珲春自然保护区东北虎及猎物种群现状及保护研究
摘要
野生东北虎(Panthera tigris altaica)在我国已经处于濒危的状态,但长期以来,相关研究较少。作者自2003年开始在吉林珲春国家级自然保护区开展研究及保护工作,对东北虎种群的数量,猎物种群,家畜捕食情况,人虎冲突等方面做了较为系统的研究,并提出了在该地区开展东北虎保护面临的问题以及针对性的建议。
作者与吉林珲春国家级自然保护区合作开展了东北虎的初步监测,分析了2001年12月～2006年12月间保护区内东北虎的活动频次、数量和雌雄成幼比例。截至2006年底,保护区内共监测到虎的活动93次,其中有1次为幼体。对其中45次有可靠足迹记录的虎活动情况的初步判定表明,2002～2006年依次有3～7只次、10～16只次、5～9只次、4～7只次、5～7只次的东北虎在保护区及周边活动,雄性多于雌性;2003～2005年的冬季野外调查表明,可能有7只雄性东北虎在该区域活动,其中有1只为雄性亚成体。
为了初步了解珲春自然保护区内猎物的情况,作者分别于2006—2007年冬天和2007—2008年冬天在东北虎活动较为频繁的区域设置了样线并应用FMP公式计算了珲春自然保护区内有蹄类的密度情况。结果显示2006—2007年冬季保护区内梅花鹿的密度为0.039/km~2,马鹿的密度为0.010/km~2,狍子的密度为0.533/km~2,野猪的密度为0.051/km~2。2007—2008年冬季保护区内梅花鹿的密度为0.049/km~2,马鹿的密度为0.097/km~2,狍子的密度为0.321/km~2,野猪的密度为0.048/km~2。结果指示珲春自然保护有蹄类密度仍然较低。作者同时比较了在珲春地区采用不同方法进行有蹄类调查的结果,并分析了各自的利弊。
从2001年12月至2007年底,共计有126起,204头家养动物被虎袭击,且呈现逐年上升的趋势。家畜被袭击主要发生在每年的4—9月,没有发现明显的对家畜种的偏好。利用GIS和回归分析为工具进行的统计分析表明1)虎通常不袭击离开村庄小于1公里的家畜。2)人为干扰对家畜的被食用率和虎移动家畜尸体的行为都有显著影响。3)共计有约16,079公斤的家养动物肉被虎食用,造成损失76084美元,但家畜并非虎的主要食物来源。4)对虎袭击地点生态变量的分析表明,东向和南向有更多的家畜被袭击。5)此外,虎多在较低的海拔和坡度、较高的郁闭度,靠近村庄和河流,远离道路等区域捕食家畜。清除偷猎者下的钢丝套子以增加有蹄类的密度对于减少虎捕食家畜非常重要。此外,减少虎袭击地点的人为干扰和改善对家畜的看护也非常关键。
为了减缓冲突,2004年珲春自然保护区管理局实施了虎豹伤畜补偿项目,这在该地区尚属首次。为了对补偿的效果进行评估,本研究在2004和2005年分别挑选了不同位置的9个村,在补偿项目实施前后采用问卷调查的方法询问了村民关于5个方面的问题,并于2007年作了跟踪调查。结果显示,东北虎的保护对保护区内以及周边居民的安全和收入影响有限,但虎捕食家畜有上升的趋势,并成为人虎矛盾的主因。人类活动中下套子对虎以及有蹄类都有较大的影响并可能是虎大量捕杀家畜的主要原因之一。补偿项目对于缓解村民与野生动物保护的冲突以及村民与保护区的冲突都有一定的意义,但持续性不足。家庭是否发生过虎豹伤畜事件以及保护区成立后家庭收入是否受影响这两方面与村民的保护意识表现为显著的正相关性。为了彻底解决人虎的冲突,作者建议:杜绝下套子的偷猎行为,改变畜牧方式,发展替代产业,解决部分牧场在保护区内的历史遗留问题以及把居民迁出保护区。
综合以上的研究和作者在保护区开展工作的经历,得出目前在珲春保护区内,威胁东北虎的主要因素包括栖息地丧失和退化,生境破碎化,低猎物猎物密度和钢丝套子等等。作者针对这些威胁提出了建立国际走廊、制定土地利用规划等十五项保护行动建议。
Amur tiger has become very endangered (Panthera tigris altaica), however there are few related researches in China. The Author carried out conservation and systematic research on tiger population, prey population, livestock depredation and human-tiger conflict in Jilin Hunchun National Nature Reserve from 2003-2008. Based on the results, she concluded problems tigers conservation work are facing and proposed suggestions accordingly.
To learn more about tiger population and its trend, the Author conducted a preliminary monitoring of Amur tiger collaborated with Jilin Hunchun National Nature Reserve and analyzed tiger occurrence frequency, number, sex and age ratio according to monitoring data from December 2001 to December 2006. Until end of 2006, a total of 93 tiger occurrence has been recorded, one is cub. Footprint records show, from 2002-2006 there are 3-7, 8-14, 5-9,4-7, 5-7 times tigers appear separately, could be different individuals. From field survey in 2003-2005, there are probably 7 tigers in that area. Besides, number of male tiger is much more than number of female tiger, which might result from male tiger tends to disperse and hunt livestock.
To learn situation of prey population in Hunchun Nature reserve, the author set transects in areas tiger occurred frequently in winter of 2006-2007 and 2007-2008 and calculated prey density according to FMP formula. Results show: in winter of 2006-2007, density of sika deer is 0.039/km~2, red deer 0.010/km~2, roe deer 0.533/km~2, and wild boar 0.051/km~2; in winter of 2007-2008, density of sika deer is 0.049/km~2, red deer 0.097/km~2 , roe deer 0.321/km~2 and wild boar 0.048/km~2 . The author also compares ungulate survey results with different methods in Hunchun nature reserve and analyzed their advantages and disadvantages.
Sicnce establishement of the reserve, livestock loss has become a serious problem. There were 126 cases in which Amur tigers attacked 204 cattle, horses and dogs between December 2001 and 2007. From 2002-2007, livestock losses generally increased, with major increases in 2007. Livestock depredation mainly occurred between April and September. Results suggest no preference for specific domestic animals. Tigers rarely attacked livestock that were less than 1km from a village, and human disturbance affected utilization of livestock and tiger behavior associated with moving carcasses. Estimated 16,079 kg livestock meat was eaten by tigers. Attacks occurred more often on southern and eastern aspects, lower altitudes, less slope, greater canopy density, closer to villages and rivers, and farther from roads. Removal of snares in the forest and elimination of new snares is vital to increase ungulate population, which so reduce tiger dependence on livestock. Better livestock husbandry techniques and reduction of livestock within Hunchun Reserve can greatly reduce the rate of depredation by tigers. Besides, avoiding disturbance of sites where tigers have already made kills is likely to reduce rate of killing in some extent.
Since livestock loss caused by tiger is increasing, human-tiger conflict was also enhanced in the reserve. In order to reduce human-tiger conflict, a compensation project was first implemented in Hunchun Nature Reserve since 2004. An evaluation was carried out before and after the compensation in nine villages with five aspects questionnaires and a follow-up survey was conducted in 2007. Results show that tiger conservation effort doesn't affect much of the safety and income of local people, but it may cause continually increasing livestock kills and become a main problem in the conflict. Snares can kill both tiger and ungulates and might be the in direct reason of livestock loss. The compensation scheme can help to relieve conflict between local people and wildlife but the effect decreases with time. Besides, two factors had significant positive correlation with people's conservation awareness which is whether the interviewed family has livestock loss and whether family's income decrease after the foundation of the reserve. To solve the problem of human-tiger conflict, the authors suggest develop substitute industry and change location of farm and move villages to outside of the reserve, etc.
Currently the threats Amur tiger are facing in Hunchun Nature reserve are habitat loss, deterioration and fragmentation, low prey population and snares, etc. The author proposed 15 conservation suggestions including building international corridors and producing land use plan, etc.
作者与吉林珲春国家级自然保护区合作开展了东北虎的初步监测,分析了2001年12月～2006年12月间保护区内东北虎的活动频次、数量和雌雄成幼比例。截至2006年底,保护区内共监测到虎的活动93次,其中有1次为幼体。对其中45次有可靠足迹记录的虎活动情况的初步判定表明,2002～2006年依次有3～7只次、10～16只次、5～9只次、4～7只次、5～7只次的东北虎在保护区及周边活动,雄性多于雌性;2003～2005年的冬季野外调查表明,可能有7只雄性东北虎在该区域活动,其中有1只为雄性亚成体。
为了初步了解珲春自然保护区内猎物的情况,作者分别于2006—2007年冬天和2007—2008年冬天在东北虎活动较为频繁的区域设置了样线并应用FMP公式计算了珲春自然保护区内有蹄类的密度情况。结果显示2006—2007年冬季保护区内梅花鹿的密度为0.039/km~2,马鹿的密度为0.010/km~2,狍子的密度为0.533/km~2,野猪的密度为0.051/km~2。2007—2008年冬季保护区内梅花鹿的密度为0.049/km~2,马鹿的密度为0.097/km~2,狍子的密度为0.321/km~2,野猪的密度为0.048/km~2。结果指示珲春自然保护有蹄类密度仍然较低。作者同时比较了在珲春地区采用不同方法进行有蹄类调查的结果,并分析了各自的利弊。
从2001年12月至2007年底,共计有126起,204头家养动物被虎袭击,且呈现逐年上升的趋势。家畜被袭击主要发生在每年的4—9月,没有发现明显的对家畜种的偏好。利用GIS和回归分析为工具进行的统计分析表明1)虎通常不袭击离开村庄小于1公里的家畜。2)人为干扰对家畜的被食用率和虎移动家畜尸体的行为都有显著影响。3)共计有约16,079公斤的家养动物肉被虎食用,造成损失76084美元,但家畜并非虎的主要食物来源。4)对虎袭击地点生态变量的分析表明,东向和南向有更多的家畜被袭击。5)此外,虎多在较低的海拔和坡度、较高的郁闭度,靠近村庄和河流,远离道路等区域捕食家畜。清除偷猎者下的钢丝套子以增加有蹄类的密度对于减少虎捕食家畜非常重要。此外,减少虎袭击地点的人为干扰和改善对家畜的看护也非常关键。
为了减缓冲突,2004年珲春自然保护区管理局实施了虎豹伤畜补偿项目,这在该地区尚属首次。为了对补偿的效果进行评估,本研究在2004和2005年分别挑选了不同位置的9个村,在补偿项目实施前后采用问卷调查的方法询问了村民关于5个方面的问题,并于2007年作了跟踪调查。结果显示,东北虎的保护对保护区内以及周边居民的安全和收入影响有限,但虎捕食家畜有上升的趋势,并成为人虎矛盾的主因。人类活动中下套子对虎以及有蹄类都有较大的影响并可能是虎大量捕杀家畜的主要原因之一。补偿项目对于缓解村民与野生动物保护的冲突以及村民与保护区的冲突都有一定的意义,但持续性不足。家庭是否发生过虎豹伤畜事件以及保护区成立后家庭收入是否受影响这两方面与村民的保护意识表现为显著的正相关性。为了彻底解决人虎的冲突,作者建议:杜绝下套子的偷猎行为,改变畜牧方式,发展替代产业,解决部分牧场在保护区内的历史遗留问题以及把居民迁出保护区。
综合以上的研究和作者在保护区开展工作的经历,得出目前在珲春保护区内,威胁东北虎的主要因素包括栖息地丧失和退化,生境破碎化,低猎物猎物密度和钢丝套子等等。作者针对这些威胁提出了建立国际走廊、制定土地利用规划等十五项保护行动建议。
Amur tiger has become very endangered (Panthera tigris altaica), however there are few related researches in China. The Author carried out conservation and systematic research on tiger population, prey population, livestock depredation and human-tiger conflict in Jilin Hunchun National Nature Reserve from 2003-2008. Based on the results, she concluded problems tigers conservation work are facing and proposed suggestions accordingly.
To learn more about tiger population and its trend, the Author conducted a preliminary monitoring of Amur tiger collaborated with Jilin Hunchun National Nature Reserve and analyzed tiger occurrence frequency, number, sex and age ratio according to monitoring data from December 2001 to December 2006. Until end of 2006, a total of 93 tiger occurrence has been recorded, one is cub. Footprint records show, from 2002-2006 there are 3-7, 8-14, 5-9,4-7, 5-7 times tigers appear separately, could be different individuals. From field survey in 2003-2005, there are probably 7 tigers in that area. Besides, number of male tiger is much more than number of female tiger, which might result from male tiger tends to disperse and hunt livestock.
To learn situation of prey population in Hunchun Nature reserve, the author set transects in areas tiger occurred frequently in winter of 2006-2007 and 2007-2008 and calculated prey density according to FMP formula. Results show: in winter of 2006-2007, density of sika deer is 0.039/km~2, red deer 0.010/km~2, roe deer 0.533/km~2, and wild boar 0.051/km~2; in winter of 2007-2008, density of sika deer is 0.049/km~2, red deer 0.097/km~2 , roe deer 0.321/km~2 and wild boar 0.048/km~2 . The author also compares ungulate survey results with different methods in Hunchun nature reserve and analyzed their advantages and disadvantages.
Sicnce establishement of the reserve, livestock loss has become a serious problem. There were 126 cases in which Amur tigers attacked 204 cattle, horses and dogs between December 2001 and 2007. From 2002-2007, livestock losses generally increased, with major increases in 2007. Livestock depredation mainly occurred between April and September. Results suggest no preference for specific domestic animals. Tigers rarely attacked livestock that were less than 1km from a village, and human disturbance affected utilization of livestock and tiger behavior associated with moving carcasses. Estimated 16,079 kg livestock meat was eaten by tigers. Attacks occurred more often on southern and eastern aspects, lower altitudes, less slope, greater canopy density, closer to villages and rivers, and farther from roads. Removal of snares in the forest and elimination of new snares is vital to increase ungulate population, which so reduce tiger dependence on livestock. Better livestock husbandry techniques and reduction of livestock within Hunchun Reserve can greatly reduce the rate of depredation by tigers. Besides, avoiding disturbance of sites where tigers have already made kills is likely to reduce rate of killing in some extent.
Since livestock loss caused by tiger is increasing, human-tiger conflict was also enhanced in the reserve. In order to reduce human-tiger conflict, a compensation project was first implemented in Hunchun Nature Reserve since 2004. An evaluation was carried out before and after the compensation in nine villages with five aspects questionnaires and a follow-up survey was conducted in 2007. Results show that tiger conservation effort doesn't affect much of the safety and income of local people, but it may cause continually increasing livestock kills and become a main problem in the conflict. Snares can kill both tiger and ungulates and might be the in direct reason of livestock loss. The compensation scheme can help to relieve conflict between local people and wildlife but the effect decreases with time. Besides, two factors had significant positive correlation with people's conservation awareness which is whether the interviewed family has livestock loss and whether family's income decrease after the foundation of the reserve. To solve the problem of human-tiger conflict, the authors suggest develop substitute industry and change location of farm and move villages to outside of the reserve, etc.
Currently the threats Amur tiger are facing in Hunchun Nature reserve are habitat loss, deterioration and fragmentation, low prey population and snares, etc. The author proposed 15 conservation suggestions including building international corridors and producing land use plan, etc.
引文
1. Abramov V.K. 1962. On the Biology of the Amur Tiger, Panthera tigris longipilis Fitzinger. Vestn, Ceskoslov. Spolecnosti Zool, 26(2): 189-202.
2. Ahearn, S. C, David Smith, J. L., Joshi, A. R., and Ding, J. 2001. TIGMOD: an individual-based spatially explicit model for simulating tiger/human interaction in multiple use forest. Ecological Modelling, 140: 81-97.
3. Alves, R. R. and Rosa, I. M. 2007. Biodiversity, traditional medicine and public health: where do they meet? Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 3: 14-22.
4. Anonymous. 1996. A sustainable land use and allocation program for the Ussuri River watershed and adjacent territories in northeastern China and the Russia Far East.
5. Bagchi, S., Goval, S.P. & Sankar,K. 2003. Prey abundance and prey selection by tigers in a semiarid, dry deciduous forest in western India. Zoo.(Lond.), 260:285-290
6. Barnes R F W. 1996, The conflict between humans and elephants in the central African forests. Mammal Review, 26:67-80.
7. Bulte E, Rondeau D. 2005. Why compensating wildlife damages may be bad for conservation. Journal of Wildlife Management,69:14-19.
8. Carroll, C. & Miquelle, D. G. 2006. Spatial viability analysis of Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica in the Russian Far East: the role of protected areas and landscape matrix in population persistence. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43:1056-1068.
9. Check E. 2006. Conservation Biology: The tigers' Retreat. Nature, 441: 927-930.
10. Coffin, A. W. 2007. From roadkill to road ecology: a review of the ecological effects of roads. Journal of Transport Geography, (in Press)
11. Cozza, K., R. Fico, L. Battistini, and E. Rogers. The damage- conservation interface illustrated by predation on domestic livestock. Biological conservation, 1996, 78 (3): 329 - 336.
12. Fiallo, E. A., Jacabson, S. K. 1995. Local communities and protected areas: attitudes of rural residents towards conservation and Machalilla National Park, Ecuador. Environmental Conservation, 22(3):241-249.
13. Galster, S., and Eliot, K. V. 1999 Roaring back: anti-poaching strategies for the Russian Far East and the comeback of the Amur Tiger. In: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S., Jackson, P. (Eds.), Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-dominated Landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 230-239
14. Goodrich J M, Miquelle D G 2005. Translocation of problem Amur tigers to alleviate tiger-human conflict. Oryx, 39(4):454-457.
15. Goebel AM & Whitmore DH. 1987. Use of electmphoretic data in the reevaluation of tiger systematics[A]. In: Tilson, RL and Seal, US, eds. Tigers of the World: the Biology, Biopo litics, Mana gement and Conservation of an Endangered Species[M]. ParkRidge, NJ:' No yes Publications.
16. Hales, D. 1989. Changing concepts of national parks. In: Western, D., Pearl, M. (eds.), Conservation for the Twenty-First Century. Oxford University Press, London, 139-144.
17. Hayward G D, Miquelle D G, Simirnov E N, Nations C. 2002. Estimating population density from indirect sign: track counts and the Formozov-Malyshev_Perelesin formula. J Wildlife Society Bulletin, 30(4):1-9.
18. Herrington. S. 1987. Subspecies and the conservation of Panthera tigris: Preserving genetic heterogeneity. In: R.L.Tilson & U.S.Seal ed. Tigers of the world: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management and Conservation of an Endangered Species. Park Ridge, New Jersey, Noyes Publications, 51-60.
19. Institute of Geography, DPR Korea. 1998. A survey of tigers and prey resources in the Paektusan area, Lyangan province, North Korea, in winter, 1998. unpubl. report.
20. Johnson, A., Vongkhamheng, C, Hedemark, M., and Saithongdam, T. 2006. Effects of human-carnivore conlict on tiger (panthera tigris) and prey populations in Lao PDR. Animal Conservation, 9: 421-430.
21. Kaplanov, L. G. 1948. Tigers in Sikhote-Alin. In Tiger, red deer, and moose, Materialy k poznaniyu fauny i flory SSSR. Moscow: Izd. Mosk. Obschestva Ispytateley Prirody. Novaya seria. Otdel zool., 14:18-49. (in Russian).
22. Karanth K.U.& Stith B.M. 1999. Prey depletion as a critical determinant of tiger population viability. In: Riding the tiger. Eds Seidensticker J., Christie S., and Jackson P. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 100-113.
23. Karanth, K. U., Nichols, J. D., Kumar, N. S., Link, W. A., and Hines, J. E. 2004. Tigers and their prey: predicting carnivore densities from prey abundance. PNAS, 101 (14): 4854-4858.
24. Karanth, U. 2006. A View from the Machan - How Science can Save the Fragile Predator. Permanent Black. India: New Delhi. P146.
25. Kazarinov A.P. 1979. The Amur Tiger. Okhota I okhotnichie khozyaistvo, (2):22-23.
26. Kenney, J. S., Smith, J. L. D., Starfield, A. M., and Mcdougal, C. W. 1995. The long-term effects of tiger poaching on population viability. Conservation Biology, 9(5): 1127-1133.
27. Kerley L L, Goodrich J M, Miquelle D G, Simrnov E N, Quigley H B. 2003. Reproductive parameters of wild female Amur (Siberian) tigers (Panthera tigris altaica). Journal of Mammalogy, 84(1):288-298
28.Kerley,L.L.,Goodrich,J.M.,Miquelle,D.G.,Smirnov,E.N.,Quigley,H.B.,& Hornocker,M.G.2002.Effects of roads and human disturbance on Amur tigers.Conservation Biology,16(1):97-108.
29.Kerley,L.L.,Goodrich,J.M.,Miquelle,D.G.,Smirnov,E.N.,Nikolaev,I.G.,Quigley,H.B.& Hornocker,M.G..2002.Effects of roads and human disturbance on Amur tigers.Conservation Biology,16:1-12.
30.Kramer-Schadt,S.,Revilla,E.,Wiegand,T.,and Breitenmoser,U.2004.Fragmented landscapes,road mortality and patch connectivity:modelling influences on the dispersal of Eurasian lynx.Journal of Applied Ecology,41:711-723.
31.Li Tong,Jiang Jinsong,Wu Zhigang,and Han Xiaodong etc.Wild Animals,etc.2001,21:1-6.
32.Linkie,M.,Chapron,G.,Martyr,D.J.,Holden,J.,and Leader-Williams,N.2006.Assessing the viability of tiger subpopulations in a fragmented landscape.Journal of Applied Ecology,43:576-586.
33.Liu Yu,Zhang Endi,Li Zhihong,and Chen Xiaojie.Amur tiger predation on livestock in Hunchun Nature Reserve,Jilin,China.Acta Theriologica S inica,2006,26(3):213-220
34.Luo,S.,Kim,J.,Johnson,W.E.,van der Walt,J.,Martenson,J.,Yuhki,N.,Miquelle,D.G.,Uphyrkina,O.,Goodrich,J.M.,Quigley,H.B.,Tilson,R.,Brady,G,Martelli,P.,Subramaniam,V.,McDougal,C.,Hean,S.,Huang,S.,Pan,W.,Karanth,U.K.,Sunquist,M.,Smith,J.L.D.,and O'Brien,S.J.2004.Phylogeography and Genetic Ancestry of Tigers(Panthera tigris).PLoS Biology 2(12),442:2275-2293.
35.Madhusudan,M.D.2003.Living admist large wildlife:livestock and crop depredation by large mammals in the interior villages of Bhadra Tiger Reserve,South India.Environmental Management,31(4):466-475.
36.Madhusudan,M.D.,and C.Mishra.2003.Why big,fierce animals are threatened:conserving large mammals in densely populated landscapes.In
M.Rangarajan and V.Saberwal(eds.),Battles over nature:the science and politics of conservation in India.Permanent Black,New Delhi,21-55
37.Maikhuri,R.K.,Nautiyal,S.,Rao,K.S.,Saxena,K.G..2001.Conservation policy-people conflicts:a case study from Nanda Devi biodiversity reserve(a World Heritage Site,India).Forest Policy Economics,2:355-365.
38.Matyushkin E.N.,Pikunov D.G.,Dunishenko Y.M.,Miquelle D.G.,Nikolaev I.G.,Smirnov E.N.,Salkina G.P.,Abramov V.K.,Bazylnikov V.I.,Yudin V.G,& Korkishko V.G 1996.Numbers,distribution,and habitat status of the Amur tiger in the Russian Far East:"express-report".Vladivostok,USAID Russian Far East Environmental Policy Project.
39.Matyushkin,E.N.,Pikunov,D.G.,Y.M.,Miquelle,D.G,Nikolaev,I.G.,Siminov,E.N.,Sakina,G.P.,Abramov,V.K.,Bazylnikov,V.I.,and Korkishko,V.G.1996.俄罗斯西伯利亚虎的数量,分布和栖息地现状。给美国资助的俄罗斯远东环境保护策略及技术项目的报告.
40. Mazak V. J. 1981. Panthera tigris. Mammalilan Species, 152:1-8.
41. Miquelle D. G. 1998. A Survey of Tigers and Prey Resources in the Paektusan Area, Lyangan Province, North Korea, in Winter. Report of the Korean People's Democratic Republic Academy of Science, Institute of Geography. 42. Miquelle D. G., Pikunov D. G., Dunishenko Y. M., Aramilev V. V., Nikolaev I. G., Abramov V. K., Smirnov E. N., Salkina G. P., Seryodkin I. V., Gaponov V. V., Fomenko P. V., Litvinov M. N., Kostyria A.V., Yudin V. G., Korkisko V. G. and Murzin A. A. 2007. 2005 Amur Tiger Census. Cat News 46,14-16.
43. Miquelle, D. G. , Merrill, W. T., Dunishenko, Y. M., Smirnov, E. N., Quigley, H. B., Pikunov, D. G. and Hornocker, M. G. 1999. A Habitat Protection Plan for the Amur tiger: Developing political and ecological criteria for a viable land-use plan. Pages 273-295 in Seidensticker, J., Christie, S., and Jackson, P. (eds.): 'Riding the tiger; meeting the needs of people and wildlife in Asia', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Pp 1-383.
44. Miquelle, D. G. 2000. Counting tigers in the Russian Far East: "How many are there?" versus "Is there a change?" Russian Conservation News. 45. Miquelle, D. G, E. N. Smirnov, H. G. Quigley, M. Hornocker E. G. Nikolaev, and E.N. Matyushkin. 1996. Food habits of Amur tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik and the Russian Far East, and implications for conservation. J. Wildl.Res. 1(2): 138-147.
46. Miquelle, D. G., E. N. Smirnov, W. T. Merrill, A. E. Myslenkov, H. B. Quigley, M. G Hornocker, and B. Schleyer. 1999. Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey. Pages 71-99 in 'Riding the tiger; Meeting the needs of people and wildlife in Asia', eds. Seidensticker, J., S. Christie, and P. Jackson, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
47. Miquelle, D. G.; Smirnov, E. N.; Quigley, H. G;. Hornocker, M. G.; Nikolaev, I. G.; Matyuk-. shin, E. N. 1996. Food habits of Amur tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik and the Russian Far East, and implications for conservation. Journal of Wildlife Research, 1 (2):138-147.
48. Miquelle, D.G., I. G. Nikolaev, J. Goodrich, B. Litvinov, E. N. Smirnov, and E. Suvorov. 2005. Searching for the Co-Existence Recipe: A Case Study Of Conflicts Between People And Tigers In The Russian Far East. Pages 305-322 in Woodruffe, R., and S. Thirgood. People and wildlife: conflict or co-existence? Cambridge University Press.
49. Miquelle, D.G., Pikunov, D.G.., Dunishenko, Y.M., Aramilev, V.V.. Nikolaev, I.G., Abramov, V.K., Smirnov, E.N., Salkina, G. P., Seryodkin, I. V., Gaponov, V.V., Fomenko, P.V., Litvinov, M. N., Kostyria, A.V., Yudin, V.G., Korkisko, V.G., and Murzin, A.A. 2007. A Survey Of Amur (Siberian) Tigers In The Russian Far East, 2004-2005. Final Report (unpublished data).
50.Mishra,C.1997.Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian Trans-Himalaya:conflict perceptions and conservation prospects.Environmental Conservation,24:338-343.
51.Mishra,H.R.,Wemmer,C.,Smith,J.L.D.,Wegge,P.1992.Biopolitics of saving Asian mammals in the wild:balancing conservation with human needs in Nepal.In:Wegge,P.,(ed.),Mammal Conservation in Developing Countries:A New Approach,Occasional Paper Series C,Noragric,Agricultural University of Norway,Norway.
52.Naughton-Treves,L.,A.Treves,C.A.Chapman,and R.W.Wrangham.1998.Temporal patterns of crop-raiding by primates:linking food availability in croplands and adjacent forest.Journal of Applied Ecology 35:596-606.
53.Nowak R.M.1991.Walker's Mammals of the World,5~(th) Edition.Johns Hopkins University Press,Baltimore and London.
54.Nowell K.and P.Jackson.1996.Wild Cats:Status survey and conservation action plan.IUCN,Gland,Switzerland.
55.Nowell,K.and Xu,L.2007.Taming the tiger trade:China's markets for wild and captive tiger products since the 1993 domestic trade ban.Hong Kong:TRAFFIC East Asia)
56.Nowell.K,Jackson.P.1996.Wild Cats:Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan.Gland,Switzerland,IUCN.
57.Nyhus,P.J.and Tilson,R.2004a.Characterizing human-tiger conflict in Sumatra,Indonesia:implication for conservation.Oryx,38(1):68-74.
58.Nyhus,P.J.and Tilson,R.2004b.Agroforestry,elephants,and tiger:balancing conservation theory and practice in human-dominated landscapes of Southeast Asia.Agriculture Ecosystem & Environment,104:87-97.
59.Nyhus,P.J.,Fisher,H.,Madden,F.& Osofsky,S.2003.Taking the bite out of wildlife damage:the challenges of wildlife compensation schemes.Conservation in Practice,4(2):37-43.
60.Oli,M.K.,Taylor,I.R.,Rogers,M.E.1994.Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock:an assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna conservation area,Nepal.Biological Conservation,68:63-68.
61.Perry,R.1964.The world of the tiger.Cassell,London.
62.Pikunov D.2005.俄罗斯远东地区东北虎的现状.见张恩迪,戴尔米奎尔等主编.中国野生东北虎种群恢复进程和展望.北京:中国林业出版社.,18-19.
63.Pikunov,D.G.1990.俄罗斯远东虎数量.苏维埃兽类学会第五次会议.
64.Pikunov,D.G.,Bazylnikov,B.,and Ribachook,I.B.N.1983.俄罗斯滨海地区虎的分布、数量和种群结构.USSR的珍贵哺乳动物及其保护.莫斯科.130-131pp.
65.Rabinowitz.A.1986.The incidence of surplus killing by Panthera pardus and Felis caracal in Cape province,South Africa.Mammalia 50(4):556-558.
66. Ramakrishnan, U., Coss, R. G., and Pelkey, N. W. 1999. Tiger decline caused by the reduction of large ungulate prey: evidence from a study of leopard diets in southern India. Biological Conservation, 89: 113-120.
67. Rodger, W. A. 1989. Policy Issues in Wildlife Conservation. Indian Institute of Public Administration. New Delhi.
68. Saberwal, V.K., Gibs, J.P., Chellam, R., Johnsingh, A.T.J. 1994. Lion-human conflict in the Gir forest, India. Conservation Biology, 8:501-507.
69. Sanderson, E., J. Forrest, C. Loucks, J. Ginsberg, E. Dinerstein, J. Seidensticker, P. Leimgruber, M. Songer, A. Heydlauff, T. O'Brien, G. Bryja, S. Klenzendorf and E. Wikramanayake. 2006. Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: 2005-2015. The Technical Assessment. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian, and NFWF-STF, New York and Washington, D.C.
70. Seidensticker J., Christie S., and Jackson P. 1999. Riding the Tiger. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, preface.
71. Smith J D, Mcdougal C. Miquelle D G. 1989. Scent marking in free-ranging tigers. J Animal Behaviour. 37,1-10.
72. Stephens P A, Zaumyslova O Yu, Miquelle D G, Myslenkov A I, Hayward G D. 2006. Estimating population density from track counts. Animal Conservation, 9:339-348.
73. Stephens, P.A, Zaumysolva, G. D., Hayward, and Miquelle, D.G. Anyalysis of the long-term dynamics of ungulates in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik, Russia, Far East. 2006.
74. Studsrod, J.E., Wegge, P. 1995. Park-people relationships: the case of damage caused by park animals around the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal. Environmental Conservation, 22:133-142.
75. Sukumar, R. 1991. The management of large mammals in relation to male strategies and conflict with people. Biological Conservation, 55:93-102.
76. Suminski, H.R. 1982. Mountain lion predation on domestic livestock in Nevada. Proc. Vert. Pest Conf. 10: 62-66.
77. Sun Baogang, Dale G. Miquelle, Yuxiaochen, Endi Zhang, Sun haiyi, Guan Goshen, Dimitry G. Pikunov, Yuri M. Dunishenko, Igor G. Nokolaev, Lu Danming. 1999. 1999 survey of Amur tiger Far Eastern Leopards in Eastern Heilongjiang Province, China and Recommendations for their conservation .67pp.
78. Sunquist M E. 1981. The social organization of tigers in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 336, 1-98.
79. Sunquist M E. 1989. Ecological constraints on predation by large felids. In Carnivore Behavior, Ecoloy, and Evolution, ed. J.L. Gittleman. Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 283-301.
80. Tilson R., Hu Defu, Muntifering J. and Nyhus, P.J. 2004. Dramatic decline of wild South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis: field survey of priority tiger reserves.Oryx,38 (1):40-47
81. Tilson, R. and Nyhus, P. 1998. Keeping problem tigers from becoming a problem species. Conservation Biology, 12, 261-262
82. Tilson, R. Hu Defu, J. Muntigering and P. J. Nyhus. 2004. Dramatic decline of wild South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis: field survey of priority tiger reserves. Oryx 38(1), 40-47
83. Treves, A. and Karanth, K. U. 2003. Human-carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide. Conservation Biology, 17(6): 1491-1499.
84. Udaya Sekhar, N. 1989, Crop and livestock depredation caused by wild animals in protected areas: the case of Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, India. Environmental Conservation, 25(2):160-171.
85. Ullas Karanth, 2006. A View from the Machan - How Science can Save the Fragile Predator. Permanent Black. India: New Delhi. P146.
86. Walpole, M. J., Goodwin, H. J., 2001. Local attitudes towards conservation and tourism around Komodo National Park, Indonesia. Environmental Conservation, 28(2).160-166.
87. Wang W. 1998. Status of tigers in China and conservation strategies. Unpublished. A report to Year of the Tiger Conference, Dallas, US.
88. Won, C. and Smith, K. G. 1999. History and current status of mammals of the Korean Peninsula. Mammal Review, 29(1): 3-33.
89. Woodroffe, R. and Ginsberg, J. R. 1998. Edge effects and the extinction of populations inside protected areas. Science, 280: 2126-2128.
90. Wu Yue. Ungulate Survey in Hunchun Nature Reserve. Master Paper. 2005. 91. Wentzel J. 1999. Subspecies oftigers: molecular assessment using'voucher specimens'ofgeographically traceable individuals[A]. In:Riding the Tiger[M]. Cambridge University Press, 40-49.
92. Yang S H, J. Jiang, Z. Wu, T. Li, X. Yang, X. Han, D. G., Miquelle, D. G. Pokunov, Y. M. Dunishenko, and I. G. Nikolaev. 1998. A survey of tiger and leopards in Eastern Jilin Province, China, winter 1998. A final report to the UNDP and the Wildlife Conservation Society. 38pp.
93. Yang, X. & Xu, M. 2003. Biodiversity conservation in Changbai Mountain Biosphere Reserve, northeastern China: status, problem, and strategy. Biodiversity and Conservation, 12: 83-903.
94. Yu X. ch, Sun B. G., Sun Haiyi, Zhou G. SH., Zhou X> B. Distribution of Amur tiger and Population in Heilongjiang Province. Wild Animals, 2000, 21 (2): 14-16.
95. Yudakov A. G.,I. G. Nikolaev. 1987. Ecology of the Amur Tiger. Okhota I Okhotnichie hozyaistvo, 1: 18-20 (translated into English in 2004).
96. Yudakov, A. G., and I. G. Nikolaev. 1973. Status of the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) in Primorsky Krai. Zool. J. 52(6):909-919.
97. Zhang M., and Zhang C. 2006. Status and dynamic trends of Amur tiger's prey population resources in the Wandashan Mountains,Heilongjiang Province,China.A report given to the workshop of transboundary wild tiger population recovery in 2006
98.Zhangm M.,Jiang G.,Luo Y.,Liu B.,Liu Z.,and Zhang X.2004.Studies on current status and dynamic trends of Amur tiger's prey population resources in northeast china.Final report to US Fish and Wildlife Service Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Fund.
99.陈珉,张恩迪,李冰.2007.虎的保护遗传学研究进展.四川动物,26(1):216-220.
100.达尔曼,H.A,叶克里留克,B.E,佛敏科,II.B.2006.俄罗斯远东地区东北虎现状及其保护.野生动物,27(2):19-23.
101.高中信,马逸清,程继臻.1996.世界虎的现状及保护.野生动物,17(1):3-7
102.郝俊峰,于孝臣,史玉明.1997.东北虎分布区的历时变迁及种群变动.林业科技,22(1):28-30.
103.黑龙江省野生动物研究所,黑龙江省东方红林业局.1991.黑龙江省东方红林业局野生动物保护和经营方案,8-10.
104.黑龙江省野生动物研究所国际合作研究报告.1999.年黑龙江省东北虎和豹的调查及其保护对策.哈尔滨,6-7.
105.蒋劲松等.2005.吉林珲春东北虎捕食动物资源调查研究报告.吉林省林业厅调查报告.
106.解焱 李冰 张常智.2007.东北虎能否归去来兮.中国林业,2A:16-19.
107.李碧波,吴玥,张恩迪.2006.吉林珲春自然保护区青龙台林场马鹿容纳量的初步研究.四川动物,25(3):519-523
108.李冰,张勇等.2008.2006～2007年珲春保护区虎豹及有蹄类资源培训调查报告及方法评估.珲春保护区调查报告.
109.李彤,蒋劲松,吴志刚,韩晓东,吴景才,杨兴家.2001.吉林省东北虎的调查.兽类学报,21(1):1-6
110.李志兴.2003.珲春喜见野生东北虎幼崽踪迹.野生动物,24(4):31.
111.林维源.1980.黑龙江虎乡寻踪.大自然,(2):29-30.
112.刘宇,张恩迪,李志宏,陈晓婕.2006.吉林省珲春自然保护区野生东北虎捕食家畜的状况.兽类学报,26(3):213-220.
113.刘宇.2005.吉林珲春自然保护区冬季野生东北虎生态学问题研究.华东师范大学硕士论文.
114.路秉信.1991.拯救与保护东北虎的途径.野生动物,(1):6-7.
115.罗述金,Kim J.H,Johnson W.E等.2006.动物学研究27(4):441-448.
116.马建章,金崑.2003.虎研究.上海:上海科技教育出版社.
117.马逸清,阎文.1998.老虎保护进展.野生动物,19(1):3-7.
118.马逸清.1979.我国的东北虎.野生动物(创刊号),22-26
119.马逸清.1983.东北虎分布区的历史变迁.自然资源研究,(4):44-48
120.马逸清.2005.近百年来东北虎分布区的历史变迁.见张恩迪,戴尔米奎尔等主编.中国野生东北虎种群恢复进程和展望.北京:中国林业出版社.,4-8.
121.孟宪林,范志勇,王伟等.1995.虎及其保护.野生动物,(1):23-25.
122.皮库诺夫,米切尔,杜尼申科,梅斯连尼科夫,尼古拉耶夫,谢列特金原著,李冰编译.2008.远东地区野生动物踪迹指南.哈尔滨:东北林业大学出版社.
123.苏丽敏,王宁,杨承华.2006.珲春地区东北虎保护现状调查.地理教学,(4):6-7.
124.孙海义,卢向东,田家龙,程守涛,李德福,董红雨.2005.黑龙江省东北虎野外种群监测研究.林业科技,30(6):33-35.
125.孙海义,于孝臣,卢向东,李林,田家龙,2006.黑龙江省野生东北虎种群监测研究.国家林业局保护司资助项目.未发表.
126.谭邦杰.1986.虎在中国的分布.中国动物园年刊,1985～1986合集,165-170.
127.汪松.1998.中国濒危动物红皮书(兽类).北京:科学出版社.
128.王振堂,申亨哲.1996.图们江流域人口压力对东北虎数量的影响.动物学杂志,31(5):31-34.
129.吴平,周开亚,王亚明.1997.用RFLP和PCR.RFLP技术研究东北虎和华南虎线粒体DNA多态性.生物多样性,5(3):173-178.
130.吴宪忠,张明海,高中信,瞿中亮,赵玉峰,刘伟新,于利国,慕保国.1994.黑龙江境内东北虎数量分布现状,野生动物,(3):17-20.
131.吴玥.2005.2003_2005年冬季吉林珲春保护区有蹄类动物数量调查及生境利用分析.华东师范大学硕士论文.
132.许迎春,田义文,朱保建等.从野生动物侵农谈野生动物致人损害补偿制度的完善.安徽农业科学,2006,34(19):5063-5064.
133.衣保中,叶依广.2004.清末以来东北森林资源开发及其环境代价.中国农史,(3):115-123.
134.于长青,邢林.1995.我国濒危兽类现状及保护对策.见钱迎倩 甄仁德(主编):生物多样性研究进展——首届全国生物多样性保护与持续利用研讨会论文集No.30.北京:中国科学技术出版社
135.于孝臣,孙宝刚,孙海义,关国生,周宣滨.2000.黑龙江省 东北虎的分布和种群数量.野生动物,21(2):14-16.
136.于孝臣.2005.黑龙江省1999年度东北虎和远东豹的调查.见张恩迪,戴尔米奎尔等主编.中国野生东北虎种群恢复进程和展望.北京:中国林业出版社.,11-17.
137.张常智,张明海,刘宝权.2006.浅谈野生虎生态学研究.野生动物,27(4):10-13.
138.张恩迪,戴尔米奎尔,王天厚,康蔼黎.2005.中国野生东北虎恢复进展 和展望.北京:中国林业出版社.
139.张锡然,陈宜峰,朱红阳,黄恭情.东北虎和华南虎染色体比较研究[A].华南虎论文集.1998:60-163
2. Ahearn, S. C, David Smith, J. L., Joshi, A. R., and Ding, J. 2001. TIGMOD: an individual-based spatially explicit model for simulating tiger/human interaction in multiple use forest. Ecological Modelling, 140: 81-97.
3. Alves, R. R. and Rosa, I. M. 2007. Biodiversity, traditional medicine and public health: where do they meet? Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 3: 14-22.
4. Anonymous. 1996. A sustainable land use and allocation program for the Ussuri River watershed and adjacent territories in northeastern China and the Russia Far East.
5. Bagchi, S., Goval, S.P. & Sankar,K. 2003. Prey abundance and prey selection by tigers in a semiarid, dry deciduous forest in western India. Zoo.(Lond.), 260:285-290
6. Barnes R F W. 1996, The conflict between humans and elephants in the central African forests. Mammal Review, 26:67-80.
7. Bulte E, Rondeau D. 2005. Why compensating wildlife damages may be bad for conservation. Journal of Wildlife Management,69:14-19.
8. Carroll, C. & Miquelle, D. G. 2006. Spatial viability analysis of Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica in the Russian Far East: the role of protected areas and landscape matrix in population persistence. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43:1056-1068.
9. Check E. 2006. Conservation Biology: The tigers' Retreat. Nature, 441: 927-930.
10. Coffin, A. W. 2007. From roadkill to road ecology: a review of the ecological effects of roads. Journal of Transport Geography, (in Press)
11. Cozza, K., R. Fico, L. Battistini, and E. Rogers. The damage- conservation interface illustrated by predation on domestic livestock. Biological conservation, 1996, 78 (3): 329 - 336.
12. Fiallo, E. A., Jacabson, S. K. 1995. Local communities and protected areas: attitudes of rural residents towards conservation and Machalilla National Park, Ecuador. Environmental Conservation, 22(3):241-249.
13. Galster, S., and Eliot, K. V. 1999 Roaring back: anti-poaching strategies for the Russian Far East and the comeback of the Amur Tiger. In: Seidensticker, J., Christie, S., Jackson, P. (Eds.), Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-dominated Landscapes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 230-239
14. Goodrich J M, Miquelle D G 2005. Translocation of problem Amur tigers to alleviate tiger-human conflict. Oryx, 39(4):454-457.
15. Goebel AM & Whitmore DH. 1987. Use of electmphoretic data in the reevaluation of tiger systematics[A]. In: Tilson, RL and Seal, US, eds. Tigers of the World: the Biology, Biopo litics, Mana gement and Conservation of an Endangered Species[M]. ParkRidge, NJ:' No yes Publications.
16. Hales, D. 1989. Changing concepts of national parks. In: Western, D., Pearl, M. (eds.), Conservation for the Twenty-First Century. Oxford University Press, London, 139-144.
17. Hayward G D, Miquelle D G, Simirnov E N, Nations C. 2002. Estimating population density from indirect sign: track counts and the Formozov-Malyshev_Perelesin formula. J Wildlife Society Bulletin, 30(4):1-9.
18. Herrington. S. 1987. Subspecies and the conservation of Panthera tigris: Preserving genetic heterogeneity. In: R.L.Tilson & U.S.Seal ed. Tigers of the world: The Biology, Biopolitics, Management and Conservation of an Endangered Species. Park Ridge, New Jersey, Noyes Publications, 51-60.
19. Institute of Geography, DPR Korea. 1998. A survey of tigers and prey resources in the Paektusan area, Lyangan province, North Korea, in winter, 1998. unpubl. report.
20. Johnson, A., Vongkhamheng, C, Hedemark, M., and Saithongdam, T. 2006. Effects of human-carnivore conlict on tiger (panthera tigris) and prey populations in Lao PDR. Animal Conservation, 9: 421-430.
21. Kaplanov, L. G. 1948. Tigers in Sikhote-Alin. In Tiger, red deer, and moose, Materialy k poznaniyu fauny i flory SSSR. Moscow: Izd. Mosk. Obschestva Ispytateley Prirody. Novaya seria. Otdel zool., 14:18-49. (in Russian).
22. Karanth K.U.& Stith B.M. 1999. Prey depletion as a critical determinant of tiger population viability. In: Riding the tiger. Eds Seidensticker J., Christie S., and Jackson P. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press, 100-113.
23. Karanth, K. U., Nichols, J. D., Kumar, N. S., Link, W. A., and Hines, J. E. 2004. Tigers and their prey: predicting carnivore densities from prey abundance. PNAS, 101 (14): 4854-4858.
24. Karanth, U. 2006. A View from the Machan - How Science can Save the Fragile Predator. Permanent Black. India: New Delhi. P146.
25. Kazarinov A.P. 1979. The Amur Tiger. Okhota I okhotnichie khozyaistvo, (2):22-23.
26. Kenney, J. S., Smith, J. L. D., Starfield, A. M., and Mcdougal, C. W. 1995. The long-term effects of tiger poaching on population viability. Conservation Biology, 9(5): 1127-1133.
27. Kerley L L, Goodrich J M, Miquelle D G, Simrnov E N, Quigley H B. 2003. Reproductive parameters of wild female Amur (Siberian) tigers (Panthera tigris altaica). Journal of Mammalogy, 84(1):288-298
28.Kerley,L.L.,Goodrich,J.M.,Miquelle,D.G.,Smirnov,E.N.,Quigley,H.B.,& Hornocker,M.G.2002.Effects of roads and human disturbance on Amur tigers.Conservation Biology,16(1):97-108.
29.Kerley,L.L.,Goodrich,J.M.,Miquelle,D.G.,Smirnov,E.N.,Nikolaev,I.G.,Quigley,H.B.& Hornocker,M.G..2002.Effects of roads and human disturbance on Amur tigers.Conservation Biology,16:1-12.
30.Kramer-Schadt,S.,Revilla,E.,Wiegand,T.,and Breitenmoser,U.2004.Fragmented landscapes,road mortality and patch connectivity:modelling influences on the dispersal of Eurasian lynx.Journal of Applied Ecology,41:711-723.
31.Li Tong,Jiang Jinsong,Wu Zhigang,and Han Xiaodong etc.Wild Animals,etc.2001,21:1-6.
32.Linkie,M.,Chapron,G.,Martyr,D.J.,Holden,J.,and Leader-Williams,N.2006.Assessing the viability of tiger subpopulations in a fragmented landscape.Journal of Applied Ecology,43:576-586.
33.Liu Yu,Zhang Endi,Li Zhihong,and Chen Xiaojie.Amur tiger predation on livestock in Hunchun Nature Reserve,Jilin,China.Acta Theriologica S inica,2006,26(3):213-220
34.Luo,S.,Kim,J.,Johnson,W.E.,van der Walt,J.,Martenson,J.,Yuhki,N.,Miquelle,D.G.,Uphyrkina,O.,Goodrich,J.M.,Quigley,H.B.,Tilson,R.,Brady,G,Martelli,P.,Subramaniam,V.,McDougal,C.,Hean,S.,Huang,S.,Pan,W.,Karanth,U.K.,Sunquist,M.,Smith,J.L.D.,and O'Brien,S.J.2004.Phylogeography and Genetic Ancestry of Tigers(Panthera tigris).PLoS Biology 2(12),442:2275-2293.
35.Madhusudan,M.D.2003.Living admist large wildlife:livestock and crop depredation by large mammals in the interior villages of Bhadra Tiger Reserve,South India.Environmental Management,31(4):466-475.
36.Madhusudan,M.D.,and C.Mishra.2003.Why big,fierce animals are threatened:conserving large mammals in densely populated landscapes.In
M.Rangarajan and V.Saberwal(eds.),Battles over nature:the science and politics of conservation in India.Permanent Black,New Delhi,21-55
37.Maikhuri,R.K.,Nautiyal,S.,Rao,K.S.,Saxena,K.G..2001.Conservation policy-people conflicts:a case study from Nanda Devi biodiversity reserve(a World Heritage Site,India).Forest Policy Economics,2:355-365.
38.Matyushkin E.N.,Pikunov D.G.,Dunishenko Y.M.,Miquelle D.G.,Nikolaev I.G.,Smirnov E.N.,Salkina G.P.,Abramov V.K.,Bazylnikov V.I.,Yudin V.G,& Korkishko V.G 1996.Numbers,distribution,and habitat status of the Amur tiger in the Russian Far East:"express-report".Vladivostok,USAID Russian Far East Environmental Policy Project.
39.Matyushkin,E.N.,Pikunov,D.G.,Y.M.,Miquelle,D.G,Nikolaev,I.G.,Siminov,E.N.,Sakina,G.P.,Abramov,V.K.,Bazylnikov,V.I.,and Korkishko,V.G.1996.俄罗斯西伯利亚虎的数量,分布和栖息地现状。给美国资助的俄罗斯远东环境保护策略及技术项目的报告.
40. Mazak V. J. 1981. Panthera tigris. Mammalilan Species, 152:1-8.
41. Miquelle D. G. 1998. A Survey of Tigers and Prey Resources in the Paektusan Area, Lyangan Province, North Korea, in Winter. Report of the Korean People's Democratic Republic Academy of Science, Institute of Geography. 42. Miquelle D. G., Pikunov D. G., Dunishenko Y. M., Aramilev V. V., Nikolaev I. G., Abramov V. K., Smirnov E. N., Salkina G. P., Seryodkin I. V., Gaponov V. V., Fomenko P. V., Litvinov M. N., Kostyria A.V., Yudin V. G., Korkisko V. G. and Murzin A. A. 2007. 2005 Amur Tiger Census. Cat News 46,14-16.
43. Miquelle, D. G. , Merrill, W. T., Dunishenko, Y. M., Smirnov, E. N., Quigley, H. B., Pikunov, D. G. and Hornocker, M. G. 1999. A Habitat Protection Plan for the Amur tiger: Developing political and ecological criteria for a viable land-use plan. Pages 273-295 in Seidensticker, J., Christie, S., and Jackson, P. (eds.): 'Riding the tiger; meeting the needs of people and wildlife in Asia', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, Pp 1-383.
44. Miquelle, D. G. 2000. Counting tigers in the Russian Far East: "How many are there?" versus "Is there a change?" Russian Conservation News. 45. Miquelle, D. G, E. N. Smirnov, H. G. Quigley, M. Hornocker E. G. Nikolaev, and E.N. Matyushkin. 1996. Food habits of Amur tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik and the Russian Far East, and implications for conservation. J. Wildl.Res. 1(2): 138-147.
46. Miquelle, D. G., E. N. Smirnov, W. T. Merrill, A. E. Myslenkov, H. B. Quigley, M. G Hornocker, and B. Schleyer. 1999. Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey. Pages 71-99 in 'Riding the tiger; Meeting the needs of people and wildlife in Asia', eds. Seidensticker, J., S. Christie, and P. Jackson, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
47. Miquelle, D. G.; Smirnov, E. N.; Quigley, H. G;. Hornocker, M. G.; Nikolaev, I. G.; Matyuk-. shin, E. N. 1996. Food habits of Amur tigers in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik and the Russian Far East, and implications for conservation. Journal of Wildlife Research, 1 (2):138-147.
48. Miquelle, D.G., I. G. Nikolaev, J. Goodrich, B. Litvinov, E. N. Smirnov, and E. Suvorov. 2005. Searching for the Co-Existence Recipe: A Case Study Of Conflicts Between People And Tigers In The Russian Far East. Pages 305-322 in Woodruffe, R., and S. Thirgood. People and wildlife: conflict or co-existence? Cambridge University Press.
49. Miquelle, D.G., Pikunov, D.G.., Dunishenko, Y.M., Aramilev, V.V.. Nikolaev, I.G., Abramov, V.K., Smirnov, E.N., Salkina, G. P., Seryodkin, I. V., Gaponov, V.V., Fomenko, P.V., Litvinov, M. N., Kostyria, A.V., Yudin, V.G., Korkisko, V.G., and Murzin, A.A. 2007. A Survey Of Amur (Siberian) Tigers In The Russian Far East, 2004-2005. Final Report (unpublished data).
50.Mishra,C.1997.Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian Trans-Himalaya:conflict perceptions and conservation prospects.Environmental Conservation,24:338-343.
51.Mishra,H.R.,Wemmer,C.,Smith,J.L.D.,Wegge,P.1992.Biopolitics of saving Asian mammals in the wild:balancing conservation with human needs in Nepal.In:Wegge,P.,(ed.),Mammal Conservation in Developing Countries:A New Approach,Occasional Paper Series C,Noragric,Agricultural University of Norway,Norway.
52.Naughton-Treves,L.,A.Treves,C.A.Chapman,and R.W.Wrangham.1998.Temporal patterns of crop-raiding by primates:linking food availability in croplands and adjacent forest.Journal of Applied Ecology 35:596-606.
53.Nowak R.M.1991.Walker's Mammals of the World,5~(th) Edition.Johns Hopkins University Press,Baltimore and London.
54.Nowell K.and P.Jackson.1996.Wild Cats:Status survey and conservation action plan.IUCN,Gland,Switzerland.
55.Nowell,K.and Xu,L.2007.Taming the tiger trade:China's markets for wild and captive tiger products since the 1993 domestic trade ban.Hong Kong:TRAFFIC East Asia)
56.Nowell.K,Jackson.P.1996.Wild Cats:Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan.Gland,Switzerland,IUCN.
57.Nyhus,P.J.and Tilson,R.2004a.Characterizing human-tiger conflict in Sumatra,Indonesia:implication for conservation.Oryx,38(1):68-74.
58.Nyhus,P.J.and Tilson,R.2004b.Agroforestry,elephants,and tiger:balancing conservation theory and practice in human-dominated landscapes of Southeast Asia.Agriculture Ecosystem & Environment,104:87-97.
59.Nyhus,P.J.,Fisher,H.,Madden,F.& Osofsky,S.2003.Taking the bite out of wildlife damage:the challenges of wildlife compensation schemes.Conservation in Practice,4(2):37-43.
60.Oli,M.K.,Taylor,I.R.,Rogers,M.E.1994.Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock:an assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna conservation area,Nepal.Biological Conservation,68:63-68.
61.Perry,R.1964.The world of the tiger.Cassell,London.
62.Pikunov D.2005.俄罗斯远东地区东北虎的现状.见张恩迪,戴尔米奎尔等主编.中国野生东北虎种群恢复进程和展望.北京:中国林业出版社.,18-19.
63.Pikunov,D.G.1990.俄罗斯远东虎数量.苏维埃兽类学会第五次会议.
64.Pikunov,D.G.,Bazylnikov,B.,and Ribachook,I.B.N.1983.俄罗斯滨海地区虎的分布、数量和种群结构.USSR的珍贵哺乳动物及其保护.莫斯科.130-131pp.
65.Rabinowitz.A.1986.The incidence of surplus killing by Panthera pardus and Felis caracal in Cape province,South Africa.Mammalia 50(4):556-558.
66. Ramakrishnan, U., Coss, R. G., and Pelkey, N. W. 1999. Tiger decline caused by the reduction of large ungulate prey: evidence from a study of leopard diets in southern India. Biological Conservation, 89: 113-120.
67. Rodger, W. A. 1989. Policy Issues in Wildlife Conservation. Indian Institute of Public Administration. New Delhi.
68. Saberwal, V.K., Gibs, J.P., Chellam, R., Johnsingh, A.T.J. 1994. Lion-human conflict in the Gir forest, India. Conservation Biology, 8:501-507.
69. Sanderson, E., J. Forrest, C. Loucks, J. Ginsberg, E. Dinerstein, J. Seidensticker, P. Leimgruber, M. Songer, A. Heydlauff, T. O'Brien, G. Bryja, S. Klenzendorf and E. Wikramanayake. 2006. Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers: 2005-2015. The Technical Assessment. WCS, WWF, Smithsonian, and NFWF-STF, New York and Washington, D.C.
70. Seidensticker J., Christie S., and Jackson P. 1999. Riding the Tiger. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, preface.
71. Smith J D, Mcdougal C. Miquelle D G. 1989. Scent marking in free-ranging tigers. J Animal Behaviour. 37,1-10.
72. Stephens P A, Zaumyslova O Yu, Miquelle D G, Myslenkov A I, Hayward G D. 2006. Estimating population density from track counts. Animal Conservation, 9:339-348.
73. Stephens, P.A, Zaumysolva, G. D., Hayward, and Miquelle, D.G. Anyalysis of the long-term dynamics of ungulates in Sikhote-Alin Zapovednik, Russia, Far East. 2006.
74. Studsrod, J.E., Wegge, P. 1995. Park-people relationships: the case of damage caused by park animals around the Royal Bardia National Park, Nepal. Environmental Conservation, 22:133-142.
75. Sukumar, R. 1991. The management of large mammals in relation to male strategies and conflict with people. Biological Conservation, 55:93-102.
76. Suminski, H.R. 1982. Mountain lion predation on domestic livestock in Nevada. Proc. Vert. Pest Conf. 10: 62-66.
77. Sun Baogang, Dale G. Miquelle, Yuxiaochen, Endi Zhang, Sun haiyi, Guan Goshen, Dimitry G. Pikunov, Yuri M. Dunishenko, Igor G. Nokolaev, Lu Danming. 1999. 1999 survey of Amur tiger Far Eastern Leopards in Eastern Heilongjiang Province, China and Recommendations for their conservation .67pp.
78. Sunquist M E. 1981. The social organization of tigers in Royal Chitawan National Park, Nepal. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology, 336, 1-98.
79. Sunquist M E. 1989. Ecological constraints on predation by large felids. In Carnivore Behavior, Ecoloy, and Evolution, ed. J.L. Gittleman. Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 283-301.
80. Tilson R., Hu Defu, Muntifering J. and Nyhus, P.J. 2004. Dramatic decline of wild South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis: field survey of priority tiger reserves.Oryx,38 (1):40-47
81. Tilson, R. and Nyhus, P. 1998. Keeping problem tigers from becoming a problem species. Conservation Biology, 12, 261-262
82. Tilson, R. Hu Defu, J. Muntigering and P. J. Nyhus. 2004. Dramatic decline of wild South China tigers Panthera tigris amoyensis: field survey of priority tiger reserves. Oryx 38(1), 40-47
83. Treves, A. and Karanth, K. U. 2003. Human-carnivore conflict and perspectives on carnivore management worldwide. Conservation Biology, 17(6): 1491-1499.
84. Udaya Sekhar, N. 1989, Crop and livestock depredation caused by wild animals in protected areas: the case of Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, India. Environmental Conservation, 25(2):160-171.
85. Ullas Karanth, 2006. A View from the Machan - How Science can Save the Fragile Predator. Permanent Black. India: New Delhi. P146.
86. Walpole, M. J., Goodwin, H. J., 2001. Local attitudes towards conservation and tourism around Komodo National Park, Indonesia. Environmental Conservation, 28(2).160-166.
87. Wang W. 1998. Status of tigers in China and conservation strategies. Unpublished. A report to Year of the Tiger Conference, Dallas, US.
88. Won, C. and Smith, K. G. 1999. History and current status of mammals of the Korean Peninsula. Mammal Review, 29(1): 3-33.
89. Woodroffe, R. and Ginsberg, J. R. 1998. Edge effects and the extinction of populations inside protected areas. Science, 280: 2126-2128.
90. Wu Yue. Ungulate Survey in Hunchun Nature Reserve. Master Paper. 2005. 91. Wentzel J. 1999. Subspecies oftigers: molecular assessment using'voucher specimens'ofgeographically traceable individuals[A]. In:Riding the Tiger[M]. Cambridge University Press, 40-49.
92. Yang S H, J. Jiang, Z. Wu, T. Li, X. Yang, X. Han, D. G., Miquelle, D. G. Pokunov, Y. M. Dunishenko, and I. G. Nikolaev. 1998. A survey of tiger and leopards in Eastern Jilin Province, China, winter 1998. A final report to the UNDP and the Wildlife Conservation Society. 38pp.
93. Yang, X. & Xu, M. 2003. Biodiversity conservation in Changbai Mountain Biosphere Reserve, northeastern China: status, problem, and strategy. Biodiversity and Conservation, 12: 83-903.
94. Yu X. ch, Sun B. G., Sun Haiyi, Zhou G. SH., Zhou X> B. Distribution of Amur tiger and Population in Heilongjiang Province. Wild Animals, 2000, 21 (2): 14-16.
95. Yudakov A. G.,I. G. Nikolaev. 1987. Ecology of the Amur Tiger. Okhota I Okhotnichie hozyaistvo, 1: 18-20 (translated into English in 2004).
96. Yudakov, A. G., and I. G. Nikolaev. 1973. Status of the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) in Primorsky Krai. Zool. J. 52(6):909-919.
97. Zhang M., and Zhang C. 2006. Status and dynamic trends of Amur tiger's prey population resources in the Wandashan Mountains,Heilongjiang Province,China.A report given to the workshop of transboundary wild tiger population recovery in 2006
98.Zhangm M.,Jiang G.,Luo Y.,Liu B.,Liu Z.,and Zhang X.2004.Studies on current status and dynamic trends of Amur tiger's prey population resources in northeast china.Final report to US Fish and Wildlife Service Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Fund.
99.陈珉,张恩迪,李冰.2007.虎的保护遗传学研究进展.四川动物,26(1):216-220.
100.达尔曼,H.A,叶克里留克,B.E,佛敏科,II.B.2006.俄罗斯远东地区东北虎现状及其保护.野生动物,27(2):19-23.
101.高中信,马逸清,程继臻.1996.世界虎的现状及保护.野生动物,17(1):3-7
102.郝俊峰,于孝臣,史玉明.1997.东北虎分布区的历时变迁及种群变动.林业科技,22(1):28-30.
103.黑龙江省野生动物研究所,黑龙江省东方红林业局.1991.黑龙江省东方红林业局野生动物保护和经营方案,8-10.
104.黑龙江省野生动物研究所国际合作研究报告.1999.年黑龙江省东北虎和豹的调查及其保护对策.哈尔滨,6-7.
105.蒋劲松等.2005.吉林珲春东北虎捕食动物资源调查研究报告.吉林省林业厅调查报告.
106.解焱 李冰 张常智.2007.东北虎能否归去来兮.中国林业,2A:16-19.
107.李碧波,吴玥,张恩迪.2006.吉林珲春自然保护区青龙台林场马鹿容纳量的初步研究.四川动物,25(3):519-523
108.李冰,张勇等.2008.2006～2007年珲春保护区虎豹及有蹄类资源培训调查报告及方法评估.珲春保护区调查报告.
109.李彤,蒋劲松,吴志刚,韩晓东,吴景才,杨兴家.2001.吉林省东北虎的调查.兽类学报,21(1):1-6
110.李志兴.2003.珲春喜见野生东北虎幼崽踪迹.野生动物,24(4):31.
111.林维源.1980.黑龙江虎乡寻踪.大自然,(2):29-30.
112.刘宇,张恩迪,李志宏,陈晓婕.2006.吉林省珲春自然保护区野生东北虎捕食家畜的状况.兽类学报,26(3):213-220.
113.刘宇.2005.吉林珲春自然保护区冬季野生东北虎生态学问题研究.华东师范大学硕士论文.
114.路秉信.1991.拯救与保护东北虎的途径.野生动物,(1):6-7.
115.罗述金,Kim J.H,Johnson W.E等.2006.动物学研究27(4):441-448.
116.马建章,金崑.2003.虎研究.上海:上海科技教育出版社.
117.马逸清,阎文.1998.老虎保护进展.野生动物,19(1):3-7.
118.马逸清.1979.我国的东北虎.野生动物(创刊号),22-26
119.马逸清.1983.东北虎分布区的历史变迁.自然资源研究,(4):44-48
120.马逸清.2005.近百年来东北虎分布区的历史变迁.见张恩迪,戴尔米奎尔等主编.中国野生东北虎种群恢复进程和展望.北京:中国林业出版社.,4-8.
121.孟宪林,范志勇,王伟等.1995.虎及其保护.野生动物,(1):23-25.
122.皮库诺夫,米切尔,杜尼申科,梅斯连尼科夫,尼古拉耶夫,谢列特金原著,李冰编译.2008.远东地区野生动物踪迹指南.哈尔滨:东北林业大学出版社.
123.苏丽敏,王宁,杨承华.2006.珲春地区东北虎保护现状调查.地理教学,(4):6-7.
124.孙海义,卢向东,田家龙,程守涛,李德福,董红雨.2005.黑龙江省东北虎野外种群监测研究.林业科技,30(6):33-35.
125.孙海义,于孝臣,卢向东,李林,田家龙,2006.黑龙江省野生东北虎种群监测研究.国家林业局保护司资助项目.未发表.
126.谭邦杰.1986.虎在中国的分布.中国动物园年刊,1985～1986合集,165-170.
127.汪松.1998.中国濒危动物红皮书(兽类).北京:科学出版社.
128.王振堂,申亨哲.1996.图们江流域人口压力对东北虎数量的影响.动物学杂志,31(5):31-34.
129.吴平,周开亚,王亚明.1997.用RFLP和PCR.RFLP技术研究东北虎和华南虎线粒体DNA多态性.生物多样性,5(3):173-178.
130.吴宪忠,张明海,高中信,瞿中亮,赵玉峰,刘伟新,于利国,慕保国.1994.黑龙江境内东北虎数量分布现状,野生动物,(3):17-20.
131.吴玥.2005.2003_2005年冬季吉林珲春保护区有蹄类动物数量调查及生境利用分析.华东师范大学硕士论文.
132.许迎春,田义文,朱保建等.从野生动物侵农谈野生动物致人损害补偿制度的完善.安徽农业科学,2006,34(19):5063-5064.
133.衣保中,叶依广.2004.清末以来东北森林资源开发及其环境代价.中国农史,(3):115-123.
134.于长青,邢林.1995.我国濒危兽类现状及保护对策.见钱迎倩 甄仁德(主编):生物多样性研究进展——首届全国生物多样性保护与持续利用研讨会论文集No.30.北京:中国科学技术出版社
135.于孝臣,孙宝刚,孙海义,关国生,周宣滨.2000.黑龙江省 东北虎的分布和种群数量.野生动物,21(2):14-16.
136.于孝臣.2005.黑龙江省1999年度东北虎和远东豹的调查.见张恩迪,戴尔米奎尔等主编.中国野生东北虎种群恢复进程和展望.北京:中国林业出版社.,11-17.
137.张常智,张明海,刘宝权.2006.浅谈野生虎生态学研究.野生动物,27(4):10-13.
138.张恩迪,戴尔米奎尔,王天厚,康蔼黎.2005.中国野生东北虎恢复进展 和展望.北京:中国林业出版社.
139.张锡然,陈宜峰,朱红阳,黄恭情.东北虎和华南虎染色体比较研究[A].华南虎论文集.1998:60-163