多溴联苯醚及其衍生物的环境调查、致毒机制及其基于芳烃受体活性的健康风险评估研究
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摘要
多溴联苯醚(Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, PBDEs),作为一种添加型溴代阻燃剂,由于其优良的阻燃性能,多年来被广泛应用于多种商业产品中,如家具、塑料、油漆、纺织品、电子产品等。这类物质在生产、使用和处理过程中极易释放进入环境,对生态安全和人体健康构成潜在的威胁。羟基化多溴联苯醚(Hydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers, HO-PBDEs)和甲氧基化多溴联苯醚(Methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers, MeO-PBDEs)是两类PBDEs的衍生物,近年来也在各种环境介质中被大量检出,目前它们的来源尚没有形成统一认识。
本论文以PBDEs、HO-PBDEs和MeO-PBDEs为目标化合物,致力于解决如下问题：首先,长三角地区是我国最大的经济圈,它受PBDEs及其衍生物污染状况如何,不同水域内PBDEs及其衍生物又具有怎样的污染特征?其次,目前关于PBDEs及其衍生物的毒性研究往往集中一种或者几种毒性终点指标,如果从整个生物体的角度来进行评价,其致毒机理又如何?另外,PBDEs衍生物与二嗯英物质结构的相似性,它是否也具有芳烃受体(Aryl hydrocarbon receptor, AhR)活性,能否对人体健康造成危害?
基于以上内容,我们开展工作,研究结果概括如下：
1)对海洋(黄海)和内陆河湖(长江和太湖)两种典型水生生物样品内13种PBDEs和34种PBDEs衍生物进行定量分析。结果显示,黄海生物样品内∑PBDEs浓度(浓度范围：1.8至2.3×101ng/g脂重,均值：11.8ng/g脂重)比长江鱼体内∑PBDEs浓度(1.8至1.4×102ng/g脂重,均值：67.8ng/g脂重)低5.76倍,这一结果表明长江内生物受PBDEs的污染程度高于海洋生物。另外,本研究仅在海洋生物样品和长江刀鱼(洄游鱼类)体内检出有PBDEs衍生物,长江刀鱼是一种长期生活在长江入海口的洄游鱼类,会季节性地从黄海洄游至长江产卵,这一结果支持"MeO-PBDEs和HO-PBDEs主要由海洋生物产生”的报道。对2009-2012年间太湖梅梁湾湖区三种底栖生物样品(太湖白虾、鲤鱼和昂刺鱼)PBDEs浓度进行分析,结果显示太湖水体生物样品内∑PBDEs浓度在0.87-195.17ng/g脂重之间,中位数和均值分别为26.07ng/g脂重和38.61ng/g脂重；三种生物相比较,白虾体内∑PBDEs浓度最低,其浓度范围为6.26-49.11ng/g脂重(均值：18.48ng/g脂重),鲤鱼次之,其浓度范围为0.87-39.56ng/g脂重(均值：21.12ng/g脂重),昂刺鱼最高,其浓度范围为22.79-195.17ng/g脂重(均值：76.23ng/g脂重)；不同年份生物样品内∑PBDEs浓度无显著性差异。与其他国家和地区相比较,长三角地区水生生物PBDEs浓度处于较低水平,PBDEs衍生物浓度则与其他国家和地区相当。
2)建立了涵盖大肠杆菌体内大部分基因组的活细胞芯片技术,并比较了PBDEs及其衍生物的生物毒性,揭示了其分子致毒机制。首先,采用大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli, E. coli)对34种PBDEs衍生物的细胞毒性进行评估,结果显示HO-PBDEs在一定浓度下会对大肠杆菌的生长产生抑制作用。综合考虑化合物的细胞毒性数据、环境检出率以及化合物间结构差异,选择了3种典型化合物(BDE-47、6-HO-BDE-47和6-MeO-BDE-47),采用包含1800多个绿色荧光蛋白(Green fluorescent protein, GFP)修饰启动子的E. coli K12菌株,对其分子致毒机制进行评价。三种化合物中6-HO-BDE-47在一定浓度下可以抑制大肠杆菌生长,其半效应浓度(Median lethal concentration, LC50)为22.52±2.20mg/L。观察细胞毒性最大的6-HO-BDE-47暴露于大肠杆菌4h后的基因表达情况,发现分别有65(异常表达倍数大于2)和129(异常表达倍数大于1.5)个基因有异常表达,并求算6-HO-BDE-47的转录终点指标,无观察效应转录浓度(Noobserved transcriptional effect concentration, NOTEC)和半转录效应浓度(Median transcriptional effect concentration, TEC50),分别为0.0438和0.580mg/L,较传统的毒性终点指标LC50分别敏感514倍和39倍。通过KEGG数据库分析,6-HO-BDE-47主要通过代谢通路、磷酸烯醇丙酮酸-糖磷酸转移酶和酰胺-tRNA来干扰大肠杆菌正常生命活性。将受6-HO-BDE-47暴露异常表达的基因分别暴露于不同浓度的6-MeO-BDE-47和BDE-47后,绝大部分基因没有出现异常表达现象,可见三种物质对大肠杆菌的致毒机制不同。
3)采用稳定转染萤火虫荧光素酶(Luciferase)报告基因的大鼠肝癌细胞(H4IIE-luc)对PBDEs衍生物的芳烃受体活性进行研究,并对其基于芳烃受体活性的潜在健康风险进行了评估。所测试的34种PBDEs衍生物中,有19种能激活芳烃受体,最大响应值的百分比(以2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)为阳性参照)在5.0%-101.8%之间,相对效力因子(Respective2,3,7,8-TCDD potency factors, RePH4IIE-luc)在7.35×10-12-4.00×104之间,有些化合物的毒性当量因子甚至与单邻位取代PCBs相当(TEFWHO＝3×10-5)。相同取代位HO-PBDEs所能诱导芳烃受体活性高于MeO-PBDEs,可见HO-官能团可以诱导更大的芳烃受体活性。同时,本研究根据野外鱼样体内PBDEs衍生物的浓度和每种物质对应的RePH4IIE-luc值计算了每一种生物样品的毒性当量值(TCDD equivalents, PBDEs analoguesTEQH4IIE-luc)结果显示,仅考虑PBDEs衍生物的芳烃受体活性,本研究中所涉及鱼样的analoguesTEQH4IIE-luc均低于欧盟和美国环保局所指定的标准,风险熵值低于0.005,PBDEs衍生物在目前浓度水平下不会对人体健康构成威胁,但考虑这类物质可以随食物链在人体内蓄积,其潜在健康风险仍需进一步研究。
Due to their performance and cost-effectiveness, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), one kind of additive brominated flame retardants (BFRs), have been used for many years as flame retardants in various commercial products, such as furniture, textiles, plastics, paints, and electronic appliances. During their manufacturing, usage and treatment process, PBDEs can be easily released into environment and might cause adverse effects to human-being. Recently, PBDEs'two derivatives, hydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (HO-PBDEs) and methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-PBDEs), have also been observed in various environmental matrixes. However, there is contradiction about their origins. To characterrize the occurrence of PBDEs and their derivatives in Yangtze River Delta, concentrations of PBDEs, HO-PBDEs and MeO-PBDEs were analyzed. Then, toxicity mechanisms of three typical compounds with highest detection rate were assessed by use of toxicogenomic tools. Finally, considering their structural similarity between PBDEs derivatives and dioxin-like compounds, dioxin-like activity and the related risk assessment of PBDEs derivatives were also assessed. Conclusions were described as following:
i) Concentrations of13PBDEs and34PBDEs analogues were quantified in fish from two typical locations, sea (Yellow Sea) and inland lake or river (Yangtze River and Tai Lake). Concentration ofBDEs in marine fish (1.8to2.3×101ng/g lipid) was5.76fold lower than those in fish from Yangtze River (1.8to1.4×102ng/g lipid). These results suggest that the Yangtze River was more polluted by synthetic chemicals than those from the marine environment. Most interestingly, PBDEs analogues were detected only in sea fishes, except for the bigmouth grenadier anchovy, which is a migratory fish that resides in the Yangtze River estuary and migrates back to the Yangtze River to spawn. We speculated that MeO-PBDEs and HO-PBDEs may be from natural sources that produced by marine orgainisms. Three aquatic samples collected between2009and2012in Tai Lake were also analyzed for the PBDEs. And no significant difference was observed between concentrations of PBDEs of each year. However, there was a significant biomagnification among different trophic levels. Concentrations of PBDEs in organisms from Yangtze River Delta were less that from other countries of districts, and concentrations of PBDEs derivatives were almost equal to that from other places.
ii) A new toxicogenomic tool, live cell array, was developed to assess the toxicological mechanism of PBDEs and their derivatives, which involved most of the genome in E. coli K12strains. Firstly, cytotoxicity of34PBDEs analogues were assessed by exposure to E. coli K12strains. Secondly, only HO-PBDEs can cause toxicity to bacteria. Based on their cytotoxicity, occurrence and structure difference, associated molecular mechanisms of three typical chemicals (BDE-47,6-HO-BDE-47and6-MeO-BDE-47) were assessed by use of a live cell reporter assay system which contains a library of1820modified green fluorescent protein (GFP) expressing promoter reporter vectors constructed from E. coli K12strains.6-HO-BDE-47inhibited growth of E. coli with a4h median effect concentration (EC50) of22.52±2.20mg/L, but neither BDE-47nor6-MeO-BDE-47were cytotoxic within4h. Exposure to6-HO-BDE-47, the most toxic one, resulted in65(fold change>2) or129 (fold change>1.5) genes being differentially expressed. The no observed transcriptional effect concentration (NOTEC) and median transcriptional effect concentration (TEC50) of6-HO-BDE-47were0.0438and0.580mg/L, respectively at4h. The transcriptional responses were514-and39-fold more sensitive than the traditional acute LC50to inhibit cell growth. Based on KEGG database, three pathways, including the metabolic pathway, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)-dependent phosphotransferase system (PTS) and aminoacyl-tRNAs, were identified as being most responsive to6-HO-BDE-47during the4h exposure. Most of the genes that were differentially expressed in response to6-HO-BDE-47were not modulated by BDE-47or6-MeO-BDE-47. These results suggest that cytotoxicity of6-HO-BDE-47to E. coli was via a mechanism that was different from that of either BDE-47or6-MeO-BDE-47.
iii) Dioxin-like activity of PBDEs derivatives was evaluated by use of the H4IIE-luc, a rat hepatoma cell based transactivation bioassay and their human health risk assessment was also conducted based on their dioxin-like activity. Among the34tested analogues (0to10000ng/ml) of PBDEs,19activated the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and induced significant dioxin-like responses in H4IIE-luc cells. Efficacies of the analogues of PBDEs ranged from5.0%to101.8%of the maximum caused by2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD-max) and their respective2,3,7,8-TCDD potency factors (RePH4IIE-luc) ranged from7.35×10-12to4.00×10-4, some of which were equal to or more potent than some mono-ortho-substituted PCBs (TEFWHO=3×10-5). HO-PBDEs exhibited greater dioxin-like activity than did the corresponding MeO-PBDEs. Concentrations of2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) equivalents (PBDEsanaloguesTEQH4IIE-luc) of the samples were also calculated as the sum of the product of concentrations of individual PBDE and their RePH4IIE-luc, which were less than the tolerance limit proposed by European Union and the oral reference dose (RfD) derived by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, respectively,(Hazard Quotients (HQ)<0.005)
本论文以PBDEs、HO-PBDEs和MeO-PBDEs为目标化合物,致力于解决如下问题：首先,长三角地区是我国最大的经济圈,它受PBDEs及其衍生物污染状况如何,不同水域内PBDEs及其衍生物又具有怎样的污染特征?其次,目前关于PBDEs及其衍生物的毒性研究往往集中一种或者几种毒性终点指标,如果从整个生物体的角度来进行评价,其致毒机理又如何?另外,PBDEs衍生物与二嗯英物质结构的相似性,它是否也具有芳烃受体(Aryl hydrocarbon receptor, AhR)活性,能否对人体健康造成危害?
基于以上内容,我们开展工作,研究结果概括如下：
1)对海洋(黄海)和内陆河湖(长江和太湖)两种典型水生生物样品内13种PBDEs和34种PBDEs衍生物进行定量分析。结果显示,黄海生物样品内∑PBDEs浓度(浓度范围：1.8至2.3×101ng/g脂重,均值：11.8ng/g脂重)比长江鱼体内∑PBDEs浓度(1.8至1.4×102ng/g脂重,均值：67.8ng/g脂重)低5.76倍,这一结果表明长江内生物受PBDEs的污染程度高于海洋生物。另外,本研究仅在海洋生物样品和长江刀鱼(洄游鱼类)体内检出有PBDEs衍生物,长江刀鱼是一种长期生活在长江入海口的洄游鱼类,会季节性地从黄海洄游至长江产卵,这一结果支持"MeO-PBDEs和HO-PBDEs主要由海洋生物产生”的报道。对2009-2012年间太湖梅梁湾湖区三种底栖生物样品(太湖白虾、鲤鱼和昂刺鱼)PBDEs浓度进行分析,结果显示太湖水体生物样品内∑PBDEs浓度在0.87-195.17ng/g脂重之间,中位数和均值分别为26.07ng/g脂重和38.61ng/g脂重；三种生物相比较,白虾体内∑PBDEs浓度最低,其浓度范围为6.26-49.11ng/g脂重(均值：18.48ng/g脂重),鲤鱼次之,其浓度范围为0.87-39.56ng/g脂重(均值：21.12ng/g脂重),昂刺鱼最高,其浓度范围为22.79-195.17ng/g脂重(均值：76.23ng/g脂重)；不同年份生物样品内∑PBDEs浓度无显著性差异。与其他国家和地区相比较,长三角地区水生生物PBDEs浓度处于较低水平,PBDEs衍生物浓度则与其他国家和地区相当。
2)建立了涵盖大肠杆菌体内大部分基因组的活细胞芯片技术,并比较了PBDEs及其衍生物的生物毒性,揭示了其分子致毒机制。首先,采用大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli, E. coli)对34种PBDEs衍生物的细胞毒性进行评估,结果显示HO-PBDEs在一定浓度下会对大肠杆菌的生长产生抑制作用。综合考虑化合物的细胞毒性数据、环境检出率以及化合物间结构差异,选择了3种典型化合物(BDE-47、6-HO-BDE-47和6-MeO-BDE-47),采用包含1800多个绿色荧光蛋白(Green fluorescent protein, GFP)修饰启动子的E. coli K12菌株,对其分子致毒机制进行评价。三种化合物中6-HO-BDE-47在一定浓度下可以抑制大肠杆菌生长,其半效应浓度(Median lethal concentration, LC50)为22.52±2.20mg/L。观察细胞毒性最大的6-HO-BDE-47暴露于大肠杆菌4h后的基因表达情况,发现分别有65(异常表达倍数大于2)和129(异常表达倍数大于1.5)个基因有异常表达,并求算6-HO-BDE-47的转录终点指标,无观察效应转录浓度(Noobserved transcriptional effect concentration, NOTEC)和半转录效应浓度(Median transcriptional effect concentration, TEC50),分别为0.0438和0.580mg/L,较传统的毒性终点指标LC50分别敏感514倍和39倍。通过KEGG数据库分析,6-HO-BDE-47主要通过代谢通路、磷酸烯醇丙酮酸-糖磷酸转移酶和酰胺-tRNA来干扰大肠杆菌正常生命活性。将受6-HO-BDE-47暴露异常表达的基因分别暴露于不同浓度的6-MeO-BDE-47和BDE-47后,绝大部分基因没有出现异常表达现象,可见三种物质对大肠杆菌的致毒机制不同。
3)采用稳定转染萤火虫荧光素酶(Luciferase)报告基因的大鼠肝癌细胞(H4IIE-luc)对PBDEs衍生物的芳烃受体活性进行研究,并对其基于芳烃受体活性的潜在健康风险进行了评估。所测试的34种PBDEs衍生物中,有19种能激活芳烃受体,最大响应值的百分比(以2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)为阳性参照)在5.0%-101.8%之间,相对效力因子(Respective2,3,7,8-TCDD potency factors, RePH4IIE-luc)在7.35×10-12-4.00×104之间,有些化合物的毒性当量因子甚至与单邻位取代PCBs相当(TEFWHO＝3×10-5)。相同取代位HO-PBDEs所能诱导芳烃受体活性高于MeO-PBDEs,可见HO-官能团可以诱导更大的芳烃受体活性。同时,本研究根据野外鱼样体内PBDEs衍生物的浓度和每种物质对应的RePH4IIE-luc值计算了每一种生物样品的毒性当量值(TCDD equivalents, PBDEs analoguesTEQH4IIE-luc)结果显示,仅考虑PBDEs衍生物的芳烃受体活性,本研究中所涉及鱼样的analoguesTEQH4IIE-luc均低于欧盟和美国环保局所指定的标准,风险熵值低于0.005,PBDEs衍生物在目前浓度水平下不会对人体健康构成威胁,但考虑这类物质可以随食物链在人体内蓄积,其潜在健康风险仍需进一步研究。
Due to their performance and cost-effectiveness, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), one kind of additive brominated flame retardants (BFRs), have been used for many years as flame retardants in various commercial products, such as furniture, textiles, plastics, paints, and electronic appliances. During their manufacturing, usage and treatment process, PBDEs can be easily released into environment and might cause adverse effects to human-being. Recently, PBDEs'two derivatives, hydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (HO-PBDEs) and methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-PBDEs), have also been observed in various environmental matrixes. However, there is contradiction about their origins. To characterrize the occurrence of PBDEs and their derivatives in Yangtze River Delta, concentrations of PBDEs, HO-PBDEs and MeO-PBDEs were analyzed. Then, toxicity mechanisms of three typical compounds with highest detection rate were assessed by use of toxicogenomic tools. Finally, considering their structural similarity between PBDEs derivatives and dioxin-like compounds, dioxin-like activity and the related risk assessment of PBDEs derivatives were also assessed. Conclusions were described as following:
i) Concentrations of13PBDEs and34PBDEs analogues were quantified in fish from two typical locations, sea (Yellow Sea) and inland lake or river (Yangtze River and Tai Lake). Concentration ofBDEs in marine fish (1.8to2.3×101ng/g lipid) was5.76fold lower than those in fish from Yangtze River (1.8to1.4×102ng/g lipid). These results suggest that the Yangtze River was more polluted by synthetic chemicals than those from the marine environment. Most interestingly, PBDEs analogues were detected only in sea fishes, except for the bigmouth grenadier anchovy, which is a migratory fish that resides in the Yangtze River estuary and migrates back to the Yangtze River to spawn. We speculated that MeO-PBDEs and HO-PBDEs may be from natural sources that produced by marine orgainisms. Three aquatic samples collected between2009and2012in Tai Lake were also analyzed for the PBDEs. And no significant difference was observed between concentrations of PBDEs of each year. However, there was a significant biomagnification among different trophic levels. Concentrations of PBDEs in organisms from Yangtze River Delta were less that from other countries of districts, and concentrations of PBDEs derivatives were almost equal to that from other places.
ii) A new toxicogenomic tool, live cell array, was developed to assess the toxicological mechanism of PBDEs and their derivatives, which involved most of the genome in E. coli K12strains. Firstly, cytotoxicity of34PBDEs analogues were assessed by exposure to E. coli K12strains. Secondly, only HO-PBDEs can cause toxicity to bacteria. Based on their cytotoxicity, occurrence and structure difference, associated molecular mechanisms of three typical chemicals (BDE-47,6-HO-BDE-47and6-MeO-BDE-47) were assessed by use of a live cell reporter assay system which contains a library of1820modified green fluorescent protein (GFP) expressing promoter reporter vectors constructed from E. coli K12strains.6-HO-BDE-47inhibited growth of E. coli with a4h median effect concentration (EC50) of22.52±2.20mg/L, but neither BDE-47nor6-MeO-BDE-47were cytotoxic within4h. Exposure to6-HO-BDE-47, the most toxic one, resulted in65(fold change>2) or129 (fold change>1.5) genes being differentially expressed. The no observed transcriptional effect concentration (NOTEC) and median transcriptional effect concentration (TEC50) of6-HO-BDE-47were0.0438and0.580mg/L, respectively at4h. The transcriptional responses were514-and39-fold more sensitive than the traditional acute LC50to inhibit cell growth. Based on KEGG database, three pathways, including the metabolic pathway, phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)-dependent phosphotransferase system (PTS) and aminoacyl-tRNAs, were identified as being most responsive to6-HO-BDE-47during the4h exposure. Most of the genes that were differentially expressed in response to6-HO-BDE-47were not modulated by BDE-47or6-MeO-BDE-47. These results suggest that cytotoxicity of6-HO-BDE-47to E. coli was via a mechanism that was different from that of either BDE-47or6-MeO-BDE-47.
iii) Dioxin-like activity of PBDEs derivatives was evaluated by use of the H4IIE-luc, a rat hepatoma cell based transactivation bioassay and their human health risk assessment was also conducted based on their dioxin-like activity. Among the34tested analogues (0to10000ng/ml) of PBDEs,19activated the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and induced significant dioxin-like responses in H4IIE-luc cells. Efficacies of the analogues of PBDEs ranged from5.0%to101.8%of the maximum caused by2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD-max) and their respective2,3,7,8-TCDD potency factors (RePH4IIE-luc) ranged from7.35×10-12to4.00×10-4, some of which were equal to or more potent than some mono-ortho-substituted PCBs (TEFWHO=3×10-5). HO-PBDEs exhibited greater dioxin-like activity than did the corresponding MeO-PBDEs. Concentrations of2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) equivalents (PBDEsanaloguesTEQH4IIE-luc) of the samples were also calculated as the sum of the product of concentrations of individual PBDE and their RePH4IIE-luc, which were less than the tolerance limit proposed by European Union and the oral reference dose (RfD) derived by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, respectively,(Hazard Quotients (HQ)<0.005)
引文
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