulo Chainho, Richard Evans. Agent Oriented Analysis using MESSAGE/UML. 2001, from http://www.auml.org
[224] 周永林, 潘云鹤. 面向 Agent 的分析与建模. 计算机研究与发展. 1999, 36(4), 410-416
[225] P. Agre, D. Chapman. PENGI: an Implementation of a Theory of Activity. In Rroc. Of AAAI-87, Seattle, WA, USA, 1987, 268-272
[226] T. Liang, J. Hwang. A Framework for Applying Intelligent Agents to Support Electronic Commerce. In Proc. Of the 31nd Hawaii International Conference on System Science, 1998
[227] P. Maes, R. H. Guttman, A. G. Moukas. Agent that buy and sell. Communications of the ACM, 1999, 42(3), 81-91
[228] H. S. Nwana, M. Wooldridge. Software Agent Technologies. Software agents and soft computing: towards enhancing machine intelligence, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg e. a. 1997
[229] 曹虎. 多 Agent 环境 MAGE 及其协作及规划研究. 中国科学院计算技术研究所博士论文. 2000
[230] 史忠植等. 基于 Agent 的电子商务系统. http://www.intsci.ac.cn/research/ ebusiness.ppt
[231] 姚莉,张维明, 邓苏, 王长缨. 多智能体系统开发环境 MBOS. 计算机世界. 2001,7(28)
[232] Li Yao , Weiming Zhang, et al. Basic Organization Structure Model for Cooperative Information Processing. In Proc. of the International Conference on Resource Management. IRM Press/Idea Group Inc,Seatle, U.S.A. 2002,5
[233] 岳超源. 决策理论与方法. 科学出版社. 2003
[234] 江林. 消费者行为学. 首都经济贸易大学出版社. 2002
[235] H.范里安. 微观经济学:现代观点. 三联书店出版社. 1991
[236] Michael Wooldridge. An Introduction to Multiagent Ayatems. John Wiley & Sons, 2002