高中课堂外语学习焦虑研究及其对策
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摘要
二十世纪六十年代以来,随着人文主义心理学的发展,情感因素在语言学习中的作用受到了外语教育研究者和外语教师的共同关注。研究者把它作为解释学习者之间个体差异的一个重要的情感变量。在所有的情感因素中,语言焦虑可能是外语学习中最普遍的障碍。
外语学习是充满自我威胁并易于引发焦虑现象的特殊情境。外语学习焦虑是外语学习中各种消极情感反应和心理不适的集合,是外语学习诸多情感因素中的重要变量之一。国内的中学外语教学并未给予情感因素充分的重视,也缺乏足够的课堂焦虑实证研究。
基于此,作者对高中学生的外语学习焦虑现象进行了调查。本文分析了国内外对焦虑研究的成果以及相关理论依据,采用定量和定性研究相结合的方式展开本课题研究。定量研究以问卷调查为依据,内容为外语课堂焦虑量表;研究对象为江苏省沛县张寨中学的225名高三学生。研究内容主要集中在四个方面:学生的焦虑程度及其差异、焦虑对外语学习的影响、高中学生的焦虑源以及相应的解决策略。定性研究通过开放性的问题所进行的访谈来补充验证定量研究的结果。研究发现:有近半数高中生外语学习焦虑现象较为严重,而且学生的焦虑程度越高,学业成绩越低,也就是两者呈负相关;学习者焦虑感强弱的差异是多种因素引起的,如自身性别、性格以及所在班级与学习者的自尊心等。根据问卷调查以及访谈结果,作者分析了在高中外语课堂学习存在的焦虑源,并就降低外语学习焦虑提出了初步的教学建议,以有效地提高英语教学质量。
With the advent of humanistic psychology, foreign language educators and researchers have been paying more attention to learners’“affective variables”in language learning since the 1960s. They have increasingly recognized affective variables as the significant factors in accounting for the differential success in foreign language learners. Of all these factors, language anxiety is possibly the most pervasive obstruction in foreign language learning.
Foreign language learning is a specific situation, which is filled with ego-threats and is prone to cause anxiety. Foreign language anxiety, as one variable of the most important emotional factors, is a combination of many kinds of negative emotional states. Anxiety is likely to hinder the development of language ability and prevent students adopting effective learning practices. However, few studies on language anxiety have been carried out in foreign language classroom. Moreover, much research is needed to investigate the impact of anxiety on high school students’foreign language learning.
Aware of this, the author devotes the present study to exploring some questions in this field. The thesis starts by reviewing the previous research on anxiety at home and abroad. On the basis of fruitful western research on foreign language anxiety, an empirical investigation of language anxiety was conducted in a high school. The research methods in this study consisted of both quantitative and qualitative surveys. In the quantitative study, a foreign language anxiety scale designed by Horwitz (1986) was administered to 225 Grade Three high school from Zhangzhai Senior Middle School to measure the students’language anxiety levels. The research mainly focused on four aspects, including students’different levels of language anxiety, the relationship between anxiety and language achievements, potential sources of anxiety, and strategies to alleviate language anxiety. In the qualitative study, the interview provided supplementary data to the results through open questions.
The findings reveal that high school students’foreign language learning is more or less interfered by anxiety and there is a negative correlation between language achievements and language anxiety. In addition, a number of learner variables, such as gender, class, self-esteem and personality can contribute to different anxiety levels among students. The research also finds some dominating anxiety-generating factors, such as: students’self-esteem, unscientific beliefs about language learning, instructor-learner interactions. Based on the above findings, some teaching strategies reducing foreign language anxiety are recommended, namely that teachers should adopt humanistic approach and student-centered teaching method, using flexible strategies in classroom to cultivate and develop students’language learning competence and achieve instructional goals catering to the needs of both the society and students. In this case, foreign language learning can be made as enjoyable, useful, and powerful as possible.
外语学习是充满自我威胁并易于引发焦虑现象的特殊情境。外语学习焦虑是外语学习中各种消极情感反应和心理不适的集合,是外语学习诸多情感因素中的重要变量之一。国内的中学外语教学并未给予情感因素充分的重视,也缺乏足够的课堂焦虑实证研究。
基于此,作者对高中学生的外语学习焦虑现象进行了调查。本文分析了国内外对焦虑研究的成果以及相关理论依据,采用定量和定性研究相结合的方式展开本课题研究。定量研究以问卷调查为依据,内容为外语课堂焦虑量表;研究对象为江苏省沛县张寨中学的225名高三学生。研究内容主要集中在四个方面:学生的焦虑程度及其差异、焦虑对外语学习的影响、高中学生的焦虑源以及相应的解决策略。定性研究通过开放性的问题所进行的访谈来补充验证定量研究的结果。研究发现:有近半数高中生外语学习焦虑现象较为严重,而且学生的焦虑程度越高,学业成绩越低,也就是两者呈负相关;学习者焦虑感强弱的差异是多种因素引起的,如自身性别、性格以及所在班级与学习者的自尊心等。根据问卷调查以及访谈结果,作者分析了在高中外语课堂学习存在的焦虑源,并就降低外语学习焦虑提出了初步的教学建议,以有效地提高英语教学质量。
With the advent of humanistic psychology, foreign language educators and researchers have been paying more attention to learners’“affective variables”in language learning since the 1960s. They have increasingly recognized affective variables as the significant factors in accounting for the differential success in foreign language learners. Of all these factors, language anxiety is possibly the most pervasive obstruction in foreign language learning.
Foreign language learning is a specific situation, which is filled with ego-threats and is prone to cause anxiety. Foreign language anxiety, as one variable of the most important emotional factors, is a combination of many kinds of negative emotional states. Anxiety is likely to hinder the development of language ability and prevent students adopting effective learning practices. However, few studies on language anxiety have been carried out in foreign language classroom. Moreover, much research is needed to investigate the impact of anxiety on high school students’foreign language learning.
Aware of this, the author devotes the present study to exploring some questions in this field. The thesis starts by reviewing the previous research on anxiety at home and abroad. On the basis of fruitful western research on foreign language anxiety, an empirical investigation of language anxiety was conducted in a high school. The research methods in this study consisted of both quantitative and qualitative surveys. In the quantitative study, a foreign language anxiety scale designed by Horwitz (1986) was administered to 225 Grade Three high school from Zhangzhai Senior Middle School to measure the students’language anxiety levels. The research mainly focused on four aspects, including students’different levels of language anxiety, the relationship between anxiety and language achievements, potential sources of anxiety, and strategies to alleviate language anxiety. In the qualitative study, the interview provided supplementary data to the results through open questions.
The findings reveal that high school students’foreign language learning is more or less interfered by anxiety and there is a negative correlation between language achievements and language anxiety. In addition, a number of learner variables, such as gender, class, self-esteem and personality can contribute to different anxiety levels among students. The research also finds some dominating anxiety-generating factors, such as: students’self-esteem, unscientific beliefs about language learning, instructor-learner interactions. Based on the above findings, some teaching strategies reducing foreign language anxiety are recommended, namely that teachers should adopt humanistic approach and student-centered teaching method, using flexible strategies in classroom to cultivate and develop students’language learning competence and achieve instructional goals catering to the needs of both the society and students. In this case, foreign language learning can be made as enjoyable, useful, and powerful as possible.
引文
Aida, Y. Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope’s construct of foreign language anxiety: The case of students of Japanese [J]. Modern Language Journal 78 (1994): 155-168.
Arnold, J. Affect in Language Learning [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1999.
Alpert, R., and R, Haber. Anxiety in academic achievement situations [J]. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61 (1960): 207-215.
Bailey, K. H. Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning: Looking at and through the diary studies [A]. Classroom-oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Eds. Seliger, H.W., and M.H. Long. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983.
Beebe, L. M. Risktaking and the language learner [A]. Classroom-oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Eds. Seliger, H. W., and M. H. Long. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983.
Branden, N. How to raise your self-esteem [M]. New York: Bantam Books, 1987.
Brown, H. D. Affective variables in second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 23 (1973): 231-244.
Canfield, J., and H.C. Wells. 100 ways to enhance self-concept in the classroom [M]. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994.
Casado, M. A. Foreign language anxiety of university students [J]. College Students Journal 35 (2001): 78-84.
Chastain, K. Affective and ability factor in second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 25 (1975): 153-61.
Cheng, Y. S., Horwitz, E. K. and D. L. Schaller. Language anxiety: Differentiating writing and speaking components [J]. Language Learning 49 (1999): 104-18.
Curran, C. A. Counseling-learning in second language [M]. Apple River, IL: Apple River Press, 1976.
Daly, J.A., and M.D. Miller. The empirical development of an instrument of writing apprehension [J]. Research in the Teaching of English 9 (1975): 115-128.
Ehrman, M and R. Oxford. Cognition plus: Correlates of adult language proficiency [J]. Modern Language Journal 79 (1995): 131-43.
Ellis, R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford: OUP, 1994.
Ely, C. M. An analysis of discomfort, risktaking, sociability, and motivation in the L2 classroom [J]. Language Learning 36 (1986): 1-25.
Eysenck, M. W. Anxiety, learning and memory: A reconceptulization [J]. Journal of Research in Personality 13 (1979): 363-385.
Friedman, P. G. Shyness and reticence in students [M]. Washington, D. C: National Education Association, 1980.
Freud, S. The essentials of psycho-analysis [M]. London: Hogarth Press, 1986.
Gardner, R. C. Social psychological and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation [M]. London: Edward Arnold, 1985.
Gardner, R. C. and P. D. MacIntyre. On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning [J]. Language Learning 43 (1993): 152-74.
Gardner, R. C. and P. D. MacIntyre. The measurement of anxiety and application to second language learning: An annotated bibliography [M]. London: University of Western Ontario, 1988.
Gardner, R. C., and W. E. Lambert. Attitudes and Motivation in L2 Learning [M]. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1972.
Goleman, D. Emotional Intelligence [M]. New York: Bantam Books, 1995.
Guiora, A. Z. The dialectic of language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 33 (1983): 204-19.
Heyde, A. The relationship between self-esteem and the oral production of a second language [J]. Modern Language Journal 72 (1979): 283-294.
Hilgard, E., Atkinson, J. and L. Atkinson. Introduction to Psychology [M]. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1971.
Horwitz, E. K. Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of a foreign language anxiety scale [J]. TESOL Quarterly 20 (1986): 55-67.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B. and J. Cope. Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety [J]. Modern Language Journal 70 (1986): 27-36.
Horwitz, E. K., and D. J. Young., eds. Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications [C]. London: Prentice-Hall International Ltd, 1991.
Kagan, S. Cooperative Learning [M]. Capiswtrano, CA: Prometheus Nemesis, 1994.
Kleinmann, H. Avoidance behavior in adult second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 27 (1977): 93-107.
Koch, A. and T. Terrel. Affective reactions of foreign language students to natural approach activities and teaching techniques [M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991.
Krashen, S. D. Second language acquisition and second language learning [M]. Oxford: Pergamon, 1981.
Leary, M. Understanding Social Anxiety: Social, Personality, and Clinic Perspectives [M]. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983.
Ledoux, J. The Emotional Brain [M]. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996.
Levitt, E. E. The psychology of anxiety [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981.
Littlewood, W. Foreign and second language learning: Language acquisition research and its implications for the classroom [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1984.
Long, M. H. and P. A. Porter. Group work, interlanguage talk, and second language learning [J]. TESOL Quarterly 19 (1985): 207-228.
MacIntyre, P. D. and R. C. Gardner. Methods and results in the study of anxiety and language learning [J]. Language Learning 41 (1991a): 78-94.
MacIntyre, P. D. and R. C. Gardner. Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second language [J]. Language Learning 41 (1991b): 45-58.
MacIntyre, P. D. and R. C. Gardner. The effects of induced anxiety on three stages of cognitive processing in computerized vocabulary learning [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16 (1994a): 257-71.
MacIntyre, P. D. and R. C. Gardner. The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in second language [J]. Language Learning 44 (1994b): 221-40.
McCroskey, J. C. and J. A. Daley. Eds. Personality and Interpersonal Communication [C]. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1987.
Oxford, R. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know [M]. New York: Newbury House/Harper and Row, 1990.
Oxford, R. L. and M. Ehrman. Second language research on individual differences [J]. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 13 (1993): 188-205.
Price, M. L. The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews with high anxious student [A]. Foreign Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research Classroom Implication. Eds. Horwitz, K., Young, D. J. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991:101-108.
Proulx, P. Anxiety in language learning: Recognition and Prevention [J]. Canadian Journal of Native Education 18 (1991): 21-30.
Reid, J. Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom [M]. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1995.
Richards J. C., Schmidt R., Kendrick and Y. Kim. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics [Z]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.
Rivers, W. M. The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher [M]. Oxford: OUP, 1964.
Samimy, K. and J. D. Rardin. Learners’ affective reactions to community language learning: A descriptive study [J]. Foreign Language Annals 27 (1994): 221-32.
Sarason, I. G. Ed. Text anxiety: Theory, research and application [C]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980.
Schumann, J. H. Affective factors and the problem of age in second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 25 (1975): 24-35.
Scarcella, R. C. and Oxford, R. L. The tapestry of language learning: the individual in the communicative classroom [M]. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1992.
Scovel, T. The effect of affect on foreign language learning: A review of the anxiety research [J]. Language Learning 28 (1978): 129-42.
Skehan, P. Task-based instruction [J]. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 18 (1998): 268-286.
Spielberger, C. Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory [M]. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1983.
Stevick, E. W. Teaching language: A way and ways [M]. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1980.
Swain, M., and B. Burnaby. Personality characteristics and second language learning in young child [J]. Working Papers in Bilingualism 11 (1976): 115-128.
Thornbury, S. How to Teach Grammar [M]. Beijing: World Affairs Press, 2003.
Tobias, S. Anxiety research in educational psychology [J]. Journal of Education Psychology 71 (1979): 573-82.
Trylong, V. L. Aptitude, attitudes, and anxiety: A study of their relationships to achievement [J]. Modern Language Journal 61 (1987): 325-36.
Tucker, R., Hamayan, E. and F. H. Genesess. Affective, cognitive, and social factors in second language acquisition [J]. Canadian Modern Review 32 (1976): 214-26.
Williams, K. Anxiety and formal / foreign language learning [J]. RELC Journal 22 (1991): 142-51.
Williams, M., and R. L. Burden. Psychology for Language Teachers: A social constructivist approach [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.
Willis, J. The Framework for Task-based Learning [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Wu Guanyu. Options in Coping with Foreign Language Anxiety [J]. CALEA Journal 29.3 (2006): 29-44.
Young, D. J. Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: what does the language anxiety research suggest? [J]. Modern Language Journal 75 (1991): 247-56.
Young, D. J. Language anxiety from the foreign language specialist’s perspective: Interviews with Krashen, Omaggio, Terrel and Rardin [J]. Foreign Language Annals 25 (1992): 89-102.
李炯英. 外语学习焦虑的心理学和精神生物学分析 [J]. 天津外国语学院学报2004 (7): 59-62.
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Arnold, J. Affect in Language Learning [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1999.
Alpert, R., and R, Haber. Anxiety in academic achievement situations [J]. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 61 (1960): 207-215.
Bailey, K. H. Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning: Looking at and through the diary studies [A]. Classroom-oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Eds. Seliger, H.W., and M.H. Long. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983.
Beebe, L. M. Risktaking and the language learner [A]. Classroom-oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Eds. Seliger, H. W., and M. H. Long. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1983.
Branden, N. How to raise your self-esteem [M]. New York: Bantam Books, 1987.
Brown, H. D. Affective variables in second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 23 (1973): 231-244.
Canfield, J., and H.C. Wells. 100 ways to enhance self-concept in the classroom [M]. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994.
Casado, M. A. Foreign language anxiety of university students [J]. College Students Journal 35 (2001): 78-84.
Chastain, K. Affective and ability factor in second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 25 (1975): 153-61.
Cheng, Y. S., Horwitz, E. K. and D. L. Schaller. Language anxiety: Differentiating writing and speaking components [J]. Language Learning 49 (1999): 104-18.
Curran, C. A. Counseling-learning in second language [M]. Apple River, IL: Apple River Press, 1976.
Daly, J.A., and M.D. Miller. The empirical development of an instrument of writing apprehension [J]. Research in the Teaching of English 9 (1975): 115-128.
Ehrman, M and R. Oxford. Cognition plus: Correlates of adult language proficiency [J]. Modern Language Journal 79 (1995): 131-43.
Ellis, R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford: OUP, 1994.
Ely, C. M. An analysis of discomfort, risktaking, sociability, and motivation in the L2 classroom [J]. Language Learning 36 (1986): 1-25.
Eysenck, M. W. Anxiety, learning and memory: A reconceptulization [J]. Journal of Research in Personality 13 (1979): 363-385.
Friedman, P. G. Shyness and reticence in students [M]. Washington, D. C: National Education Association, 1980.
Freud, S. The essentials of psycho-analysis [M]. London: Hogarth Press, 1986.
Gardner, R. C. Social psychological and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation [M]. London: Edward Arnold, 1985.
Gardner, R. C. and P. D. MacIntyre. On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning [J]. Language Learning 43 (1993): 152-74.
Gardner, R. C. and P. D. MacIntyre. The measurement of anxiety and application to second language learning: An annotated bibliography [M]. London: University of Western Ontario, 1988.
Gardner, R. C., and W. E. Lambert. Attitudes and Motivation in L2 Learning [M]. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1972.
Goleman, D. Emotional Intelligence [M]. New York: Bantam Books, 1995.
Guiora, A. Z. The dialectic of language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 33 (1983): 204-19.
Heyde, A. The relationship between self-esteem and the oral production of a second language [J]. Modern Language Journal 72 (1979): 283-294.
Hilgard, E., Atkinson, J. and L. Atkinson. Introduction to Psychology [M]. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1971.
Horwitz, E. K. Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of a foreign language anxiety scale [J]. TESOL Quarterly 20 (1986): 55-67.
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B. and J. Cope. Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety [J]. Modern Language Journal 70 (1986): 27-36.
Horwitz, E. K., and D. J. Young., eds. Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research to Classroom Implications [C]. London: Prentice-Hall International Ltd, 1991.
Kagan, S. Cooperative Learning [M]. Capiswtrano, CA: Prometheus Nemesis, 1994.
Kleinmann, H. Avoidance behavior in adult second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 27 (1977): 93-107.
Koch, A. and T. Terrel. Affective reactions of foreign language students to natural approach activities and teaching techniques [M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991.
Krashen, S. D. Second language acquisition and second language learning [M]. Oxford: Pergamon, 1981.
Leary, M. Understanding Social Anxiety: Social, Personality, and Clinic Perspectives [M]. Beverly Hills: Sage, 1983.
Ledoux, J. The Emotional Brain [M]. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996.
Levitt, E. E. The psychology of anxiety [M]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1981.
Littlewood, W. Foreign and second language learning: Language acquisition research and its implications for the classroom [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1984.
Long, M. H. and P. A. Porter. Group work, interlanguage talk, and second language learning [J]. TESOL Quarterly 19 (1985): 207-228.
MacIntyre, P. D. and R. C. Gardner. Methods and results in the study of anxiety and language learning [J]. Language Learning 41 (1991a): 78-94.
MacIntyre, P. D. and R. C. Gardner. Language anxiety: Its relationship to other anxieties and to processing in native and second language [J]. Language Learning 41 (1991b): 45-58.
MacIntyre, P. D. and R. C. Gardner. The effects of induced anxiety on three stages of cognitive processing in computerized vocabulary learning [J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16 (1994a): 257-71.
MacIntyre, P. D. and R. C. Gardner. The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in second language [J]. Language Learning 44 (1994b): 221-40.
McCroskey, J. C. and J. A. Daley. Eds. Personality and Interpersonal Communication [C]. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1987.
Oxford, R. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know [M]. New York: Newbury House/Harper and Row, 1990.
Oxford, R. L. and M. Ehrman. Second language research on individual differences [J]. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 13 (1993): 188-205.
Price, M. L. The subjective experience of foreign language anxiety: Interviews with high anxious student [A]. Foreign Language Anxiety: From Theory and Research Classroom Implication. Eds. Horwitz, K., Young, D. J. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991:101-108.
Proulx, P. Anxiety in language learning: Recognition and Prevention [J]. Canadian Journal of Native Education 18 (1991): 21-30.
Reid, J. Learning Styles in the ESL/EFL Classroom [M]. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1995.
Richards J. C., Schmidt R., Kendrick and Y. Kim. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics [Z]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2003.
Rivers, W. M. The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher [M]. Oxford: OUP, 1964.
Samimy, K. and J. D. Rardin. Learners’ affective reactions to community language learning: A descriptive study [J]. Foreign Language Annals 27 (1994): 221-32.
Sarason, I. G. Ed. Text anxiety: Theory, research and application [C]. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980.
Schumann, J. H. Affective factors and the problem of age in second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 25 (1975): 24-35.
Scarcella, R. C. and Oxford, R. L. The tapestry of language learning: the individual in the communicative classroom [M]. Boston: Heinle and Heinle, 1992.
Scovel, T. The effect of affect on foreign language learning: A review of the anxiety research [J]. Language Learning 28 (1978): 129-42.
Skehan, P. Task-based instruction [J]. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 18 (1998): 268-286.
Spielberger, C. Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory [M]. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1983.
Stevick, E. W. Teaching language: A way and ways [M]. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 1980.
Swain, M., and B. Burnaby. Personality characteristics and second language learning in young child [J]. Working Papers in Bilingualism 11 (1976): 115-128.
Thornbury, S. How to Teach Grammar [M]. Beijing: World Affairs Press, 2003.
Tobias, S. Anxiety research in educational psychology [J]. Journal of Education Psychology 71 (1979): 573-82.
Trylong, V. L. Aptitude, attitudes, and anxiety: A study of their relationships to achievement [J]. Modern Language Journal 61 (1987): 325-36.
Tucker, R., Hamayan, E. and F. H. Genesess. Affective, cognitive, and social factors in second language acquisition [J]. Canadian Modern Review 32 (1976): 214-26.
Williams, K. Anxiety and formal / foreign language learning [J]. RELC Journal 22 (1991): 142-51.
Williams, M., and R. L. Burden. Psychology for Language Teachers: A social constructivist approach [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000.
Willis, J. The Framework for Task-based Learning [M]. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Wu Guanyu. Options in Coping with Foreign Language Anxiety [J]. CALEA Journal 29.3 (2006): 29-44.
Young, D. J. Creating a low-anxiety classroom environment: what does the language anxiety research suggest? [J]. Modern Language Journal 75 (1991): 247-56.
Young, D. J. Language anxiety from the foreign language specialist’s perspective: Interviews with Krashen, Omaggio, Terrel and Rardin [J]. Foreign Language Annals 25 (1992): 89-102.
李炯英. 外语学习焦虑的心理学和精神生物学分析 [J]. 天津外国语学院学报2004 (7): 59-62.
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