二战及战后环境对美国高等教育大众化的影响
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摘要
第二次世界大战结束以后,美国高等教育随之进入了一个迅速发展的“黄金时期”,1945～1975年这段时期被称为大众高等教育时代。在二战及战后环境的影响下,《退伍军人权利法案》的实施,《国防教育法》、《高等教育法》和《高等教育设施法》以及《高等教育法修订案》等一系列法案的通过和执行都极大地促进了美国高等教育的发展;社区学院的迅速发展、高等教育机构数量的增加和多样化发展、高校招生规模的扩大和在校学生类型的不断增加都大大地推动了美国的高等教育大众化进程;20世纪70年代中期美国高等教育大众化的实现离不开二战及战后环境的巨大影响。本文通过运用美国官方公布的数据、政府调查报告和国会通过的一系列法案的内容等资料,以马克思唯物主义历史观为指导,综合运用了概念分析、文献分析和比较分析等多种方法,分析、论述了二战及战后环境对美国高等教育大众化所产生的巨大影响。
论文整体包括引言、正文、结语、参考文献、附录和后记共六部分。其中正文分为四部分:
第一部分主要依据马丁?特罗教授的高等教育发展三阶段论所提出的高等教育大众化的概念,对二战前和战后美国大众高等教育时代高等教育的发展状况进行了简单介绍。
第二部分具体分析了二战对美国高等教育大众化产生的影响。通过对二战时期美国经济、社会和高等教育状况的分析以及战后美国政府的反应和美国高等教育发展的新变化阐述了二战对美国高等教育大众化进程所产生的影响。
第三部分从国际环境和国内环境两个方面探讨了战后环境对美国高等教育大众化产生的影响。笔者首先分析了持有民主观念的美国对法西斯主义国家的胜利、冷战环境下苏联卫星事件的刺激和美苏争霸等国际环境对美国高等教育大众化产生的影响;之后又从经济、人口、就业以及社会等几个切入点剖析了战后美国国内环境对高等教育大众化产生的影响。
第四部分从三个方面总结了二战及战后环境对美国高等教育大众化影响的历史定位。
结语部分进一步分析了二战及战后环境之所以能够对美国高等教育大众化产生巨大影响的深层次原因。包括联邦政府对高等教育迅速而有效的干预、美国高等教育自身较强的适应性、美国民主观念的普遍存在和二战后美国经济迅速发展的需要等四个方面。最后总结出内外因素共同作用于美国高等教育大众化的实现,二战及战后环境这些外在因素的影响不可缺少。
After the end of World War II, American higher education has entered a Golden Period of rapid development, the period during 1945 and 1975 known as the era of mass higher education. Under World War II and post-war environments, G.I.Bill of Rights adopted by the federal government to be implemented, National Defense Education Act, Higher Education Act, Higher Education Facilities Act and Higher Education Amendment Act, a series of bills passed and implemented in the United States has greatly promoted the development of American higher education. The rapid development of community colleges, the increasement of higher education institutions in the number and the development of its diversity, the expansion of college enrollment and more and more types of students are given considerable impetus to the massification process of American higher education , In the mid-1970s, the realization of mass higher education in the United States is inseparable from the enormous impact of World War II and post-war environments. In this paper, based on U.S. government released data, government investigation reports and the content of a series of bills passed by Congress and Marx's materialism conception of history as a guide, the use of conceptual analysis, literature analysis, and comparative analysis methods to analyse the impact of World War II and post-war environments upon the massification of American higher education concretely, emphasize on the enormous impact of World War II and post-war environments upon the massification of American higher education.
Paper as a whole includes Introduction, Body, Conclusion, References, Appendix and Epilogue six parts in total. In which the body is divided into four parts:
Based on Professor Martin Trow’s three-stage theory of the development of higher education, the first part mainly proposes the concept of the massification of higher education and gives a brief introduction to the development of American higher education among Pre-World War II and the post-war era of mass higher education.
The second part analyses the impact of World War II upon the massification of American higher education concretely. According to the analyses on the U.S. economy, society and the situation of higher education during the period of World War II and the responses of U.S. government, the development of new changes in U.S. higher education after World War II, the author describes the impact of World War II upon the massification process of American higher education.
The third part researches the impact of post-war environments upon the massification of American higher education separately from two aspects: the international environments and domestic environments. The author first analyzes the victory of the concept of democracy held by the United States to fascism in some countries, the stimulation of Soviet satellite events under Cold War environments, and the international environments struggling for the hegemony between U.S. and USSR, it analyses the impact of these international environments upon the massification of American higher education. And then it analyses the impact of post-war domestic environments upon the massification of American higher education from economics, demographic, employment and social situations.
Part IV summarizes the impact of World War II and post-war environments upon the massification of American higher education from three aspects in order to set its historical orientation.
The conclusion part analyses the deep-seated reasons for the impact of World War II and post-war environments could significantly influnce the massification of American higher education. It concludes four aspects: the rapid and effective intervention of the federal government in higher education, the strong adaptability of American higher education, the concept of democracy prevailing in the United States and the need for the rapid economic growth after World War II in the United States. Finally it concludes that, the realization of American mass higher education in the mid-1970s could only be achieved with the joint action of internal and external factors, it is certain that the realization of mass higher education in the United States is inseparable from the external impact of World War II and post-war environments.
论文整体包括引言、正文、结语、参考文献、附录和后记共六部分。其中正文分为四部分:
第一部分主要依据马丁?特罗教授的高等教育发展三阶段论所提出的高等教育大众化的概念,对二战前和战后美国大众高等教育时代高等教育的发展状况进行了简单介绍。
第二部分具体分析了二战对美国高等教育大众化产生的影响。通过对二战时期美国经济、社会和高等教育状况的分析以及战后美国政府的反应和美国高等教育发展的新变化阐述了二战对美国高等教育大众化进程所产生的影响。
第三部分从国际环境和国内环境两个方面探讨了战后环境对美国高等教育大众化产生的影响。笔者首先分析了持有民主观念的美国对法西斯主义国家的胜利、冷战环境下苏联卫星事件的刺激和美苏争霸等国际环境对美国高等教育大众化产生的影响;之后又从经济、人口、就业以及社会等几个切入点剖析了战后美国国内环境对高等教育大众化产生的影响。
第四部分从三个方面总结了二战及战后环境对美国高等教育大众化影响的历史定位。
结语部分进一步分析了二战及战后环境之所以能够对美国高等教育大众化产生巨大影响的深层次原因。包括联邦政府对高等教育迅速而有效的干预、美国高等教育自身较强的适应性、美国民主观念的普遍存在和二战后美国经济迅速发展的需要等四个方面。最后总结出内外因素共同作用于美国高等教育大众化的实现,二战及战后环境这些外在因素的影响不可缺少。
After the end of World War II, American higher education has entered a Golden Period of rapid development, the period during 1945 and 1975 known as the era of mass higher education. Under World War II and post-war environments, G.I.Bill of Rights adopted by the federal government to be implemented, National Defense Education Act, Higher Education Act, Higher Education Facilities Act and Higher Education Amendment Act, a series of bills passed and implemented in the United States has greatly promoted the development of American higher education. The rapid development of community colleges, the increasement of higher education institutions in the number and the development of its diversity, the expansion of college enrollment and more and more types of students are given considerable impetus to the massification process of American higher education , In the mid-1970s, the realization of mass higher education in the United States is inseparable from the enormous impact of World War II and post-war environments. In this paper, based on U.S. government released data, government investigation reports and the content of a series of bills passed by Congress and Marx's materialism conception of history as a guide, the use of conceptual analysis, literature analysis, and comparative analysis methods to analyse the impact of World War II and post-war environments upon the massification of American higher education concretely, emphasize on the enormous impact of World War II and post-war environments upon the massification of American higher education.
Paper as a whole includes Introduction, Body, Conclusion, References, Appendix and Epilogue six parts in total. In which the body is divided into four parts:
Based on Professor Martin Trow’s three-stage theory of the development of higher education, the first part mainly proposes the concept of the massification of higher education and gives a brief introduction to the development of American higher education among Pre-World War II and the post-war era of mass higher education.
The second part analyses the impact of World War II upon the massification of American higher education concretely. According to the analyses on the U.S. economy, society and the situation of higher education during the period of World War II and the responses of U.S. government, the development of new changes in U.S. higher education after World War II, the author describes the impact of World War II upon the massification process of American higher education.
The third part researches the impact of post-war environments upon the massification of American higher education separately from two aspects: the international environments and domestic environments. The author first analyzes the victory of the concept of democracy held by the United States to fascism in some countries, the stimulation of Soviet satellite events under Cold War environments, and the international environments struggling for the hegemony between U.S. and USSR, it analyses the impact of these international environments upon the massification of American higher education. And then it analyses the impact of post-war domestic environments upon the massification of American higher education from economics, demographic, employment and social situations.
Part IV summarizes the impact of World War II and post-war environments upon the massification of American higher education from three aspects in order to set its historical orientation.
The conclusion part analyses the deep-seated reasons for the impact of World War II and post-war environments could significantly influnce the massification of American higher education. It concludes four aspects: the rapid and effective intervention of the federal government in higher education, the strong adaptability of American higher education, the concept of democracy prevailing in the United States and the need for the rapid economic growth after World War II in the United States. Finally it concludes that, the realization of American mass higher education in the mid-1970s could only be achieved with the joint action of internal and external factors, it is certain that the realization of mass higher education in the United States is inseparable from the external impact of World War II and post-war environments.
引文
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①Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. p.64. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213.
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③Robert J.Havighurst, American Higher Education in the 1960′s. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1960.
④Philip G. Altbach, Robert O. Berdahl, and Patricia J.Gumport, Higher Education in American Society (Third Edition). NewYork: Prometheus Books, 1994.
①Paul Westmeyer, An Analytical History of American Higher Education (Second Edition). Springfield: Charles C Thomas·Publisher,LTD,1997.
②Arthur M .Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998.
③[美]阿特巴赫、[美]冈普奥特:《为美国高等教育辩护》,别敦荣、陈艺波主译,中国海洋大学出版社, 2007年8月。
④John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.
⑤I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948.
⑥Martin A. Trow, Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education. California: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education.1973. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/35/2c/66.pdf
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⑧Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997.
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④陈昌贵、王璐:《从文化视角透视美国高等教育大众化进程》,《比较高等教育》2001年10月。
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⑨李坤、曹大呼:《从美国高等教育大众化分析我国普通院校工科专业教育》,《科技创新导报(科教平台)》2008年第16期。
①王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年10月。
②张玉:“战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究”,博士学位论文,西南大学,2007年4月。
①李从浩:《马丁·特罗的高等教育大众化理论再探讨》,《教育评论》2006年第2期,第95页。
②“雅典娜神殿”为诗人和学者集会之地。
③Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. p.64. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213.
①Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. p.64. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213.
②Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. p.64. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213.
①Arthur M .Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998. p.175.
①Arthur M .Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998. p.176.
①[美]阿瑟·林克、威廉·卡顿:《1900年以来的美国史(上册)》,刘绪贻等译,中国社会科学出版社,1983年,第22页。
②John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. p.205.
①John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. p.206.
②John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. p.226.
③Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997.P2.
①I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948. pp.5-6.
②[美]阿瑟?林克、威廉?卡顿:《1900年以来的美国史(中册)》,刘绪贻等译,中国社会科学出版社,1983年,第197页。
③范慕韩:《世界经济统计摘要》,人民出版社,1985年,第334-335页。
①William H. Chafe, The American Woman– Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920 -1970. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. p.135.
②William H. Chafe, The American Woman–Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920 -1970. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. p.136.
③William H. Chafe, The American Woman–Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920 -1970. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. p.139.
①Lynn Y. Weiner, From Working Girl to Working Mother: The Female Labor Force in the United States, 1820-1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, NC.1985. p.4.
②王向东、扈长茂(编译):《美军第二次世界大战卫生统计》,中国人民解放军总后勤部卫生部,1983年12月,第1-2页。
③I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948. pp.167-168.
④I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948. pp.165-166.
⑤I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948. p.165.
①张玉:“战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究”,博士学位论文,西南大学,2007年4月,第69页。
②[美]拉尔夫?德?贝茨:《1933-1973美国史(上卷)》,南京大学历史系英美对外关系研究室译,人民出版社,1984年,第401页。
③I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. p.165.
④I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948.pp.7-8.
①杨克瑞:《战后美国联邦政府大学生资助政策研究》,北京师范大学出版社,2008年6月,第44页。
②I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. p.128.
③王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第53页。
①I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. pp.244-245.
①I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. pp.243-244.
②I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. p.248.
①Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.3.
①陈学飞:《二战以来美国高等教育发展的基本指导思想》,《上海高教研究》1995年3月,第76页。
②王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第54页。
①杨克瑞:《战后美国联邦政府大学生资助政策研究》,北京师范大学出版社,2008年6月,第42页。
②Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.9.
①参见王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第51页。
②Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.1.
③Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.2.
①Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.2.
②Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.3.
③Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.4.
①Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.19.
②Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.15.
③Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.16.
①参见王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第51页。
②Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.11.
①杨克瑞:《美国<高等教育法>的历史演变分析》,《比较教育研究》2005年总第179期第4期,第22页。
①参见张玉:“战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究”,博士学位论文,西南大学,2007年4月,第57-58页。
②参见王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第47页。
③1962年由美国教授弗里兹·马克鲁普(Fritz Machlup)于《美国知识的生产与分布》中最早提出的理论。
④陈学飞:《二战以来美国高等教育发展的基本指导思想》,《上海高教研究》1995年3月,第78-79页。
⑤1980年更名为“佩尔助学金”。
①参见王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第43页。
②杨克瑞:《战后美国联邦政府大学生资助政策研究》,北京师范大学出版社,2008年6月,第44-45页。
③参见张玉:“战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究”,博士学位论文,西南大学,2007年4月,第57页。
①Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.13.
①Stockholm Sweden, An Outline of American History. United States Information Agency, 1994.5. p.8. http://www.for68.com/new/2006/2/wa17673917182260029583-0.htm.
②Robert J. Havighurst, American Higher Education in the 1960′s. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1960. p.5.
①Lynn Y. Weiner, From Working Girl to Working Mother: The Female Labor Force in the United States, 1820-1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, NC.1985. p.4.
①Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.5.
②Stockholm Sweden, An Outline of American History[M]. United States Information Agency, 1994.5. p.12. http://www.for68.com/new/2006/2/wa84201222271822600210230-0.htm
①Stockholm Sweden, An Outline of American History[M]. United States Information Agency, 1994.5. p.12. http://www.for68.com/new/2006/2/wa84201222271822600210230-0.htm
②刘绪贻:《20世纪30年代以来美国史论丛》,中国社会科学院出版社,2001年,第331页。
③[美]威廉?福斯特:《美国历史中的黑人》,三联书店,1960年,第570页。
①Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.6.
②Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.5.
①[美] Robert Zembky:《美国高等教育的后大众化》,樊建芳译,《国际高等教育研究》2000年第3期,第34页。
②参见孙益:《校园反叛—20世纪60年代的学生运动与高等教育》,《清华大学教育研究》2006年8月第27卷第4期,第81页。
①Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.5.
②Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.5.
③Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.6.
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[3]Christian Smith. The Secular Revolution–Power, Interests, and Conflict in the Secularization of American Public Life [M]. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
[4]E.C.Wallenfeldt. American Higher Education– Servant of the people or Protector of Special Interests? [M]. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1983.
[5]Gerard B. McCabe and Ruth J. Person. Academic Libraries– Their Rationale and Role in American Higher Education [M]. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1995.
[6]Howard R.Bowen. Investment in learning– The Individual and Social Value of American Higher Education [M]. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1977.
[7]I. L. Kandel. The Impact of the War upon American Education[M]. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948.
[8]John S. Brubacher and Willis Rudy. Higher Education in Transition– A History of American Colleges and Universities (Fourth Edition) [M]. Transaction Publishers, 1997.
[9]John R. Thelin. A History of American Higher Education [M]. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.
[10]Lynn Y. Weiner. From Working Girl to Working Mother: The Female Labor Force in the United States, 1820-1980[M]. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, NC.1985.
[11]Merle Curti and Roderick Nash. Philanthropy in the Shaping of American Higher Education [M]. New Jersey Rutgers University Press, 1965.
[12]Martin A. Trow. Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education[M]. California: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education.1973. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/35/2c/66.pdf
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[15]Philip G. Altbach, Robert O. Berdahl, and Patricia J.Gumport. Higher Education in American Society (Third Edition) [M]. New York: Prometheus Books, 1994.
[16]Paul Westmeyer. An Analytical History of American Higher Education (Second Edition) [M]. Springfield: Charles C Thomas·Publisher,LTD,1997.
[17]Philip G.Altbach, Robert O.Berdahl, and Patricia. American Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: social, political, and economic challenges [M]. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.
[18]Robert J. Havighurst. American Higher Education in the 1960′s [M]. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1960.
[19]Richard Hofstadter and Wilson Smith. American Higher Education– A Documentary History (Volume I) [M]. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1961.
[20]Stockholm Sweden. An Outline of American History[M].United States Information Agency, 1994.5. http://bbs.cnedu.cn/forum-0-175/offset-200/topic-u-12305-304957.html
[21]William H. Chafe. The American Woman– Her CHanging Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920 -1970[M]. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972.
[22]William Henry Chafe. The paradox of change: American women in the 20th century[M]. New York: Oxford University, 1991.
[23]Zachary Karabell. What′s College for?–The Struggle to Define American Higher Education [M]. New York: Basic Books, 1998.
[24]Arthur M. Cohen. The Community College in the American Educational System [J]. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985.
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[7] [美]洛温.创建冷战大学:斯坦福大学的转型(叶赋桂、罗燕译) [M].北京:清华大学出版社,2007.10.
[8] [英]泰特.高等教育研究:进展与方法(侯定凯译) [M].北京:北京大学出版社, 2007.10.
[9]王向东、扈长茂(编译).美军第二次世界大战卫生统计[M].中国人民解放军总后勤部卫生部,1983.12.
[10]范慕韩.世界经济统计摘要[M].北京:人民出版社,1985.
[11]王英杰.美国高等教育的发展与改革[M].北京:人民教育出版社, 1993.10.
[12]腾大春.外国教育史和外国教育[M].河北大学出版社. 1998.3.
[13]王英.美国教育[M].长春:吉林教育出版社, 2000.10.
[14]刘绪贻.20世纪30年代以来美国史论丛[M].北京:中国社会科学院出版社.2001.
[15]王定华.走进美国教育[M].北京:人民教育出版社, 2004.
[16]杨克瑞.战后美国联邦政府大学生资助政策研究[M].北京:北京师范大学出版社,2008.6.
[17]张玉.战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究[D].西南大学,2007.4.
[18]马骥.美国高等教育大众化经验对我国高等教育发展的启示[D].青岛大学,2007.6.
[19] [美] Robert Zembky.美国高等教育的后大众化(樊建芳译)[J].国际高等教育研究第3期;2000.
[20]华涛.约翰逊总统与美国“肯定性行动”的确立[J].世界历史第4期,1999.
[21]于家太.美国高等教育大众化的历程[J].江苏高教·国外高等教育第3期,1999.
[22]常永胜、孔丽华.美国高教大众化对广东高教发展的启示[J].南方人口第16卷第4期,2001.
[23]项贤明、葛岳静、李艳玲.大众化过程中高等教育结构的变迁——美国的经验与我国的发展趋势[J].成都航空职业技术学院学报第2期,2001.6.
[24]陈昌贵、王璐.从文化视角透视美国高等教育大众化进程[J].比较高等教育, 2001.10.
[25]刘宝存.肯定性行动计划与美国少数民族高等教育的发展[J].黑龙江民族从刊?民族教育第3期(总第70期),2002.
[26]彭永春.多元化:美国高等教育大众化的基石[J].前沿第4期,2002.
[27]杨学新、刘卫萍.美国高等教育大众化经验述评[J].中国高教研究第3期,2003.
[28]邹晓宏.社区学院——美国高等教育大众化的历史选择[J].哈尔滨工业大学学报(社会科学版)第5卷第3期, 2003.9.
[29]牛道生.美国社区学院对促进高等教育大众化的贡献[J].湛江师范学院学报第25卷第4期, 2004.8.
[30]牛蒙刚.美国以发展社区学院促进高教多样化的启示[J].世界教育信息·原创地带,2004.12.
[31]高嵩. 20世纪60年代美国高等教育改革与高等教育大众化体系的形成[J].外国教育研究第5期第33卷, 2006.
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[33]张烨.论文化传统对美国高等教育大众化进程的影响[J].理工高教研究第25卷第2期,2006.4.
[34]侯晓明、宫美凤、李汉邦.美国高等教育大众化过程中的院校分化[J].合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)第20卷第3期,2006.6.
[35]孙益.校园反叛——美国20世纪60年代的学生运动与高等教育[J].清华大学教育研究第27卷第4期, 2006.8.
[36]蒋洪甫、范明丽、徐竹.美国高等教育大众化的经验及启示[J].社会科学论坛·文化教育, 2006.10.
[37]李坤、曹大呼.从美国高等教育大众化分析我国普通院校工科专业教育[J]. 科技创新导报·科教平台第16期,2008.
[38]刘卫萍、马美茹.美国高等教育大众化发展历程[J].河北师范大学学报·教育科学版第10卷第9期, 2008.9. 网络资源:
⒈美国教育部http://www.ed.gov/
⒉美国国家档案局http://www.archives.gov/
⒊美国统计局http://www.census.gov/
⒋美国国会http://uscode.house.govldownload
EBSCO教育、心理数据库
②[英]泰特(Malcolm Tight):《高等教育研究:进展与方法》,侯定凯译,北京大学出版社,2007年10月,第233页。
①Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. p.64. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213.
②项贤明、葛岳静、李艳玲:《大众化过程中高等教育结构的变迁——美国的经验与我国的发展趋势》,《成都航空职业技术学院学报》2001年6月第2期,第2页。
③Robert J.Havighurst, American Higher Education in the 1960′s. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1960.
④Philip G. Altbach, Robert O. Berdahl, and Patricia J.Gumport, Higher Education in American Society (Third Edition). NewYork: Prometheus Books, 1994.
①Paul Westmeyer, An Analytical History of American Higher Education (Second Edition). Springfield: Charles C Thomas·Publisher,LTD,1997.
②Arthur M .Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998.
③[美]阿特巴赫、[美]冈普奥特:《为美国高等教育辩护》,别敦荣、陈艺波主译,中国海洋大学出版社, 2007年8月。
④John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.
⑤I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948.
⑥Martin A. Trow, Problems in the Transition from Elite to Mass Higher Education. California: Carnegie Commission on Higher Education.1973. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/35/2c/66.pdf
⑦Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. http://escholarship. org/uc/item/96p3s213
⑧Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997.
①马骥:“美国高等教育大众化经验对我国高等教育发展的启示”,硕士学位论文,青岛大学,2007年6月。
②于家太:《美国高等教育大众化的历程》,《江苏高教·国外高等教育》1999年第3期。
③刘卫萍、马美茹:《美国高等教育大众化发展历程》,《河北师范大学学报(教育科学版)》2008年9月第10卷第9期。
④陈昌贵、王璐:《从文化视角透视美国高等教育大众化进程》,《比较高等教育》2001年10月。
⑤张烨:《论文化传统对美国高等教育大众化进程的影响》,《理工高教研究》2006年4月第25卷第2期。
⑥邹晓宏:《社区学院——美国高等教育大众化的历史选择》,《哈尔滨工业大学学报(社会科学版)》2003年9月第5卷第3期。
⑦牛道生:《美国社区学院对促进高等教育大众化的贡献》,《湛江师范学院学报》2004年8月第25卷第4期。
①牛蒙刚:《美国以发展社区学院促进高教多样化的启示》,《世界教育信息(原创地带)》2004年12月。
②常永胜、孔丽华:《美国高教大众化对广东高教发展的启示》,《南方人口》2001年第16卷第4期。
③杨学新、刘卫萍:《美国高等教育大众化经验述评》,《中国高教研究》2003年第3期。
④李子彦:《美国高等教育大众化经验及对我国的启示》,《重庆工学院学报》2006年4月第20卷第4期。
⑤蒋洪甫、范明丽、徐竹:《美国高等教育大众化的经验及启示》,《社会科学论坛(文化教育)》2006年10月。
⑥彭永春:《多元化:美国高等教育大众化的基石》,《前沿》2002年第4期。
⑦高嵩:《20世纪60年代美国高等教育改革与高等教育大众化体系的形成》,《外国教育研究》2006年第5期第33卷。
⑧侯晓明、宫美凤、李汉邦:《美国高等教育大众化过程中的院校分化》,《合肥工业大学学报(社会科学版)》2006年6月第20卷第3期。
⑨李坤、曹大呼:《从美国高等教育大众化分析我国普通院校工科专业教育》,《科技创新导报(科教平台)》2008年第16期。
①王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年10月。
②张玉:“战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究”,博士学位论文,西南大学,2007年4月。
①李从浩:《马丁·特罗的高等教育大众化理论再探讨》,《教育评论》2006年第2期,第95页。
②“雅典娜神殿”为诗人和学者集会之地。
③Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. p.64. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213.
①Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. p.64. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213.
②Martin A. Trow, Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. UC Berkeley: Institute of Governmental Studies. 2005.8.5. p.64. http://escholarship.org/uc/item/96p3s213.
①Arthur M .Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998. p.175.
①Arthur M .Cohen, The Shaping of American Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1998. p.176.
①[美]阿瑟·林克、威廉·卡顿:《1900年以来的美国史(上册)》,刘绪贻等译,中国社会科学出版社,1983年,第22页。
②John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. p.205.
①John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. p.206.
②John R. Thelin, A History of American Higher Education. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. p.226.
③Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997.P2.
①I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948. pp.5-6.
②[美]阿瑟?林克、威廉?卡顿:《1900年以来的美国史(中册)》,刘绪贻等译,中国社会科学出版社,1983年,第197页。
③范慕韩:《世界经济统计摘要》,人民出版社,1985年,第334-335页。
①William H. Chafe, The American Woman– Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920 -1970. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. p.135.
②William H. Chafe, The American Woman–Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920 -1970. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. p.136.
③William H. Chafe, The American Woman–Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920 -1970. New York: Oxford University Press, 1972. p.139.
①Lynn Y. Weiner, From Working Girl to Working Mother: The Female Labor Force in the United States, 1820-1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, NC.1985. p.4.
②王向东、扈长茂(编译):《美军第二次世界大战卫生统计》,中国人民解放军总后勤部卫生部,1983年12月,第1-2页。
③I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948. pp.167-168.
④I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948. pp.165-166.
⑤I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948. p.165.
①张玉:“战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究”,博士学位论文,西南大学,2007年4月,第69页。
②[美]拉尔夫?德?贝茨:《1933-1973美国史(上卷)》,南京大学历史系英美对外关系研究室译,人民出版社,1984年,第401页。
③I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. p.165.
④I. L. Kandel, The Impact of the War upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1948.pp.7-8.
①杨克瑞:《战后美国联邦政府大学生资助政策研究》,北京师范大学出版社,2008年6月,第44页。
②I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. p.128.
③王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第53页。
①I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. pp.244-245.
①I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. pp.243-244.
②I. L. Kandel, The Impact of theWar upon American Education. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.1948. p.248.
①Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.3.
①陈学飞:《二战以来美国高等教育发展的基本指导思想》,《上海高教研究》1995年3月,第76页。
②王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第54页。
①杨克瑞:《战后美国联邦政府大学生资助政策研究》,北京师范大学出版社,2008年6月,第42页。
②Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.9.
①参见王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第51页。
②Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.1.
③Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.2.
①Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.2.
②Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.3.
③Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.4.
①Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.19.
②Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.15.
③Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.16.
①参见王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第51页。
②Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.11.
①杨克瑞:《美国<高等教育法>的历史演变分析》,《比较教育研究》2005年总第179期第4期,第22页。
①参见张玉:“战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究”,博士学位论文,西南大学,2007年4月,第57-58页。
②参见王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第47页。
③1962年由美国教授弗里兹·马克鲁普(Fritz Machlup)于《美国知识的生产与分布》中最早提出的理论。
④陈学飞:《二战以来美国高等教育发展的基本指导思想》,《上海高教研究》1995年3月,第78-79页。
⑤1980年更名为“佩尔助学金”。
①参见王英杰:《美国高等教育的发展与改革》,人民教育出版社,1993年,第43页。
②杨克瑞:《战后美国联邦政府大学生资助政策研究》,北京师范大学出版社,2008年6月,第44-45页。
③参见张玉:“战后美国联邦高等教育弱势扶助政策发展研究”,博士学位论文,西南大学,2007年4月,第57页。
①Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.13.
①Stockholm Sweden, An Outline of American History. United States Information Agency, 1994.5. p.8. http://www.for68.com/new/2006/2/wa17673917182260029583-0.htm.
②Robert J. Havighurst, American Higher Education in the 1960′s. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1960. p.5.
①Lynn Y. Weiner, From Working Girl to Working Mother: The Female Labor Force in the United States, 1820-1980. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, NC.1985. p.4.
①Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.5.
②Stockholm Sweden, An Outline of American History[M]. United States Information Agency, 1994.5. p.12. http://www.for68.com/new/2006/2/wa84201222271822600210230-0.htm
①Stockholm Sweden, An Outline of American History[M]. United States Information Agency, 1994.5. p.12. http://www.for68.com/new/2006/2/wa84201222271822600210230-0.htm
②刘绪贻:《20世纪30年代以来美国史论丛》,中国社会科学院出版社,2001年,第331页。
③[美]威廉?福斯特:《美国历史中的黑人》,三联书店,1960年,第570页。
①Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.6.
②Patricia J. Gumport, Maria Iannozzi, Susan Shaman, Robert Zemsky, Trends in United States Higher Education from Massification to Post Massification. National Center for Postsecondary Improvement.1997. p.5.
①[美] Robert Zembky:《美国高等教育的后大众化》,樊建芳译,《国际高等教育研究》2000年第3期,第34页。
②参见孙益:《校园反叛—20世纪60年代的学生运动与高等教育》,《清华大学教育研究》2006年8月第27卷第4期,第81页。
①Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.5.
②Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.5.
③Arthur M. Cohen, The Community College in the American Educational System. Washington. DC: National Institute of Education. U.S. Dept. of Education, 1985. p.6.
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⒈美国教育部http://www.ed.gov/
⒉美国国家档案局http://www.archives.gov/
⒊美国统计局http://www.census.gov/
⒋美国国会http://uscode.house.govldownload
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