美国公共住房政策的演变
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摘要
本文试图全面回顾美国城市住房政策的发展历程,重点讨论低收入阶层住房政策的演变,并对联邦政府三种主要住房保障方式——正统公共住房计划、补贴住房建设计划和房租补贴计划进行深入考察。
绪论简要回顾国内外学术界对美国公共住房政策的相关研究和代表性观点,对住房保障和公共住房一些基本问题做出说明,最后点明本文研究的主要思路、方法和意义。
第一章主要叙述19世纪末20世纪初以改善低收入阶层住房为目标的公共住房想法的产生过程,并考察一战时期联邦首次公共住房建设的情况。
第二章分析美国新政时期住房政策产生的背景,重点考察公共工程局主持下的公共住房工程与1937年美国住房法实施下的公共住房建设计划。
第三章集中讨论美国城市更新运动中的联邦公共住房政策.无论是1949年住房法还是1954年住房法,在城市贫民窟清理方面都取得了明显的进展,但低收入阶层住房的再建工作却未得到足够的重视。
第四章探讨20世纪60年代出台的两种新型住房补贴计划。一种是1965年住房法推出的直接面向住房需求方的房租援助计划;另一种是1968年住房法推出的面向住房供应领域的补贴住房建设计划。
第五章讨论1974年住房法推出的第8条款存量住房计划(也称租金证明计划)。该计划标志着联邦住房政策由住房供应领域向住房需求领域的重大转变。
第六章考察80年代以来房租补贴类计划、HOPE VI计划和其他联邦住房政策的新动向。1984年出现的租金优惠券计划与租金证明计划相似,不同之处在于前者的住房选择范围更宽。1998年实施的住房选择优惠券计划将这两项计划正式合并。而1992年出台的HOPE VI计划则是专门负责改善严重衰败的公共住房的一项全国性计划。
第七章比较和评估三种住房保障方式(正统公共住房计划、补贴住房建设计划和房租补贴计划)在实现住房供应与住房公平两个基本政策实施目标方面的能力。
第八章概述世界其他国家(地区)的主要住房政策,并在更广泛的领域内对比三种住房保障方式。
结语总结了导致美国低收入阶层住房政策演变的主要因素,并提出了如何善加利用不同类型住房保障方式的意见。
This dissertation is an attempt to describe and highlight the process and dynamics of the urban housing policy of the United States. It will focus principally on changes of low-income housing policy, and examine the three federal housing guarantee modes, including the public housing program, the housing construction subsidy program and the rental subsidy program.
The dissertation begins with an introduction which includes a review of the literature, a brief analysis on the housing guarantee and public housing, and an explanation of main ideas, methods and significance of this research.
Chapter 1 describes the idea of public housing which was derived from late-nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century designs for better housing the urban low-income families, and examines the birth of federal housing policies during World War I.
Chapter 2 carries the housing story into the Great Depression-New Deal era. It analyzes the origins of New Deal housing policies, and emphasizes the public housing programs under the Public Works Administration, and the public housing projects initiated by the first public housing act of the United States enacted in 1937.
Chapter 3 focuses on the federal public housing programs in urban renewal. The policymaker opted for slum clearance with the passage of major housing acts in 1949 (urban redevelopment) and 1954 (urban renewal), while the provision of low-income housing assumed secondary importance.
Chapter 4 analyzes two new types of federal housing subsidy programs during the 1960s. One was a direct demand-side subsidy program named "the rent supplement program" and initiated by the Housing Act of 1965, the other was a supply-side subsidy program that offered subsidies for builders to supply decent housing for low- and moderate-income families by the Housing Act of 1968.
Chapter 5 discusses the section 8 Existing Housing Program (also known as the rental certificate program) authorized by the Housing Act of 1974. It signaled a significant shift in the federal housing strategy from supply-side housing subsidy programs to demand-side approaches.
Chapter 6 explores the rental voucher program, the housing choice voucher program, the HOPE VI program, and other new directions of federal housing policy since 1980. The rental voucher program since 1984 was similar to the rental certificate program, but it allowed families more options in housing selection. The housing choice voucher program since 1998 finally combined the Certificate and Voucher Programs. The HOPE VI program since 1992 was a national action plan to improve the severely distressed public housing.
Chapter 7 compares and assesses the abilities of the three housing guarantee modes (the public housing program, the demand-side subsidy program and the supply-side subsidy program) to meet supply objectives and equity objectives.
Chapter 8 provides an overview of the main national(regional)housingpolicies in other countries(reg i ons), and compares the three housing guarantee modes in a more extensive field.
Epilogue summarizes the main factors which affected the changes of the federal low-income housing policy, and provides some suggestions on how to utilize the different types of housing guarantee modes.
绪论简要回顾国内外学术界对美国公共住房政策的相关研究和代表性观点,对住房保障和公共住房一些基本问题做出说明,最后点明本文研究的主要思路、方法和意义。
第一章主要叙述19世纪末20世纪初以改善低收入阶层住房为目标的公共住房想法的产生过程,并考察一战时期联邦首次公共住房建设的情况。
第二章分析美国新政时期住房政策产生的背景,重点考察公共工程局主持下的公共住房工程与1937年美国住房法实施下的公共住房建设计划。
第三章集中讨论美国城市更新运动中的联邦公共住房政策.无论是1949年住房法还是1954年住房法,在城市贫民窟清理方面都取得了明显的进展,但低收入阶层住房的再建工作却未得到足够的重视。
第四章探讨20世纪60年代出台的两种新型住房补贴计划。一种是1965年住房法推出的直接面向住房需求方的房租援助计划;另一种是1968年住房法推出的面向住房供应领域的补贴住房建设计划。
第五章讨论1974年住房法推出的第8条款存量住房计划(也称租金证明计划)。该计划标志着联邦住房政策由住房供应领域向住房需求领域的重大转变。
第六章考察80年代以来房租补贴类计划、HOPE VI计划和其他联邦住房政策的新动向。1984年出现的租金优惠券计划与租金证明计划相似,不同之处在于前者的住房选择范围更宽。1998年实施的住房选择优惠券计划将这两项计划正式合并。而1992年出台的HOPE VI计划则是专门负责改善严重衰败的公共住房的一项全国性计划。
第七章比较和评估三种住房保障方式(正统公共住房计划、补贴住房建设计划和房租补贴计划)在实现住房供应与住房公平两个基本政策实施目标方面的能力。
第八章概述世界其他国家(地区)的主要住房政策,并在更广泛的领域内对比三种住房保障方式。
结语总结了导致美国低收入阶层住房政策演变的主要因素,并提出了如何善加利用不同类型住房保障方式的意见。
This dissertation is an attempt to describe and highlight the process and dynamics of the urban housing policy of the United States. It will focus principally on changes of low-income housing policy, and examine the three federal housing guarantee modes, including the public housing program, the housing construction subsidy program and the rental subsidy program.
The dissertation begins with an introduction which includes a review of the literature, a brief analysis on the housing guarantee and public housing, and an explanation of main ideas, methods and significance of this research.
Chapter 1 describes the idea of public housing which was derived from late-nineteenth-century and early-twentieth-century designs for better housing the urban low-income families, and examines the birth of federal housing policies during World War I.
Chapter 2 carries the housing story into the Great Depression-New Deal era. It analyzes the origins of New Deal housing policies, and emphasizes the public housing programs under the Public Works Administration, and the public housing projects initiated by the first public housing act of the United States enacted in 1937.
Chapter 3 focuses on the federal public housing programs in urban renewal. The policymaker opted for slum clearance with the passage of major housing acts in 1949 (urban redevelopment) and 1954 (urban renewal), while the provision of low-income housing assumed secondary importance.
Chapter 4 analyzes two new types of federal housing subsidy programs during the 1960s. One was a direct demand-side subsidy program named "the rent supplement program" and initiated by the Housing Act of 1965, the other was a supply-side subsidy program that offered subsidies for builders to supply decent housing for low- and moderate-income families by the Housing Act of 1968.
Chapter 5 discusses the section 8 Existing Housing Program (also known as the rental certificate program) authorized by the Housing Act of 1974. It signaled a significant shift in the federal housing strategy from supply-side housing subsidy programs to demand-side approaches.
Chapter 6 explores the rental voucher program, the housing choice voucher program, the HOPE VI program, and other new directions of federal housing policy since 1980. The rental voucher program since 1984 was similar to the rental certificate program, but it allowed families more options in housing selection. The housing choice voucher program since 1998 finally combined the Certificate and Voucher Programs. The HOPE VI program since 1992 was a national action plan to improve the severely distressed public housing.
Chapter 7 compares and assesses the abilities of the three housing guarantee modes (the public housing program, the demand-side subsidy program and the supply-side subsidy program) to meet supply objectives and equity objectives.
Chapter 8 provides an overview of the main national(regional)housingpolicies in other countries(reg i ons), and compares the three housing guarantee modes in a more extensive field.
Epilogue summarizes the main factors which affected the changes of the federal low-income housing policy, and provides some suggestions on how to utilize the different types of housing guarantee modes.
引文
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[1]Kevin Fox Gotham.Separate and Unequal:The Housing Act of 1968 and the Section 235 Program[J].Sociological Forum,2000,(1):13-37;R.Allen Hays.The Federal Government and Urban Housing:Ideology and Change in Public Policy[M].Albany:State University of New York Press,1985;Morton J.Schussheim.Toward a New Housing Policy:The Legacy of Sixties[M].New York:Committee for Economic Development,1969;Willem van Vliet,ed.The Encyclopedia of Housing[C].Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage Publication,1998.
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[7]笔者收集到的美国学者从总体上对公共住房政策进行研究的论著主要有:Elizabeth Wood.The Beautiful Beginnings,The Failure to Learn:Fifty Years of Public Housing in America[M].Washington,D.C.:National Center for Housing Management,1982;J.Paul Mitchell.ed.Federal Housing Policy and Programs:Past and Present[C].New Brunswick:Rutgers University Center for Urban Policy Research,1985;John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylvian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes:In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America[C].University Park:The Pennsylvania State University Press,2000.关于公共住房的形象问题的有:A.Scott Henderson."Tarred with the Exceptional Image":Public Housing and Popular Discourse,1950-1990[J].American Studies,1995,(1):31-52;June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf,eds.Urban Planning and the African American Community[C].Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage Publications,1996;Arnold R.Hirsch,"Containment" on the Home Front:Race and Federal Housing Policy from the New Deal to the Cold War[J].Journal of Urban History,2000,(1):158-189.个案研究类有对波士顿公共住房的个案研究:Lawrence J.Vale.From the Puritans to the Projects:Public Housing and Public Neighbors[M].Harvard University Press,2000,还有对费城的个案研究:John F.Banman.Public Housing,Race,and Renewal:Urban Planning in Philadelphia,1920-1974[M].Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1987.
[1]Lawrence J.Vale.From the Puritans to the Projects:Public Housing and Public Neighbors[M].Harvard University Press,2000.
[2]John F.Bauman.Public Housing,Race,and Renewal:Urban Planning in Philadelphia,1920-1974[M].Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1987.
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[3]William Moore.The Vertical Ghetto:Every Day Life in an Urban Project[M].New York:Random House,1969;Lee Rainwater.Behind Ghetto Walls:Black Family Life in a Federal Slum[M].Chicago:Aldine,1970;and Harrison Salisbury.The Shook-Up Generation:Problam Youngsters Spring from the Housing Jungle[N].New York Times,1958-3-26.
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[3]成立于1933年10月,隶属于公共工程局。其后担任新政初期著名公共住房计划--威廉斯堡住宅区工程首席建筑师的里士满·H.施里夫(Richmond H.Shreve)被任命为该委员会负责人。
[4]Landmarks Preservation Con-anission.A Public Hearing Report on the Proposed Designation of the Williamsburg Houses[EB/01].http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/reports/willhouse.pdf,2008-3-4.
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[1]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].pp.76-77.
[2]Editors of Fortune.Housing America[Z].New York:Harcourt Brace,1932.pp.6-24.
[1]Alexander Von Hoffman.A Study in Contradictions:The Origins and Legacy of the Housing Act of 1949[EB/01].http://www.mi.vt.edu/data/files/hpd%2011(2)/hpd%2011(2)_von%20hoffman.pdf,2006-08-07.
[2]Cathering Bauer,Modern Housing[M].
[3]Martin Meyerson and Edward C.Banfield.Politics,Planning,and the Public Interest[M].p.116.
[1]Lawrence M.Friedman.Govecnment and Slum Housing[M].p.105.
[2]Alexander Von Hoffman.A Study in Contradiction[EB/01].http://www.mi.vt.edu/data/files/hpd%2011(2)/hpd%2011(2)_von%20hoffman.pdf,2006-08-07.
[3]Paul R.Lusignan.Public Housing in the United States,1933-1949[EB/01].http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/25-01/25-01-16.pdf,2005-12-1.
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.HUD Historical Background[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/admguide,/history.cfm,2006-1-2.
[2]Mason C.Doan American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].p.192.
[1]Paul R.Lusignan.Public Housing in the United States,1933-1949[EB/01].http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/25-01/25-01-16.pdf,2005-12-1.
[2]Charles Abrams.Revolution in Land[M].New York:Harper & Bros,1939.p.63.
[3]公共住房管理机构(PHAs)指的是美国各州或地方政府一级的住房管理机构,负责执行联邦政府的低收入公共住房计划或与之相关的开发与管理项目。参见:Public Housing Authorities[EB/01].http://www.knowledgeplex.org/topic.htmi?e=288,2008-3-12.
[4]美国各地的PHAs不仅成立时间上有先有后,而且规模大小也严重失衡。据统计,90年代全美约3400个PHAs负责管理和执行各类公共住房计划,多数PHAs规模很小,但排名靠前的PHAs规模却很大。小型PHAs占PHAs总数的86%,仅管理公共住房总量的26%,且每个机构所管理的房产不超过500套;中型PHAs占PHAs总数的8%,管理公共住房总量的15%,平均每个机构所管理的房产在500至1250套之间;大型PHAs仅占PHAs总数的2%,却管理了公共住房总量的18%,平均每个机构所管理的房产在2501至9000套之间。1991年,排名前16位的PHAs负责全美公共住房总量的30%,平均每个机构所管理的房产都超过9000套.参见:Rachel G Bratt.Public Housing Authorities:Determining an Appropriate Role in a National Preservation Strategy[J].Housing Policy Debate,1991,(2):535-555.
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[3]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.87.
[1]Paul R.Lusignan.Public Housing in the United States,1933-1949[EB/01].http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/25-01/25-01-16.pdf,2005-12-1.
[2]1939年,该署根据罗斯福总统《政府改组法》(the Reorganization Act of 1939)转为联邦工程局(Federal Works Agency)。详见:U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.HUD Historical Background [EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/admguide./history.cfm.2006-1-2.
[3]Jon C.Tcaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.87.
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[2]Jennifer Bleyer.Beyond the Buzz,Red Hook Remembers[EB/01].http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/20/nyregion/thecity/20time.html?_r=1&oref=-slogin,2008-3-4
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[2]U.S.Bureau of the Census.Current Population Reports,Housing,Series P-70,No.1[R].Housing Characteristics of the United States,1947.p.25.
[3]前身是建于1909年的费城住房委员会(Philaddphia Housing Commission,简称PHC),1916年以后改称费城住房协会.
[4]John F.Bauman.Public Housing,Race and Renewal:Urban Planning in Philadelphia,1920-1974[M].p.50.
[1]Mason C.Doan,American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].pp.53-55.
[2]Franklin D.Roosevelt.Executive Order 8632 Coordinating National Defense Housing,January 11th,1941[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16136,2008-3-1.
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[1]Scott Gelber.A "Hard-Boiled Order":The Reeducation of Disabled WWI Veterans in New York City.Journal of Social History,2005,(3),pp.161-180.
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[3]退伍军人管理局于1930年7月21日根据胡佛总统第5398号行政命令成立,详见:Herbert Hoover.Executive Order 5398 Establishing the Veterans'Administration,July 21st,1930[EB/01]。http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=75311,2006-3-27.该机构直到1989年3月15日才由新成立的退伍军人事务部(Oepartment of Veterans Affairs)取代。
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[2]Harry S.Truman.Message to the Congress on the State of the Union and the Budget for 1947,January 21st,1946[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=12467&st=Truman&stl=housing,2008-3-28.
[1]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.120.
[2]Maryland at a Glance:Historical Chronology 1900-1999[EB/01].http://www.msa.md.gov/msa/mdmanual/01glance/chron/html/chron19.html,2008-4-19.
[1]Jon C.Teaford.The Rough Road to Renaissance[M].p.107.
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[2]Nathaniel S.Keith.Politics and the Housing Crisis since 1930[M];Mark I.Gelfand.A Nation of Cities[M].
[1]Richard O.Davies.Housing Reform during the Truman Administration[M].p.68.
[2]Barry Gullingworth and Roger W.Caves.Planning in the USA-Policies,Issues and Processes[M].Routledge,2003.p.285;Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.261;Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162;Charles J.Orlebeke.The Evolution of Low-Income Housing Policy,1949-1999[EB/01].http://www.fanniemaefoundation.org/programs/hpd/pdf/hpd_1102_orlebeke.pdf,2001-4-10.
[3]Howard P.Chudacoff.ed.Major Problem in American Urban History[C].p.355;Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162.
[1]Howard P.Chudacoff.ed.Major Problem in American Urban History[C].p.352.
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[3]Robert E.Lang and Rebecca R.Sohmer.Legacy of the Housing Act of 1949:The Past,Present,and Future of Federal Housing and Urban Policy[J].Housing Policy Debate,2000,(2):291-297.
[1]Samuel E.Trotter.A Study of Public Housing in the United States[J].The Journal of Finance,1958,(3):429-430.
[2]Howard P.Chudacoff.ed.Major Problem in American Urban History[C].p.354.
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[5]黄安年.美国政府的住房福利保障政策[J].山东师大学报(社会科学版),1998,(4).
[1]Howard P.Chudacoffand Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.261.
[2]Kenneth Fox.Metropolitan America[M].p.98;另见Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.261;Barry Gullingworth and Roger W.Caves.Planning in the USA-Policies,Issues and Processes[M].p.286.
[1]George C.Galster.The Challenges Facing Public Housing Authorities in a Brave New World[J].Housing Policy Debate,1997,(3):535-569.
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[1]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162
[2]Robert Caro.The Power Broker.Robert Moses and the Fall of New York[M].New York:Vintage Books,2004.pp.7-8.
[3]成立于1973年的地方公共住房机构。详见:Encyclopedia of Chicago[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/3712.html,2008-4-19.
[4]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162.
[5]Erik Gellman.Robert Taylor Homes[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2478.html,2008-3-10.
[6]Bradford Hunt.What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes [EB/01].http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3945/is_200104/ai_n8939181,2008-3-10.
[1]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162.
[2]Erik Gellman.Robert Taylor Homes[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2478.html,2008-3-10.
[3]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162.
[1]Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].pp.53-55.
[2]Richard O.Davies.Housing Reform during the Truman Administration[M].pp.18-20.
[3]1908年5月成立于芝加哥的全美规模最大、最具影响力的房地产行业组织,最初名为全美房地产交易协会(Nationai Association of Real Estate Exchange)。
[4]Charles Abrams.Forbiddan Neighbors:A Study of Prejudice in Housing[M].Fort Washington:Kennikat,1971.p.154.
[1]Robert E.Lang and Rebecca R.Sohmer.Legacy of the Housing Act of 1949[J].Housing Policy Debate,2000,(2):291-297.
[2]Roger Montgomery.Pruitt-Igoe.Policy Failure or Societal Symptom[A]in Barry Checkoway and Carl V.Patton.yds.The Metropolitan Midwest,Policy Problems and Prospects for Change[C].Urbana and Chicago:University of Illinois Press,1985.pp.229-243.
[3]成立于1952年的地方公共住房机构.
[4]Alexander von Hoffman,Why They Built the Pruitt-Igoe Project[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.180-205.
[1]John M.Levy.Contemporary urban planning[M].Upper Saddle River,N.J.:Prentice Hall,1997.p.187.
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[4]Kenneth Fox.Metropolitan America[M].p.2.
[5]U.S.National Housing Agency.Third Annual Report[R].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1945.p.32.
[6]Kristin M.Szylvian.The Federal Housing Program During World War Ⅱ[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.121-138.
[1]Howard P.Chudacoffand Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.259.
[2]Erik Gellman.Robert Taylor Homes[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2478.html,2008-3-10.
[1]Coulibaly Modibo,Rodney D.Green and David M.James.Segregation in Federally Subsidized Low Income Housing in the United States[M].New York:Greenwood Publishing Group,Inc.,1998.p.63-64.
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[1]John F.Kennedy.Executive Order 11063 Equal Opportunity in Housing,November 20th,1962[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=59002&st=kennedy&stl=11063,2008-3-15.
[2]The United States Commission on Civil Rights.The Federal Fair Housing Enforcement Effort[R].Washington D.C.,1979.p.3.
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[1]Lynn W.Eleyand and Thomas W.Casstevens.The Politics of Fair- Housing Legislation[M].p.27.
[2]Lynn W.Eleyand and Thomas W.Casstevens.The Politics of Fair- Housing Legislation[M].p.7.
[3]排斥性分区(exclusionary zoning)指的是在一些居住用地的分区中,由于分区开发被限制不得低于一定用地规模,如果这种限制过高,会对低收入家庭或某特殊类型家庭进入该社区形成一种捧斥。纽约市是公认的第一个颁布现代分区条例(zoning Regulation)的城市,自1916年通过《纽约市区划法决议》以来,区划不断完善,并对全美甚至世界各国城市发展产生了巨大的影响。在美国,房地产税是美国地方政府主要经济来源之一,房地产税是以区划为基础进行计算的.区划主要通过最小用地规模和容积率来控制,其中最小用地规模用来确保该地区新开发的项目能够达到征税的最小值。在现有的规划条件和平均利润水平下,低于该规模的开发将不能为地方财政做出贡献,因而是被限制的。由此产生的分区称为财政分区(Fiscal Zoning),即区划捧斥那些可能给地方财政带来负担的开发。在效率与公平的取舍上,这种方式保证了效率,维护该地区整体财政利益。但也由此带来了一些不公平,尤其是对于低收入家庭而言基本上被捧除在该地区之外.
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[2]根据HUD Office of Budget数据计算.HUD Office of Budget数据转引自:Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000:A Concise History[M].p.192.
[1]根据HUD Office of Budget数据计算.HUD Office of Budget数据转引自:Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000:A Concise History[M].p.192.
[1]刘绪贻.战后美国史1945-2000[M].第355-356页.
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[3]成立于1942年,是美国最大的住房产业组织之一,由800多个州或地方一级的小协会组成,总部设在华盛顿特区。详见:National Association of Home Builder[EB/01].http://www.nahb.org/。
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.The President's 1995 National Urban Policy Report [EB/01].http://www.huduser.org/publications/polleg/tsoc.html,2007-6-1.
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[4]成立于1974年,致力于解决无家可归和贫困问题、位于华盛顿特区的非政府组织。详见:National Low-Income Housing Coalition[EB/01].http://www.nlihc.org/template/index.cfm。
[1]Judith Serrin.The Department of Housing and Urban Development under Jack Kemp[A]in Jess Lederman ed.Housing America[C].pp.167-174.
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[1]根据HUD Office of Budget数据计算.HUD Office of Budget数据转引自:Mason C.Doan,American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].p.192.
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[6]Anthony Downs.The Success and Failure of Federal Housing Policy[J].The Public Interest,1974,(4):135-136;J.Paul Mitchell.Historical Overview of Direct Federal Housing Assistance[A]in J.Paul Mitchell ed.Federal Housing Policy and Programs,Past and Present[C].New Brunswick,N.J.:Center for Urban Policy Research,1985.p.195;Anthony Jackson.A Place Called Home:A History of Low-Cost Housing in Manhattan [M].Cambridge,Mass.:MIT Press,1976.
[1]Kevin Fox Gotham.Separate and Unequal:The Housing Act of 1968 and the Section 235 Program[J].Sociological Forum,2000,(1):13-37;R.Allen Hays.The Federal Government and Urban Housing:Ideology and Change in Public Policy[M].Albany:State University of New York Press,1985;Morton J.Schussheim.Toward a New Housing Policy:The Legacy of Sixties[M].New York:Committee for Economic Development,1969;Willem van Vliet,ed.The Encyclopedia of Housing[C].Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage Publication,1998.
[2]Henry J.Aaron.Shelter and Subsidies:Who Benefits from Federal Housing Policies?[M].Washington,D.C.:the Brookings Institution,1972;Jon C.Teaford.The Rough Road to Renaissance:Urban Revitalization in America,1940-1980[M].Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1990.
[3]Devereaus Bowly Jr.The Poorhouse:Subsidized Housing in Chicago,1895-1976[M].Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press,1978;John F.Bauman.Public Housing,Race and Renewal:Urban Planning in Philadelphia,1920-1974[M].Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1987.
[1]Scott Susin.Rent vouchers and the price of low income housing[J].Journal of Public Economics,2002,(1):109-152.
[2]Michacl E.Stoue.Shelter Poverty:.New Ideus on Housing Affordability[M].Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1993;Alex F.Schwartz.Housing Policy in the United Stated:An Introduction[M].Routledge,2006.
[3]R.Allen Hays.The Federal Government and Urban Housing:Ideology and Change in Public Policy[M].Albany:State University of New York Press,1985;Rachel G Bratt,Chester Hartman,and Ann Meyerson.eds.Critical Perspectives on Housing[C]Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1986.
[4]Lawrence J.Vale and Thomas J.Campanella eds.The Resilient City:.How Modem Cities Recover from Disaster[C].Oxford University Press,2005;Lawrence J.Vale.Reclaiming Public Housing:A Half Century of Straggle in Three Public Neighborhoods[M].Harvard University Press,2002.
[5]John Goering,All Kamely,and Todd Richardson.Recent Research on Racial Segregation and Poverty Concentration in Public Housing in the United States[J].Urban Affairs Review,1997,(5):723-745;Arnold R.Hirsch,"Containment" on the Home Front:Race and Federal Housing Policy from the New Deal to the Cold War[J].Journal of Urban History,2000,(1):158-189;William Julius Wilson.The Truly Disadvantaged:The Inner City,The Underclass,and Public Policy[M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1987;David Batelt.Housing the Underclass[A]in Michael Katz ed.The Underclass Debate:Views from History[C].Princeton:Princeton University Press,1993.pp.118-157;Douglas S.Massey and Nancy A.Denton.American Apartheid:Segregation and the Making of the Underclass[M].Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1993;David Rusk.Inside Game,Outside Game:Winning Strategies for Saving Urban America[M].Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution Press,1999.
[6]Kevin Fox Gotham.Suburbia under Siege:Low-Income Housing and Racial Conflict in Metropolitan Kansas City,1970-1990[J].Sociological Spectrum,1998,(4):449-483;Kevin Fox Gotham.Blind Faith in the Free Market:Urban Poverty,Residential Segregation,and Federal Housing Retrenchment,1970-1995[J].Sociological Inquiry,1998,(1):1-31.
[7]笔者收集到的美国学者从总体上对公共住房政策进行研究的论著主要有:Elizabeth Wood.The Beautiful Beginnings,The Failure to Learn:Fifty Years of Public Housing in America[M].Washington,D.C.:National Center for Housing Management,1982;J.Paul Mitchell.ed.Federal Housing Policy and Programs:Past and Present[C].New Brunswick:Rutgers University Center for Urban Policy Research,1985;John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylvian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes:In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America[C].University Park:The Pennsylvania State University Press,2000.关于公共住房的形象问题的有:A.Scott Henderson."Tarred with the Exceptional Image":Public Housing and Popular Discourse,1950-1990[J].American Studies,1995,(1):31-52;June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf,eds.Urban Planning and the African American Community[C].Thousand Oaks,Calif.:Sage Publications,1996;Arnold R.Hirsch,"Containment" on the Home Front:Race and Federal Housing Policy from the New Deal to the Cold War[J].Journal of Urban History,2000,(1):158-189.个案研究类有对波士顿公共住房的个案研究:Lawrence J.Vale.From the Puritans to the Projects:Public Housing and Public Neighbors[M].Harvard University Press,2000,还有对费城的个案研究:John F.Banman.Public Housing,Race,and Renewal:Urban Planning in Philadelphia,1920-1974[M].Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1987.
[1]Lawrence J.Vale.From the Puritans to the Projects:Public Housing and Public Neighbors[M].Harvard University Press,2000.
[2]John F.Bauman.Public Housing,Race,and Renewal:Urban Planning in Philadelphia,1920-1974[M].Philadelphia:Temple University Press,1987.
[1]Subhir Alladi Venkatesh.American Project:The Rise and Fall of a Modem Ghetto[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001.
[2]J.John Palen.The Urban World[M].New York:McGraw-Hill Book Company,Inc.,1987.
[3]William Moore.The Vertical Ghetto:Every Day Life in an Urban Project[M].New York:Random House,1969;Lee Rainwater.Behind Ghetto Walls:Black Family Life in a Federal Slum[M].Chicago:Aldine,1970;and Harrison Salisbury.The Shook-Up Generation:Problam Youngsters Spring from the Housing Jungle[N].New York Times,1958-3-26.
[1]王旭.美国城市史[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2000.
[2]王旭.美国城市发展模式--从城市化到大都市区化[M].北京:清华大学出版社,2006.
[3]黄安年.美国政府的住房福利保障政策--从罗斯福新政到约翰逊“伟大社会”时期[J].山东师大学报(社会科学版),1998,(4);黄安年.当代美国的社会保障政策[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,1998.
[4]梁茂信.都市化时代--20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题[M].长春:东北师范大学出版社,2000.
[5]李艳玲.20世纪30年代美国城市公有住房建设初探[J].华东师范大学学报(哲社版),2003,(7).
[6]苏宁.美国房地产开发商与中心城市改造--以城市更新运动为中心(1949-1974)[D].厦门大学,2005.
[7]黄波.战后初期美国住房问题及政府对策[J].武汉交通管理干部学院学报,2001,(4).
[8]田东海.住房政策:国际经验借鉴和中国现实选择[M].清华大学出版社,1998;谢伏瞻 李培育 刘士余.住宅产业:发展战略与对策[C].北京:中国发展出版社,2000;褚超孚.城镇住房保障模式研究[M].经济科学出版社,2005;童悦仲 娄乃琳 刘美霞等.中外住宅产业对比[C].中国建筑工业出版社,2005等.
[9]李文斌.美国不同时期的住房补贴政策:实施效果的评价及启发[J].城市发展研究,2007,(3);宋博通.20世纪美国低收入阶层住房政策研究[J].深圳大学学报(理工版),2002,(3);宋博通.从公共住房到租金优惠券--美国低收入阶层住房政策演化解析[J].城市规划汇刊,2002,(4).
[1]褚超孚.城镇住房保障模式研究[M].第10-11页.
[2]Jack C.Piano and Milton Greenbery.The American Political Dictionary[Z].Holt,Rinehart and Winston,1979.p.377.
[3]田东海.住房政策[M].第2页.
[1]Samuel E.Trotter.A Study of Public Housing in the United States[J].The Journal of Finance,1958,(3):429-430.
[1]J.John Palen.The Urban World[M].pp.65-66.
[2]Samuel E.Morrison,Henry S.Commager and William E.Leuchtenburg.The Growth of American Republic,Vol.2[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1980.p.266.
[3]U.S.Bureau of Census Historical Statistics of the United States,Colonial Times to 1970[R].Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1975.p.11-12.
[4]Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000:A Concise History[M].University Press of America,Inc.,1997.p.11.
[1]J.John Palen.The Urban World[M].p.70.
[2]Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].p.12.
[1]Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].p.12.
[2]卡尔·戴格勒.一个民族的足迹[M].沈阳:辽宁大学出版社,1991.第351页;Carl Dcglcr.Out ofOur Past:The Forces That Shaped Modern America[M].Now York:Harper＆Row,1970.p.232.
[3]李庆余 周桂银等.美国现代化道路[M].人民出版社,1994.第103页.
[4]Pearl Janet Davies.Real Estate in American History[M].Washington,D.C.:Public Affairs Press,1958.p.139.
[1]U.S.Bureau of Census.Historical Statistics of the United States,Colonial Times to 1970[R].p.640.
[2]The Columbia Encyclopedia.Apartment House[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-apartmen.html,2005-11-2.
[3]Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].p.11.
[4]迈克·E.米勒斯.盖尔·贝伦斯.马克·A.韦斯.房地产开发:原理与程序[M].北京:中信出版社,2003.第142页.
[5]Michael Doucet and John Weaver.Housing the North American City[M].Montreal:McGill-Queen's University Press,1991.p.391.
[1]Samuel E.Morrison,Henry S.Commager and William E.Lenchtenburg.The Growth of American Republic [M].p.272.
[2]Frederic L.Allen.The Big Change:America Transforms Itself,1900-1950[M].New York:Harper,1952.p.4.
[3]Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].p.12.
[4]菲利普·方纳.美国工人运动史:卷1[M].北京:三联书店,1956.第23页。
[1]杨生茂 刘绪贻.美国内战与镀金时代[M].北京:人民出版社,2002.第298页.
[2]Jacob A.Riis.How the Other Half Lives:Studies among the Tenements of New York[EB/01].http://www.yale.edu/amstud/inforev/riis/title.html,2008-4-1.
[3]Andrew Dolkart.The 1901 Tenement Housing Act[EB/01].http://www.tenement.org/fcatures_dolkar2.html,2008-1-20.
[4]梁启超.新大陆游记.北京:社会科学文献出版社,2007.第51页.(该书由李雪涛根据广智书局光绪三十一年至三十三年初版本《欧洲十一国游记》校注。)
[1]Jacob A.Riis.How the Other Half Lives:Studies among the Tenements of New York.Chapter XIII.[EB/01].http://www.yale.edu/amstud/inforev/riis/title.html,2008-4-1.
[1]David P.Telen.Social Tensions and the Origins of Progressivism[J].Journal of American History,1969(2):323-341;Roy Lubove.The Progressives and the Slums:Tenement House Reform in New York City,1890-1917[M].Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press,1962.Chapter 1.
[1]戴安娜·拉维奇.美国读本[M].三联书店,1995.第492-493页.
[2]Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].Upper Saddle giver,New Jersey:Pearson Education.Inc.,6th ed.,2005.p.187.
[3]John F.Banman,Public Housing,Race,and Renewal:Urban Planning in Philadelphia 1920-1974[M].p.5.
[1]Robert Hunter.Tenement Conditions in Chicago[M].Chicago:City Homes Association,1901.
[2]Wendy PIotkin.City Homes Association[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/289.html,2008-3-5.
[3]Roy Lubove.The Progressives and the Slums:Tenement House Reform in New York City,1890-1917[M].pp.117-184.
[4]Robert B.Fairbanks.From Better Dwellings to Better Neighborhoods:The Rise and Fall of the First National Housing Movement[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes:In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America[C].pp.21-42.
[5]Roy Lubove.The Progressives and the Slums:Tenement House Reform in New York City,1890-1917[M].pp.2-6.
[1]John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes:In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America[C].p.ⅹⅰ.
[2]the Columbia Encyclopedia.Apartment House.http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-apartmen.html,2005-11-2.
[3]Blake McKelvey.The Urbanization of America[M].New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press,1963.p.120.
[1]卡尔·戴格勒.一个民族的足迹[M].第351页.
[2]迈克·E.米勒斯.盖尔·贝伦斯.马克·A.韦斯.房地产开发[M].第139页.
[3]约翰·M.利维.现代城市规划[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,2003.第36页.
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.HUD Historical Background[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/admguide/history.cfm,2006-1-2.
[2]Carroll Davidson Wright.The Slums of Baltimore,Chicago,New York,and Philadelphia:Prepared in Compliance with a Joint Resolution of the Congress of the United States,Approved July 20,1892[EB/01].http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/2813453?op=f&id=2813453&n=4&res=3&imagesize=1200,2006-1-2.
[3]Judith Serrin.The Department of Housing and Urban Development under Jack Kemp[A]in Jess Lederman ed.Housing America:Mobilizing Bankers,Builders and Communities to Solve the Nation's Affordable Housing Crisis[C].Probus Publishing Company,1993.pp.167-174.
[4]Eric J.Karolak."No idea of Doing Anything Wonderful":The Labor-Crisis Origins of National Housing Policy and Reconstruction of the Working-Class Community,1917-1919[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.60-80.
[1]Eric J.Karolak."No Idea of Doing Anything Wonderful"[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.60-80.
[2]Christian Topalov.Scientific Urban Planning and the Ordering of Daily Life[J].Journal of Urban History,1990,(11):14-45;Bruce Ⅰ.Bustard.Homes for War Workers[J].Prologue,1992,(1):33-34;and Kristin M.Szylvian.Industrial Housing Reform and the Emergency Fleet Corporation[J].Journal of Urban History,1999,(6):647-690.
[3]Eric J.Karolak."No Idea of Doing Anything Wonderful"[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.60-80.
[4]Roy Lubove.Homes and "A Few Well Placed Fruit Trees"[J].Social Research,1960,(4):469-486.
[1]Howard P.Chudacoff ed.Major Problem in American Urban History[C].Lexington:D.C.Heath,1993.p.305.
[2]王旭.美国城市史[M].第191页.
[3]Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton.Suburbanization and Segregation in U.S,Metropolitan Areas[J].American Journal of Sociology,1998,(11):592-626.
[4]U.S.Department of Commerce.Population Deconcentration in the United States:Special Demographic Analysis[R].Washington D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1981.p.67.
[1]Jon C.Teaford.The Rough Road to Renaissance[M].p.15.
[2]Dictionary of American History Ⅶ(New York:Charles Scribner's Sons,1976),p.23.
[1]梁茂信.都市化时代[M].第132页.
[2]胡锦山.1940-1970年美国黑人大迁徙概论[J].美国研究,1995,(4).
[3]Kenneth Fox.Metropolitan America:Urban Life and Urban Policy in the United States,1940-1980[M].Macmillan Publishers Ltd.,1985.p.118.
[4]Jon C.Teaford.The Rough Road to Renaissance[M].p.78.
[5]Kenneth Fox.Metropolitan America[M].p.118.
[1]Alexander B.Callow,Jr.American Urban History:An Interpretive Reader with Commentaries[M].New York:Oxford University Press,1969.p.310.
[1]Michael E.Stone.Shelter Poverty[M].p.92.
[2]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].Baltimore:.Johns Hopkins University Press,1986.p.75.
[3]成立于1933年10月,隶属于公共工程局。其后担任新政初期著名公共住房计划--威廉斯堡住宅区工程首席建筑师的里士满·H.施里夫(Richmond H.Shreve)被任命为该委员会负责人。
[4]Landmarks Preservation Con-anission.A Public Hearing Report on the Proposed Designation of the Williamsburg Houses[EB/01].http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/reports/willhouse.pdf,2008-3-4.
[5]德怀特·L.杜蒙德.现代美国[M].北京:商务印书馆,1984.第575页.
[6]拉尔夫·贝茨.1933-1973美国史(上卷)[M].北京:人民出版社,1984.第88页.
[1]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].pp.76-77.
[2]Editors of Fortune.Housing America[Z].New York:Harcourt Brace,1932.pp.6-24.
[1]Alexander Von Hoffman.A Study in Contradictions:The Origins and Legacy of the Housing Act of 1949[EB/01].http://www.mi.vt.edu/data/files/hpd%2011(2)/hpd%2011(2)_von%20hoffman.pdf,2006-08-07.
[2]Cathering Bauer,Modern Housing[M].
[3]Martin Meyerson and Edward C.Banfield.Politics,Planning,and the Public Interest[M].p.116.
[1]Lawrence M.Friedman.Govecnment and Slum Housing[M].p.105.
[2]Alexander Von Hoffman.A Study in Contradiction[EB/01].http://www.mi.vt.edu/data/files/hpd%2011(2)/hpd%2011(2)_von%20hoffman.pdf,2006-08-07.
[3]Paul R.Lusignan.Public Housing in the United States,1933-1949[EB/01].http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/25-01/25-01-16.pdf,2005-12-1.
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.HUD Historical Background[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/admguide,/history.cfm,2006-1-2.
[2]Mason C.Doan American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].p.192.
[1]Paul R.Lusignan.Public Housing in the United States,1933-1949[EB/01].http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/25-01/25-01-16.pdf,2005-12-1.
[2]Charles Abrams.Revolution in Land[M].New York:Harper & Bros,1939.p.63.
[3]公共住房管理机构(PHAs)指的是美国各州或地方政府一级的住房管理机构,负责执行联邦政府的低收入公共住房计划或与之相关的开发与管理项目。参见:Public Housing Authorities[EB/01].http://www.knowledgeplex.org/topic.htmi?e=288,2008-3-12.
[4]美国各地的PHAs不仅成立时间上有先有后,而且规模大小也严重失衡。据统计,90年代全美约3400个PHAs负责管理和执行各类公共住房计划,多数PHAs规模很小,但排名靠前的PHAs规模却很大。小型PHAs占PHAs总数的86%,仅管理公共住房总量的26%,且每个机构所管理的房产不超过500套;中型PHAs占PHAs总数的8%,管理公共住房总量的15%,平均每个机构所管理的房产在500至1250套之间;大型PHAs仅占PHAs总数的2%,却管理了公共住房总量的18%,平均每个机构所管理的房产在2501至9000套之间。1991年,排名前16位的PHAs负责全美公共住房总量的30%,平均每个机构所管理的房产都超过9000套.参见:Rachel G Bratt.Public Housing Authorities:Determining an Appropriate Role in a National Preservation Strategy[J].Housing Policy Debate,1991,(2):535-555.
[1]New York City Housing Authority.About NYCHA:Timeline[EB/01].http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/html/about/nycha70_timeline.shtml,2008-3-3.
[2]Landmarks Preservation Commission.A Public Hearing Report on the Proposed Designation of the Williamsburg Houses[EB/01].http://www.nyc.gov/html/lpc/downloads/pdf/reports/willhouse.pdf,2008-3-4.
[1]New York Times.A Housing Project at 50[EB/01].http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE7DD163FF932A1575BC0A960948260,2008-3-10.
[2]AHA Quick Facts[EB/01].http://www.atlantahousingauth.org/pressroom/index.cfm?Fuseaetion=quickfacts,2008-3-2.
[3]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.87.
[1]Paul R.Lusignan.Public Housing in the United States,1933-1949[EB/01].http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/25-01/25-01-16.pdf,2005-12-1.
[2]1939年,该署根据罗斯福总统《政府改组法》(the Reorganization Act of 1939)转为联邦工程局(Federal Works Agency)。详见:U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.HUD Historical Background [EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/admguide./history.cfm.2006-1-2.
[3]Jon C.Tcaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.87.
[4]刘绪贻 李存训.富兰克林·D.罗斯福时代1929-1945[M].北京:人民出版社,2002.第142页.
[5]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.United States Housing Act of 1937 as Amended by the Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act of 1998 as of 3/2/1999[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/ogc/usha1937.pdf,2005-10-20.
[1]New York City Housing Authority.About NYCHA:Timeline[EB/01].http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/html/about/nycha70_timeline.shtml,2008-3-3.
[2]Jennifer Bleyer.Beyond the Buzz,Red Hook Remembers[EB/01].http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/20/nyregion/thecity/20time.html?_r=1&oref=-slogin,2008-3-4
[3]Lewis Mumford.Versailles for the Millions[N].The Now Yorker,1940-2-17(44,42).
[4]Lewis Mumford.Versailles for the Millions[N].The New Yorker,1940-2-17(44,42).
[5]Gail Radford.Modern Housing for America:Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era[M].
[1]New York City Housing Authority.About NYCHA:Timeline[EB/01].http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/html/about/nycha70._timeline.shtml,2008-3-3.
[2]Paul R.Lusignan.Public Housing in the United States,1933-1949[EB/01].http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive/25-01/25-01-16.pdf,2005-12-1.
[3]Paul R.Lusignan.Public Housing in the United States,1933-1949[EB/01].http://crm.cr.nps.gov/archive,/25-01/25-01-16.pdf,2005-12-1.
[4]Samuel E.Trotter.A Study of Public Housing in the United States[J].Journal of Finance,1958,(3):429-430.
[1]王旭.美国城市发展模式[M].第183页.
[1]Samuel E.Trotter.A Study of Public Housing in the United States[J].Journal of Finance,1958,(3):429-430.
[1]沈玉麟.外国城市建筑史[M].北京:中国建筑工业出版社,1989.第799页.
[2]U.S.Bureau of the Census.Current Population Reports,Housing,Series P-70,No.1[R].Housing Characteristics of the United States,1947.p.25.
[3]前身是建于1909年的费城住房委员会(Philaddphia Housing Commission,简称PHC),1916年以后改称费城住房协会.
[4]John F.Bauman.Public Housing,Race and Renewal:Urban Planning in Philadelphia,1920-1974[M].p.50.
[1]Mason C.Doan,American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].pp.53-55.
[2]Franklin D.Roosevelt.Executive Order 8632 Coordinating National Defense Housing,January 11th,1941[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16136,2008-3-1.
[3]Franklin D.Roosevelt.Statement on Signing the Emergency Price Control Act,January 30th,1942[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/print.php?id=16192,2008-3-1.
[4]Franklin D.Roosevelt.Executive Order 9070 Establishing the National Housing Agency,February 24th,1942[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16225,2008-3-1.
[5]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.HUD Historical Background[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/admguide/history.cfm,2006-1-2.
[1]Scott Gelber.A "Hard-Boiled Order":The Reeducation of Disabled WWI Veterans in New York City.Journal of Social History,2005,(3),pp.161-180.
[2]U.S.Department of Veterans Affairs.Born of Controversy:The GI Bill of Rights[EB/01].http://www.gibill.va.gov/GI_Bill_Info/history.htm.2008-3-26.
[3]退伍军人管理局于1930年7月21日根据胡佛总统第5398号行政命令成立,详见:Herbert Hoover.Executive Order 5398 Establishing the Veterans'Administration,July 21st,1930[EB/01]。http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=75311,2006-3-27.该机构直到1989年3月15日才由新成立的退伍军人事务部(Oepartment of Veterans Affairs)取代。
[4]U.S.Department of Veterans Affairs.President Franklin D.Roosevelt's Statement on Signing the G I.Bill [EB/01].http://www.gibill.va.gov/GI_Bill_Info/history.htm,2008-3-26.
[5]David R.Goldfeild and Blaine A.Brownnell.Urban America:A History[M].Houghton Mifflin Company,1990.p.512.
[1]U.S.Department of Veterans Affairs.Born of Controversy:The GI Bill of Rights[EB/01].http://www.gibill.va.gov/GI_Bill_Info/history.htm,2008-3-26.
[2]Harry S.Truman.Message to the Congress on the State of the Union and the Budget for 1947,January 21st,1946[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=12467&st=Truman&stl=housing,2008-3-28.
[1]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.120.
[2]Maryland at a Glance:Historical Chronology 1900-1999[EB/01].http://www.msa.md.gov/msa/mdmanual/01glance/chron/html/chron19.html,2008-4-19.
[1]Jon C.Teaford.The Rough Road to Renaissance[M].p.107.
[1]Alexander Von Hoffman.A Study in Contradictions[EB/01].http://www.mi.vt.edu/data/files/hpd%2011(2)/hpd%2011(2)_von%20hoffman.pdf,2006-08-07.
[2]Nathaniel S.Keith.Politics and the Housing Crisis since 1930[M];Mark I.Gelfand.A Nation of Cities[M].
[1]Richard O.Davies.Housing Reform during the Truman Administration[M].p.68.
[2]Barry Gullingworth and Roger W.Caves.Planning in the USA-Policies,Issues and Processes[M].Routledge,2003.p.285;Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.261;Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162;Charles J.Orlebeke.The Evolution of Low-Income Housing Policy,1949-1999[EB/01].http://www.fanniemaefoundation.org/programs/hpd/pdf/hpd_1102_orlebeke.pdf,2001-4-10.
[3]Howard P.Chudacoff.ed.Major Problem in American Urban History[C].p.355;Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162.
[1]Howard P.Chudacoff.ed.Major Problem in American Urban History[C].p.352.
[2]Robert Fishman.The American Metropolis at Century's End:Past and Future Influences[J].Housing Policy Debate,2000,(1):199-213.
[3]Robert E.Lang and Rebecca R.Sohmer.Legacy of the Housing Act of 1949:The Past,Present,and Future of Federal Housing and Urban Policy[J].Housing Policy Debate,2000,(2):291-297.
[1]Samuel E.Trotter.A Study of Public Housing in the United States[J].The Journal of Finance,1958,(3):429-430.
[2]Howard P.Chudacoff.ed.Major Problem in American Urban History[C].p.354.
[1]Executive Orders Disposition Tables[EB/01].http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/1953-eisenhower.html,2008-4-19.
[2]The Public Papers of President Dwight D.Eisenhower 1954[EB/01].http://www.jfklink.com/speeches/dde/1954/dde_contents_papers 1954.html,2008-4-19.
[3]The Public Papers of President Dwight D.Eisenhower 1955[EB/01].http://www.jfklink.com/speeches/dde/1955/dde_contents_papers 1955.html,2008-4-19.
[4]The Public Papers of President Dwight D.Eisenhower 1958[EB/01].http://www.jfklink.com/speeches/dde/1958/dde_contents_papers1958.html,2008-4-19
[5]黄安年.美国政府的住房福利保障政策[J].山东师大学报(社会科学版),1998,(4).
[1]Howard P.Chudacoffand Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.261.
[2]Kenneth Fox.Metropolitan America[M].p.98;另见Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.261;Barry Gullingworth and Roger W.Caves.Planning in the USA-Policies,Issues and Processes[M].p.286.
[1]George C.Galster.The Challenges Facing Public Housing Authorities in a Brave New World[J].Housing Policy Debate,1997,(3):535-569.
[2]Le Corbusier:Architect Biography[EB/01].http://architect.architecture.sk/le-corbusier-architect/le-corbusier-architect.php,2008-3-15.
[3]Witold Rybczynski.Le Corbusier[EB/01].http://www.time.com/time/time100/artista/profile/lecorbusier.html,2008-3-15.
[1]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162
[2]Robert Caro.The Power Broker.Robert Moses and the Fall of New York[M].New York:Vintage Books,2004.pp.7-8.
[3]成立于1973年的地方公共住房机构。详见:Encyclopedia of Chicago[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/3712.html,2008-4-19.
[4]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162.
[5]Erik Gellman.Robert Taylor Homes[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2478.html,2008-3-10.
[6]Bradford Hunt.What Went Wrong with Public Housing in Chicago? A History of the Robert Taylor Homes [EB/01].http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3945/is_200104/ai_n8939181,2008-3-10.
[1]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162.
[2]Erik Gellman.Robert Taylor Homes[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2478.html,2008-3-10.
[3]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.144-162.
[1]Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000[M].pp.53-55.
[2]Richard O.Davies.Housing Reform during the Truman Administration[M].pp.18-20.
[3]1908年5月成立于芝加哥的全美规模最大、最具影响力的房地产行业组织,最初名为全美房地产交易协会(Nationai Association of Real Estate Exchange)。
[4]Charles Abrams.Forbiddan Neighbors:A Study of Prejudice in Housing[M].Fort Washington:Kennikat,1971.p.154.
[1]Robert E.Lang and Rebecca R.Sohmer.Legacy of the Housing Act of 1949[J].Housing Policy Debate,2000,(2):291-297.
[2]Roger Montgomery.Pruitt-Igoe.Policy Failure or Societal Symptom[A]in Barry Checkoway and Carl V.Patton.yds.The Metropolitan Midwest,Policy Problems and Prospects for Change[C].Urbana and Chicago:University of Illinois Press,1985.pp.229-243.
[3]成立于1952年的地方公共住房机构.
[4]Alexander von Hoffman,Why They Built the Pruitt-Igoe Project[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.180-205.
[1]John M.Levy.Contemporary urban planning[M].Upper Saddle River,N.J.:Prentice Hall,1997.p.187.
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.HUD Historical Background[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/admguide/history.cfm,2006-1-2.
[2]Arnold R.Hirsch.Making the Second Ghetto:Race and Housing in Chicago,1940-1960[M].
[3]Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh.American Project[M].p.17.
[1]Kenneth Fox.Metropolitan America[M].p.2.
[2]梁茂信.都市化时代[M].第308页.
[3]National Bureau of Economic Research.How the 1960s' Riot Hurt African-Americans[EB/01].http://www.nber.org/digest/sep04/w10243.html.2008-3-6.
[4]Kenneth Fox.Metropolitan America[M].p.2.
[5]U.S.National Housing Agency.Third Annual Report[R].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1945.p.32.
[6]Kristin M.Szylvian.The Federal Housing Program During World War Ⅱ[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.121-138.
[1]Howard P.Chudacoffand Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.259.
[2]Erik Gellman.Robert Taylor Homes[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2478.html,2008-3-10.
[1]Coulibaly Modibo,Rodney D.Green and David M.James.Segregation in Federally Subsidized Low Income Housing in the United States[M].New York:Greenwood Publishing Group,Inc.,1998.p.63-64.
[2]Kristin M.Szylvian.The Federal Housing Program Daring World War Ⅱ[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.121-138.
[1]John F.Kennedy.Executive Order 11063 Equal Opportunity in Housing,November 20th,1962[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=59002&st=kennedy&stl=11063,2008-3-15.
[2]The United States Commission on Civil Rights.The Federal Fair Housing Enforcement Effort[R].Washington D.C.,1979.p.3.
[3]Lyndon B.Johnson.Remarks Upon Signing the Civil Right Act,April 11th,1968[EB/01].http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=28799&st=fair+housing&stl=1968,2008-3-20.
[4]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.Fair Housing Laws and Presidential Executive Orders:Fair Housing Act[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/fheo/FHLaws/,2008-3-29.
[5]Gary A.Tobin.Divided Neighborhood:Changing Patterns of Racial Segregation[M].Newbury Park,California:Sage Publications,1987.p.235.
[6]Lynn W.Eleyand and Thomas W.Casstevens.The Politics of Fair- Housing Legislation:State and Local Case Studies[M].San Francisco:Chandter Pub.Co,1968.p.35.
[1]Lynn W.Eleyand and Thomas W.Casstevens.The Politics of Fair- Housing Legislation[M].p.27.
[2]Lynn W.Eleyand and Thomas W.Casstevens.The Politics of Fair- Housing Legislation[M].p.7.
[3]排斥性分区(exclusionary zoning)指的是在一些居住用地的分区中,由于分区开发被限制不得低于一定用地规模,如果这种限制过高,会对低收入家庭或某特殊类型家庭进入该社区形成一种捧斥。纽约市是公认的第一个颁布现代分区条例(zoning Regulation)的城市,自1916年通过《纽约市区划法决议》以来,区划不断完善,并对全美甚至世界各国城市发展产生了巨大的影响。在美国,房地产税是美国地方政府主要经济来源之一,房地产税是以区划为基础进行计算的.区划主要通过最小用地规模和容积率来控制,其中最小用地规模用来确保该地区新开发的项目能够达到征税的最小值。在现有的规划条件和平均利润水平下,低于该规模的开发将不能为地方财政做出贡献,因而是被限制的。由此产生的分区称为财政分区(Fiscal Zoning),即区划捧斥那些可能给地方财政带来负担的开发。在效率与公平的取舍上,这种方式保证了效率,维护该地区整体财政利益。但也由此带来了一些不公平,尤其是对于低收入家庭而言基本上被捧除在该地区之外.
[4]Barry Gullingworth and Roger W.Caves.Planning in the USA-Policies,Issues and Processes[M].p.297.
[1]Mount Laurel Decisions[EB/01].http://www.mountlaurel.com/about/mtlaurel_decisions.php,2008-3-5.
[2]New Jersey Digital Legal Library.History of Mt.Laurel[EB/01].http://njlegallib.rutgers.edu/mtlaurel/aboutmtlaurel.php,2008-3-6.
[3]Barry Gullingworth and Roger W.Caves.Planning in the USA-Policies,Issues and Processes[M].p.297.
[4]Jon C.Tenford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.109.
[5]Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.256.
[1]Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.256.
[2]David Rusk,Cities without Suburbs(The Woodrow Wilson Center Press,1995),p.7.
[3]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.115.
[4]王旭.美国城市发展模式[M].第230页.
[1]U.S.Census Bureau.1960 Census of Population and Housing[EB/01].http://www.census.gov/prod/www/abs/decennial/1960.htm,2008-3-19.
[2]Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000:A Concise History[M].pp.71-72.
[3]Catherine Bauer.The Dreary Deadlock of Public Housing[J].Architectural Forum,1957,(5):140-142.
[4]Morton J.Schussheim.Toward a New Housing Policy:The Legacy of Sixties[M].
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development,HUD Historical Background[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/adm/about/admguide/history.cfm,2006-1-2.
[2]Janne R.Lowe.Cities in a Race with Time[M].New York:Random House,Inc.,1968.p.265.
[1]Alexander Von Hoffman.A Study in Contradictions[EB/01].http://www.mi.vt.edu/data/files/hpd%2011(2)/hpd%2011(2)_von%20hoffman.pdf,2006-08-07.p.314.
[1]陈宝森.美国经济与政府政策;从罗斯福到里根[M].北京:世界知识出版社,1998.第809页.
[2]Alexander Von Hoffman.A Study in Contradictions[EB/01].http://www.mi.vt.edu/data/files/hpd%2011(2)/hpd%2011(2)_von%20hoffman.pdf,2006-08-07.p.315.
[3]Brookings Institution.Government's 50 Greatest Endeavors of the Past Half Century - Increase the Supply of Low-Income Housing[EB/01].http://www.book.edu/gs/cps/research/progects/50ge/endeavors/housing.htm,2005-05-09.
[1]Roger Biles.Public Housing and the Postwar Urban Renaissance,1949-1973[A]in John F.Bauman,Roger Biles and Kristin M.Szylian eds.From Tenements to the Taylor Homes[C].pp.143-162.
[2]Charles J.Orlebeke.The Evolution of Low-Income Housing Policy,1949-1999[EB/01].http://www.fanniemaefoundation.org/programs/hpd/pdf/hpd_1102_orlebeke.pdf,2001-4-10.
[3]刘绪贻.战后美国史1945-2000[M].北京:人民出版社,2002.第250页.
[4]U.S.Department of Commerce.Historical Statistics of the United States,Colonial Times to 1970[R].p.639.
[1]Alex F.Schwartz.Housing Policy in the United Stated[M].p.130.
[2]根据HUD Office of Budget数据计算.HUD Office of Budget数据转引自:Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000:A Concise History[M].p.192.
[1]根据HUD Office of Budget数据计算.HUD Office of Budget数据转引自:Mason C.Doan.American Housing Production 1880-2000:A Concise History[M].p.192.
[1]刘绪贻.战后美国史1945-2000[M].第355-356页.
[2]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.100.
[1]刘绪贻.战后美国史1945-2000[M].第358-359页.
[2]Alan Altshuler et al.Governance and Opportunity in Metropolitan American[C].Washington,D.C.:National Academy Press,1999.p.24.
[1]Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.256.
[2]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.142.
[3]Howard P.Chudacoff and Judith E.Smith.The Evolution of American Urban Society[M].p.258.
[4]U.S.Census Bureau.Table 23 District of Columbia-Race and Hispanic Origin:1880 to 1990[EB/01].http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0056/tab23.pdf,2008-3-20.
[5]Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung.Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race,1790 to 1990,and by Hispanic Origin,1970 to 1990,for the United States,Regions,Divisions and States[EB/01].http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056.html,2008-3-20.
[6]王旭.美国城市发展模式[M].第335-336页.
[1]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.143.
[2]Congressional Budget Office.The Causes of New York City's Fiscal Crisis[J].Political Science Quarterly,1975,(4):659-674.
[3]Donna E.Shalala and Carol Bellamy.A State Saves a City:The New York Case[J].Duke Law Journal,1976,(6):1119-1132.
[4]Michelle Y.Albaker.Appeals Court Allows City to Refinance Debt from 70's Fiscal Crisis[EB/01].http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A03E3DB1F3CF937A25756C0A9629C8B63,2008-4-1.
[1]刘绪贻.战后美国史1945-2000[M],北京:人民出版社,2002.第360页.
[1]Kenneth Fox.Metropolitan America[M].p.206.
[2]Devereaus Bowly Jr.The Poorhouse[M];John F.Bauman.Public Housing,Race and Renewal[M].
[3]Charles J.Orlebeke.The Evolution of Low-Income Housing Policy 1949-1999[EB/01].http://www.fanniemaefoundation.org/programs/hpd/pdf/hpd_1102_orlebeke.pdf,2006-5-5.p.490.
[1]Minneapolis Public Housing Authority.The History of the Teaant-Based Housing Programs[EB/01].http://www.mphaonline.org/section8.cfm,2007-12-22.
[1]Merrill Matthews Jr.Vouchers Come Home[J].Policy Review,1998,(6):7-8.
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.Housing in the Seventies[R].Prepublication Transmittal to Members of Congress,1973-10-6.
[1]李文斌.美国不同时期的住房补贴政策:实施效果的评价及启发[J].城市发展研究,2007,(3).
[1]Howard P.Chudacoff,Peter C.Baldwin and Thomas Paterson.eds.Major Problems in American Urban History and Suburban History[C].Lexington:Mass,1994.p.314.
[2]Alex Schwartz.Corporate Service Linkages in Large Metropolitan Areas:A Study of New York,Los Angeles,and Chicago.Urban Affairs Quarterly,1992,(3):276-296.
[3]Jon C.Teaford.The Twentieth-Century American City[M].p.151.
[4]U.S.Bureau of the Census.Table 2 1990 and 1980 Census Counts of Cities with 1990 Population Greater than 100,000 Sorted by Percent Change[EB/01].http://www.census.gov/population/censusdata/c1008090pc.txt,2008-3-14.
[5]U.S.Bureau of the Census.Statistical Abstract of the United States 2000[EB/01].http://www.census.gov/prod/www/statistical-abstract-1995_2000.html,2006-9-2.
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.The President's 1995 National Urban Policy Report [EB/01].http://www.huduser.org/publications/polleg/tsoc.html,2007-6-1.
[2]Arthur F.Young and F.John Devaney.What the 1980 Census Shows about Housing[J].American Demographics,1983,(1):5-17.
[3]成立于1942年,是美国最大的住房产业组织之一,由800多个州或地方一级的小协会组成,总部设在华盛顿特区。详见:National Association of Home Builder[EB/01].http://www.nahb.org/。
[1]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.The President's 1995 National Urban Policy Report [EB/01].http://www.huduser.org/publications/polleg/tsoc.html,2007-6-1.
[2]Judith Serrin.The Department of Housing and Urban Development under Jack Kemp[A]in Jess Lederman ed.Housing America[C].pp.167-174.
[3]Barry Gullingworth and Roger W.Caves.Planning in the USA-Policies,Issues and Processes[M].p.293.
[4]成立于1974年,致力于解决无家可归和贫困问题、位于华盛顿特区的非政府组织。详见:National Low-Income Housing Coalition[EB/01].http://www.nlihc.org/template/index.cfm。
[1]Judith Serrin.The Department of Housing and Urban Development under Jack Kemp[A]in Jess Lederman ed.Housing America[C].pp.167-174.
[2]U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.The President's National Urban Policy Report,1982[R].Washington,D.C.:U.S.Government Printing Office,1982.
[3]Robert Wood.Present before the Creation:Lessons from the Paleosoic Age of Urban Affairs[J].Journal of Urban Affairs,1991(1):111-117.
[1]Minneapolis Public Housing Authority.The History of the Tenant-Based Housing Programs[EB/01].http://www.mphaonline.org/section8.cfm,2007-12-22.
[2]宋博通.20世纪美国低收入阶层住房政策研究[J].深圳大学学报(理工版),2002,(3).
[1]National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing.Final Report to Congress and the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development[R].Washington,DC:National Commission on Severely Distressed Public Housing,1992.
[2]Susan J.Popkin,Bruce Katz,Mary K.Cunningham,Karen D.Brown,Jeremy Gustafson,and Margery A.Turner.A Decade of HOPE Ⅵ:Research Findings and Policy Challenges[R].The Urban Institute,2004.p.7.
[3]Section 24 of the United States Housing Act of 1937 as Amended by Section 535 of the Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act of 1998(P.L.105-276).详见:U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development.United States Housing Act of 1937 as Amended by the Quality Housing and Work Responsibility Act of 1998as of 3/2/1999[EB/01].http://www.hud.gov/offices/ogc/usha1937.pdf,2005-10-20.
[4]Alex F.Schwartz.Housing Policy in the United Stated[M].p.117.
[1]Erik Gellman.Robert Taylor Homes[EB/01].http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/2478.html,2008-3-10.
[2]Merrill Matthews Jr.Vouchers Come Home[J].Policy Review,1998,(6):7-8.
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