景观水平上的海南岛热带天然林功能群的研究
|
摘要
海南岛的热带森林是我国生物多样性最为丰富的生态系统之一，同时也是遭受干扰最严重的植被类型之一。过度的森林采伐和不合理的土地利用已导致了原始林大面积减少，次生林面积显著增加。景观空间配置的变化以及景观的破碎化，对具有不同功能特征的物种组在景观中的生存、维持、生长和分布等均产生了深远的影响。我国以往对热带森林的研究多集中在群落及群落以下水平，在景观水平上的研究很少，而以功能群为基础在景观水平上的研究则还没有人涉及。本文以海南岛典型的热带天然林区—霸王岭林区为对象，应用GPS定位、公里网格群落样方调查、遥感影像解译、GIS分析和模型模拟相结合的方法在景观水平上开展了热带天然林功能群的生态学研究，主要内容及结果如下：
(1)首先基于栅格数据分析了斑块类型和景观格局的变化，其次为了探讨与恢复后期林片断的毗邻程度在决定次生演替上所起的作用，进行了缓冲区分析。结果表明：在1986-1998年间，相对于其它类型外，恢复后期林是唯一变化不显著的类型，而在1998-2002年间，大多数类型均变化不显著；大多数斑块类型在1986-2002年间破碎化趋势明显，表现为斑块数、边缘密度持续增加，斑块平均大小和核心区面积不断减小；次生林分布与恢复后期林距离呈现明显的相关关系。恢复时间长的次生林在恢复后期林附近所占面积比例较高，随着与恢复后期林距离的加大，恢复时间短的次生林逐渐占据优势。
(2)为了阐明在不同的时空尺度上功能群内物种丰富度和多度的变化规律，依据植被类型、干扰方式和恢复阶段划分了8个森林景观类型，同时依据生长型、演替地位和大小特征划分了7个功能群。通过研究发现功能群个数在景观水平上变化不明显，仅在低地雨林皆伐恢复前期景观缺失了主林层和超冠层乔木功能群；不同的森林景观类型都会有一组功能群占优势；低地雨林皆伐中期景观和海南松老龄林之间，低地雨林径级择伐景观和低地雨林老龄林之间，以及山地雨林各景观类型之间功能群物种丰富度和多度结构相似性水平较高；具有同样演替地位的乔木和灌木功能群，在景观类型之间具有相似的物种丰富度和多度变化格局；各功能群物种丰富度和多度在低地雨林恢复系列上存在相似的变化格局，而在山地雨林恢复系列上，则相似性较差。本研究的结论进一步证明了竞争一定居权衡和演替生态位理论的正确性而不太适用于中性理论和生态平衡假说。
(3)为了探讨在热带天然林景观中不同因素对功能群分布的影响，运用冗余度分析
(Redundancy analysis，RDA)分别探讨了功能群出现与否、功能群物种丰富度和多度与环境、空间和干扰因素之间的关系．运用偏冗余度分析对影响功能群分布变化的环境、干扰、空间及其交互作用等因素进行了定量分解。结果表明：利用木材密度和潜在最大高度两个指标划分出的9个功能群，能较好的区分功能群间对生境的适应差异；因子分解表明，纯环境、纯人为干扰和环境-人为干扰交互作用是影响3个功能群矩阵分布变化的主要因素，纯空间和与空间位置相耦合的因素相对较低；在诸多因子中，干扰类型、地形因子、土壤类型、砂砾含量、土层厚度以及经纬度坐标是影响功能群分布变化的主导因子；RDA排序分析表明，一般来讲，硬木多在生境条件好，远离人为干扰的立地高发生。软木则更多地出现于生境条件恶劣，人为干扰频繁的立地。而中等硬度功能群则生态幅度较宽。但除了软木灌木功能群外，其它功能群物种丰富度和多度多在土层深厚，生境条件较好的立地较高。
(4)从优势功能群途径出发，建立了热带天然林景观分类体系。通过对TM影像进行低通滤波(5×5)处理，最大似然监督分类，总体精度评估和Kappa统计方法检验以及借助GIS技术进行优势功能群斑块在森林恢复阶段和地形梯度上的分布格局分析。结果表明：7个土地利用类、4个恢复阶段类和6个优势功能群类在影像上获得了较好的分离精度，总分类精度均在78％以上；先锋种功能群斑块在灌木(稀树)草地景观、恢复初期景观、平坡、半阳坡和阳坡面以及在海拔小于850 m的范围内，优势度较高。而在恢复中后期、半阴坡和阴坡以及海拔850 m以上的景观中则主要由顶极种功能群斑块所控制。功能群斑块格局在坡度梯度上敏感性不高。
(5)为了探讨热带林不同演替阶段的功能群地上生物量与植被指数之间的相互关系并对其分布进行预测，在基于遥感影像和135个样地调查的基础上，分别选取了归一化差异植被指数(NDVI)、短红外湿度植被指数(MVI5)、中红外湿度植被指数(MVI7)和比值植被指数(RVI)与计算的顶极种和先锋种功能群生物量做相关分析，并利用逐步线性回归分析分别构建了基于植被指数的生物量回归模型；利用残差图对模型的有效性进行检验。结果表明MVI7和MVI5与顶极种功能群生物量关系显著，而NDVI和RVI对先锋种功能群生物量具有较好的指示作用；顶极种和先锋种功能群生物量具有高预测面积的区域分别占总面积的73.98％和88.08％，表明两个生物量模型均具有较好的模拟效果；模拟结果表明顶极种功能群生物量主要集中于研究区中部、北部和西南部区域，而先锋种功能群生物量分布并没表现出明显的规律，而是不均衡的散布于整个研究区。
(6)为了探寻景观格局和物种丰富度的关系，利用最大似然监督分类方法对该区核心区5个连续的景观进行了斑块类型的划分：在每个斑块类型内计算了各功能群物种丰富度的平均数；结合主成分分析和多重回归模型进行了景观格局指数和各功能群物种丰富度的相关分析。分析结果表明在斑块类型水平上斑块类型面积比例、边界密度、总边界对比度指数和面积加权平均形状指数是影响各功能群物种丰富度分布的主要因子；相对于先锋功能群，景观破碎化对顶极功能群影响较大，表现为随着生境多样性的增加和生境形状的复杂化相对于先锋功能群，顶极功能群物种丰富度增加明显，而随着边界密度的增加和总边界对比度指数的提高，先锋功能群物种数略有增加，而顶极功能群物种数有显著减小的趋势。
(7)为了探讨在热带天然林景观中关键种的潜在分布，首先在功能群框架下运用优势度指数法进行了关键种的确定；采用基于GIS的GARP生态位模型对主要关键种的地理分布进行了预测，并应用受试者工作特征分析进行了模型精度验证；应用多元线性回归分析对影响各关键种潜在分布的关键因子进行了确定。结果表明：在8个功能群中，先锋种、顶极灌木种和顶极超冠层乔木种划分出的关键种较为理想；在进行预测的8个关键种中，除了先锋主林层乔木种海南杨桐(Adinandra hainanensis)，其它3个先锋种包括毛稔(Melastoma sanguiueum)、银柴(Aporosa chinensis)和枫香(Liquidambar formosana)在研究区北部、西部以及西南部均具有较高的发生概率，而顶极种除了顶极超冠层乔木种南亚松(Pinus merkusii)外，九节(Psychotria rubra)、高脚罗伞(Ardisia quinquegona)和海南椎(Castanopsis hainanensis)具有相似的潜在分布格局，在研究区中部、东南部和南部地区具有较高的发生概率；相关分析表明极端最低温、年均温、极端最高温、年均降水量、海拔和坡向6个因子是影响研究区关键种潜在分布的关键因子；精度检验表明，GARP模型对8个关键种的潜在分布预测效果均较好。
(8)为了探讨在热带天然林景观进行基于功能的潜在自然植被分布，首先采用生态位模型途径对8个功能群的潜在分布进行了模拟；其次对TM影像采用最大似然监督分类方法进行了基于功能的现状自然植被识别；然后通过对功能群发生概率图进行叠加，并在参考现状植被分布以及在功能群之间相互作用规则的制约下，构建了最终的潜在自然植被分布图。结果表明：生态位模型对8个功能群的潜在分布预测效果均较好，平均曲线下面积达到了0.81；先锋种功能群和顶极种功能群呈现出相异的分布格局，反映了两大类功能群个体生态学特性的差别和对环境的适应差异；各功能植被类型在空间分布格局和分散程度上存在着明显的差异，反映了一定的空间自相关特征。
As one of the most species-diverse ecosystems in China, tropical forests of Hainan Island are increasingly affected by various disturbances. Due to extensive deforestation and unreasonable land use, the area of primary forests has been reduced and that of secondary forest has been increased markedly. Landscape fragmentation and the change of spatial configuration of patches have dramatic impacts on coexistencence, growth, maintenance, and distribution of plant functional groups in forest landscapes. The past ecological researchs conducted in tropical forest of Hainan Island were mainly at community or below community levels, ecological researches at the landscape-level and even research based on functional group approach were, however, rarely explored. A typical tropical forest landscape-Bawangling region of Hainan Island was selected for this study. By combining methods of GPS positioning, field investigation of systematic grid sampling plots, remote sensing imagery interpretation, GIS analyses and model, functional groups of natural tropical forests at landscape scale were studied. The main contents and results of the research are as follows:
(1) Grid squares were used as the sampling units for patch type and landscape pattern change analyses. To explore the impact of proximity of late-successional forest on secondary succession, the buffer analysis was performed. The results showed that between 1986 and 1998, except late-successional forest, the proportion of all other patch types changed significantly. However, between 1998 and 2002 most of patch types didn't changed significantly. Landscape metrics changed from 1986 to 2002. The number of patches and edge density increased, in contrast, mean patch size and core area decreased in most of patch types which indicated that fragmentation of the study region increased from 1986 to 2002. The distribution of secondary forest was significantly associated with the location of late-successional forest. The propotion of secondary forest with long recovery time was higher near the late-successional forest. However, with the increase of distance away from late-successional forest, the propotion of forest with short recovery time increased gradually.
(2) To understand the spatiotemporal patterns and dynamics of species richness and abundance of functional groups in the tropical forest landscape, we classified the study area into eight landscape types based on vegetation type, disturbance manner and the time of recovery. The plant species were also aggregated into seven functional groups based on the growth form, successional status and plant size. The results showed that all functional groups, except for the emergent and canopy tree species which absent in early-successional clear cut lowland rain forest landscape, were present in all landscape types. Each landscape type had different numbers of dominant functional groups. There were similar species richness and abundance structure among functional groups between mid-successional clear cut lowland rain forest and old growth tropical coniferous forest. This similarity existed in selective logged and old-growth lowland rainforest, as well as among landscape types of montane rainforest. The functional groups with same successional status had similar patterns of species richness and abundance ratios among different landscape types. The variation patterns of functional groups along the successional stages in terms of species richness and abundance among the tropical lowland rainforest landscape types were more similar to each other than those in the tropical montane rainforest landscape types. This study provides further support for competition-colonization tradeoff and successional niche theory as opposed to models of neutrality and ecological equivalence.
(3) To explore the relative influence of ecological factors on the distribution of plant functional groups in the tropical natural forest landscape, we derived functional group classification using the characteristics of species-specific wood density and potential maximum height. The three functional groups data sets were used, i.e. the presence-absence, the species richness, and abundance. Their relations to environmental, anthropogenetic disturbance, and spatial factors were analyzed with redundancy analysis (RDA). We then used a partial RDA with variation partitioning to specify which proportion of the variation in functional groups distribution pattern is explained by each of the three factors exclusively and which proportions are attributable to interactions between the factors. We found that purely environmental, purely anthropogenetic disturbance and the interaction between environmental and anthropogenetic disturbance were of comparable importance for controlling the changes of functional groups distribution. However, purely spatial influence and the interaction between spatial and other factors were relatively less important. Furthermore, we found that anthropogenetic disturbance types, topographical factors, soil types, gravel content, soil depth and X, Y coordinates all had unique impacts on functional groups distribution. Generally, hardwood functional groups were of high presence at the well-conditions, off-disturbance sites. But for softwood, the situation was the opposite. The distributional range of moderate density wood was wider than the other two groups. Except softwood shrub, the others having high species richness and abundance occurred at the well-conditioned sites, especially where soil depth was deeper.
(4) A functional groups based approach was tried in this paper to classify landscape types in the species rich forest ecosystems. In this process, the TM imagery was treated by 5×5 low-pass mean filter, and the identification was made by the supervised maximum likelihood classification technique combining with field investigation data. The accuracy of classification was assessed by the classification error matrix and Kappa statistics. Finally, the distribution patterns of patches composed of different dominant functional groups and their relationships with successional stage and topography were analyzed by GIS. The results showed that seven land-use classes, four successional stage classes and six predominant functional group classes were classified from Landsat TM data with a reasonable degree (an average of up to 78 percent of overall classification accuracy) of class separability. Patches dominated by the pioneer were mainly distributed in the shrub lands, early recovery stage stand, flat area, sunny slopes and elevation ranges of＜850 m. While the patches dominated by the climax species had more occupancies in the middle and late recovery stages, shaded slopes, and elevation ranges of＞850 m. The slope gradient had no significant influences on the distribution patterns of patch types dominated by different functional groups.
(5) To evaluate relationships between biomass and vegetation indices and to determine the spatial distribution of biomass for functional groups of different successional status in the tropical forest, we used the modelling procedure based on vegetation index and 135 sampling plots distributed over the study area. Biomass of different functional groups was obtained by regression analysis. Four vegetation indices (normalized difference vegetation index (NDV1), moisture vegetation index using Landsat's 5 (MVI5), moisture vegetation index using Landsat's band 7 (MVI7) and ratio vegetation index (RVI)) were correlated with measurements of aboveground biomass (climax and pioneer species biomass). Models describing the relationships between biomass and vegetation indices using stepwise linear regression analysis were also developed. Three biomass components maps were produced using the developed models. Residual maps were used to test the validity of the models. The results showed that MVI7 and MVI5 were the most important vegetation indices that are effective determinants of biomass for the climax species functional group, whereas NDVI and RVI seem to be good indices of biomass for pioneer species functional group. The strongly predictive percent areas for climax and pioneer species biomass model were 73.98 and 88.08 respectively. Simulated biomass of climax species was mainly continually distributed in the center, north and southwest parts of study area. However, simulated biomass of pioneer species was scattered over the study area.
(6) To identify and characterize the relationships between landscape patterns of different habitat types and species richness of functional groups in the natural tropical forest region, we obtained patch types from a Thematic Mapper imagery classification using a supervised maximum likelihood classification in five adjacent sub-regions in the study region. The mean number of species of different functional groups was calculated for each patch type in each of the five sub-regions. The relationships between landscape patterns and the mean number of species of different functional groups were evaluated with multiple linear regression and principle component analysis. The results showed that significant relations existed between four landscape metrics and the mean number of species of different functional groups at the patch type level. The four landscape metrics included percentage of landscape (PLAND), edge density (PD), area-weighted mean shape index (SHAPE_AM) and total edge contrast index (TECI). The nature of these relations changed according to the functional groups considered, indicating that different functional groups reacted to the landscape pattern differently. The influences of landscape fragmentation appeared to be stronger for climax than for pioneer functional groups. With the increase of habitat diversity and more irregular shape of patch types, the species richness of climax functional groups increased more than that of the pioneer functional groups. While with the increase of PD and TECI, the species richness of pioneer functional groups didn't change significantly, on the contrary, the species richness of the climax functional groups decreased significantly.
(7) Keystone species were identified within the context of functional groups using Dominance Index (DI). The GARP was used to estimate the keystone species' potential distribution and then the Receiver Operating Characteristics was used to evaluate the predictive performance. On this basis, by applying multiple linear regression analysis, we identified themajor factors determining the potential distributions of keystone species. The results showed that identification of keystone species within the pioneer, climax shrub and emergent tree functional groups was easier than within the climax subcanopy and climax canopy tree functional groups. Among the eight keystone species, pioneer species such as Melastoma sanguiueum, Aporosa chinensis and Liquidambar formosana (but except Adinandra hainanensis) had high occurrence probabilities in the north, west and southwest areas of study area. However, climax species such as Psychotria rubra, Ardisia quinquegona and Castanopsis hainanensis (but except Pinus merkusii) have high occurrence probabilities in the central, southeast and south regions of the study region. Minimum and maximum temperature, mean annual temperature and precipitation, aspect and altitude were the key factors determining the potential distributions of keystone species. Evaluation of model's performance indicated excellent predictive abilities of the model for predicting distributions of eight keystone species.
(8) To reconstruct the functional groups based potential natural vegetation (PNV) in the tropical forest landscape, a series of procedures were conducted in this study. Firstly, we used the GIS-based GARP model to estimate the potential distributions of the eight functional groups. Secondly, we identified functional groups based realized natural vegetation (RNV) by using a supervised maximum likelihood classification technique. Thirdly, through overlaying occurrence probability surfaces of the functional groups while considering the distribution of RNV and interactions among the different functional groups, we derived the final functional groups based PNV. The results showed that the well model predictive performances for the functional groups were obtained, with all area under curve (AUC) up to 0.81. The distribution patterns of pioneer and climax functional groups were significantly different which reflected the differences of autoecological functional traits and reactions to environmental changes between the two functional group categories. The differences in spatial distribution patterns and in dispersal extents among functional groups based vegetation types indicated that the spatial autocorrelation existed in compositions of the different vegetation types.
(1)首先基于栅格数据分析了斑块类型和景观格局的变化，其次为了探讨与恢复后期林片断的毗邻程度在决定次生演替上所起的作用，进行了缓冲区分析。结果表明：在1986-1998年间，相对于其它类型外，恢复后期林是唯一变化不显著的类型，而在1998-2002年间，大多数类型均变化不显著；大多数斑块类型在1986-2002年间破碎化趋势明显，表现为斑块数、边缘密度持续增加，斑块平均大小和核心区面积不断减小；次生林分布与恢复后期林距离呈现明显的相关关系。恢复时间长的次生林在恢复后期林附近所占面积比例较高，随着与恢复后期林距离的加大，恢复时间短的次生林逐渐占据优势。
(2)为了阐明在不同的时空尺度上功能群内物种丰富度和多度的变化规律，依据植被类型、干扰方式和恢复阶段划分了8个森林景观类型，同时依据生长型、演替地位和大小特征划分了7个功能群。通过研究发现功能群个数在景观水平上变化不明显，仅在低地雨林皆伐恢复前期景观缺失了主林层和超冠层乔木功能群；不同的森林景观类型都会有一组功能群占优势；低地雨林皆伐中期景观和海南松老龄林之间，低地雨林径级择伐景观和低地雨林老龄林之间，以及山地雨林各景观类型之间功能群物种丰富度和多度结构相似性水平较高；具有同样演替地位的乔木和灌木功能群，在景观类型之间具有相似的物种丰富度和多度变化格局；各功能群物种丰富度和多度在低地雨林恢复系列上存在相似的变化格局，而在山地雨林恢复系列上，则相似性较差。本研究的结论进一步证明了竞争一定居权衡和演替生态位理论的正确性而不太适用于中性理论和生态平衡假说。
(3)为了探讨在热带天然林景观中不同因素对功能群分布的影响，运用冗余度分析
(Redundancy analysis，RDA)分别探讨了功能群出现与否、功能群物种丰富度和多度与环境、空间和干扰因素之间的关系．运用偏冗余度分析对影响功能群分布变化的环境、干扰、空间及其交互作用等因素进行了定量分解。结果表明：利用木材密度和潜在最大高度两个指标划分出的9个功能群，能较好的区分功能群间对生境的适应差异；因子分解表明，纯环境、纯人为干扰和环境-人为干扰交互作用是影响3个功能群矩阵分布变化的主要因素，纯空间和与空间位置相耦合的因素相对较低；在诸多因子中，干扰类型、地形因子、土壤类型、砂砾含量、土层厚度以及经纬度坐标是影响功能群分布变化的主导因子；RDA排序分析表明，一般来讲，硬木多在生境条件好，远离人为干扰的立地高发生。软木则更多地出现于生境条件恶劣，人为干扰频繁的立地。而中等硬度功能群则生态幅度较宽。但除了软木灌木功能群外，其它功能群物种丰富度和多度多在土层深厚，生境条件较好的立地较高。
(4)从优势功能群途径出发，建立了热带天然林景观分类体系。通过对TM影像进行低通滤波(5×5)处理，最大似然监督分类，总体精度评估和Kappa统计方法检验以及借助GIS技术进行优势功能群斑块在森林恢复阶段和地形梯度上的分布格局分析。结果表明：7个土地利用类、4个恢复阶段类和6个优势功能群类在影像上获得了较好的分离精度，总分类精度均在78％以上；先锋种功能群斑块在灌木(稀树)草地景观、恢复初期景观、平坡、半阳坡和阳坡面以及在海拔小于850 m的范围内，优势度较高。而在恢复中后期、半阴坡和阴坡以及海拔850 m以上的景观中则主要由顶极种功能群斑块所控制。功能群斑块格局在坡度梯度上敏感性不高。
(5)为了探讨热带林不同演替阶段的功能群地上生物量与植被指数之间的相互关系并对其分布进行预测，在基于遥感影像和135个样地调查的基础上，分别选取了归一化差异植被指数(NDVI)、短红外湿度植被指数(MVI5)、中红外湿度植被指数(MVI7)和比值植被指数(RVI)与计算的顶极种和先锋种功能群生物量做相关分析，并利用逐步线性回归分析分别构建了基于植被指数的生物量回归模型；利用残差图对模型的有效性进行检验。结果表明MVI7和MVI5与顶极种功能群生物量关系显著，而NDVI和RVI对先锋种功能群生物量具有较好的指示作用；顶极种和先锋种功能群生物量具有高预测面积的区域分别占总面积的73.98％和88.08％，表明两个生物量模型均具有较好的模拟效果；模拟结果表明顶极种功能群生物量主要集中于研究区中部、北部和西南部区域，而先锋种功能群生物量分布并没表现出明显的规律，而是不均衡的散布于整个研究区。
(6)为了探寻景观格局和物种丰富度的关系，利用最大似然监督分类方法对该区核心区5个连续的景观进行了斑块类型的划分：在每个斑块类型内计算了各功能群物种丰富度的平均数；结合主成分分析和多重回归模型进行了景观格局指数和各功能群物种丰富度的相关分析。分析结果表明在斑块类型水平上斑块类型面积比例、边界密度、总边界对比度指数和面积加权平均形状指数是影响各功能群物种丰富度分布的主要因子；相对于先锋功能群，景观破碎化对顶极功能群影响较大，表现为随着生境多样性的增加和生境形状的复杂化相对于先锋功能群，顶极功能群物种丰富度增加明显，而随着边界密度的增加和总边界对比度指数的提高，先锋功能群物种数略有增加，而顶极功能群物种数有显著减小的趋势。
(7)为了探讨在热带天然林景观中关键种的潜在分布，首先在功能群框架下运用优势度指数法进行了关键种的确定；采用基于GIS的GARP生态位模型对主要关键种的地理分布进行了预测，并应用受试者工作特征分析进行了模型精度验证；应用多元线性回归分析对影响各关键种潜在分布的关键因子进行了确定。结果表明：在8个功能群中，先锋种、顶极灌木种和顶极超冠层乔木种划分出的关键种较为理想；在进行预测的8个关键种中，除了先锋主林层乔木种海南杨桐(Adinandra hainanensis)，其它3个先锋种包括毛稔(Melastoma sanguiueum)、银柴(Aporosa chinensis)和枫香(Liquidambar formosana)在研究区北部、西部以及西南部均具有较高的发生概率，而顶极种除了顶极超冠层乔木种南亚松(Pinus merkusii)外，九节(Psychotria rubra)、高脚罗伞(Ardisia quinquegona)和海南椎(Castanopsis hainanensis)具有相似的潜在分布格局，在研究区中部、东南部和南部地区具有较高的发生概率；相关分析表明极端最低温、年均温、极端最高温、年均降水量、海拔和坡向6个因子是影响研究区关键种潜在分布的关键因子；精度检验表明，GARP模型对8个关键种的潜在分布预测效果均较好。
(8)为了探讨在热带天然林景观进行基于功能的潜在自然植被分布，首先采用生态位模型途径对8个功能群的潜在分布进行了模拟；其次对TM影像采用最大似然监督分类方法进行了基于功能的现状自然植被识别；然后通过对功能群发生概率图进行叠加，并在参考现状植被分布以及在功能群之间相互作用规则的制约下，构建了最终的潜在自然植被分布图。结果表明：生态位模型对8个功能群的潜在分布预测效果均较好，平均曲线下面积达到了0.81；先锋种功能群和顶极种功能群呈现出相异的分布格局，反映了两大类功能群个体生态学特性的差别和对环境的适应差异；各功能植被类型在空间分布格局和分散程度上存在着明显的差异，反映了一定的空间自相关特征。
As one of the most species-diverse ecosystems in China, tropical forests of Hainan Island are increasingly affected by various disturbances. Due to extensive deforestation and unreasonable land use, the area of primary forests has been reduced and that of secondary forest has been increased markedly. Landscape fragmentation and the change of spatial configuration of patches have dramatic impacts on coexistencence, growth, maintenance, and distribution of plant functional groups in forest landscapes. The past ecological researchs conducted in tropical forest of Hainan Island were mainly at community or below community levels, ecological researches at the landscape-level and even research based on functional group approach were, however, rarely explored. A typical tropical forest landscape-Bawangling region of Hainan Island was selected for this study. By combining methods of GPS positioning, field investigation of systematic grid sampling plots, remote sensing imagery interpretation, GIS analyses and model, functional groups of natural tropical forests at landscape scale were studied. The main contents and results of the research are as follows:
(1) Grid squares were used as the sampling units for patch type and landscape pattern change analyses. To explore the impact of proximity of late-successional forest on secondary succession, the buffer analysis was performed. The results showed that between 1986 and 1998, except late-successional forest, the proportion of all other patch types changed significantly. However, between 1998 and 2002 most of patch types didn't changed significantly. Landscape metrics changed from 1986 to 2002. The number of patches and edge density increased, in contrast, mean patch size and core area decreased in most of patch types which indicated that fragmentation of the study region increased from 1986 to 2002. The distribution of secondary forest was significantly associated with the location of late-successional forest. The propotion of secondary forest with long recovery time was higher near the late-successional forest. However, with the increase of distance away from late-successional forest, the propotion of forest with short recovery time increased gradually.
(2) To understand the spatiotemporal patterns and dynamics of species richness and abundance of functional groups in the tropical forest landscape, we classified the study area into eight landscape types based on vegetation type, disturbance manner and the time of recovery. The plant species were also aggregated into seven functional groups based on the growth form, successional status and plant size. The results showed that all functional groups, except for the emergent and canopy tree species which absent in early-successional clear cut lowland rain forest landscape, were present in all landscape types. Each landscape type had different numbers of dominant functional groups. There were similar species richness and abundance structure among functional groups between mid-successional clear cut lowland rain forest and old growth tropical coniferous forest. This similarity existed in selective logged and old-growth lowland rainforest, as well as among landscape types of montane rainforest. The functional groups with same successional status had similar patterns of species richness and abundance ratios among different landscape types. The variation patterns of functional groups along the successional stages in terms of species richness and abundance among the tropical lowland rainforest landscape types were more similar to each other than those in the tropical montane rainforest landscape types. This study provides further support for competition-colonization tradeoff and successional niche theory as opposed to models of neutrality and ecological equivalence.
(3) To explore the relative influence of ecological factors on the distribution of plant functional groups in the tropical natural forest landscape, we derived functional group classification using the characteristics of species-specific wood density and potential maximum height. The three functional groups data sets were used, i.e. the presence-absence, the species richness, and abundance. Their relations to environmental, anthropogenetic disturbance, and spatial factors were analyzed with redundancy analysis (RDA). We then used a partial RDA with variation partitioning to specify which proportion of the variation in functional groups distribution pattern is explained by each of the three factors exclusively and which proportions are attributable to interactions between the factors. We found that purely environmental, purely anthropogenetic disturbance and the interaction between environmental and anthropogenetic disturbance were of comparable importance for controlling the changes of functional groups distribution. However, purely spatial influence and the interaction between spatial and other factors were relatively less important. Furthermore, we found that anthropogenetic disturbance types, topographical factors, soil types, gravel content, soil depth and X, Y coordinates all had unique impacts on functional groups distribution. Generally, hardwood functional groups were of high presence at the well-conditions, off-disturbance sites. But for softwood, the situation was the opposite. The distributional range of moderate density wood was wider than the other two groups. Except softwood shrub, the others having high species richness and abundance occurred at the well-conditioned sites, especially where soil depth was deeper.
(4) A functional groups based approach was tried in this paper to classify landscape types in the species rich forest ecosystems. In this process, the TM imagery was treated by 5×5 low-pass mean filter, and the identification was made by the supervised maximum likelihood classification technique combining with field investigation data. The accuracy of classification was assessed by the classification error matrix and Kappa statistics. Finally, the distribution patterns of patches composed of different dominant functional groups and their relationships with successional stage and topography were analyzed by GIS. The results showed that seven land-use classes, four successional stage classes and six predominant functional group classes were classified from Landsat TM data with a reasonable degree (an average of up to 78 percent of overall classification accuracy) of class separability. Patches dominated by the pioneer were mainly distributed in the shrub lands, early recovery stage stand, flat area, sunny slopes and elevation ranges of＜850 m. While the patches dominated by the climax species had more occupancies in the middle and late recovery stages, shaded slopes, and elevation ranges of＞850 m. The slope gradient had no significant influences on the distribution patterns of patch types dominated by different functional groups.
(5) To evaluate relationships between biomass and vegetation indices and to determine the spatial distribution of biomass for functional groups of different successional status in the tropical forest, we used the modelling procedure based on vegetation index and 135 sampling plots distributed over the study area. Biomass of different functional groups was obtained by regression analysis. Four vegetation indices (normalized difference vegetation index (NDV1), moisture vegetation index using Landsat's 5 (MVI5), moisture vegetation index using Landsat's band 7 (MVI7) and ratio vegetation index (RVI)) were correlated with measurements of aboveground biomass (climax and pioneer species biomass). Models describing the relationships between biomass and vegetation indices using stepwise linear regression analysis were also developed. Three biomass components maps were produced using the developed models. Residual maps were used to test the validity of the models. The results showed that MVI7 and MVI5 were the most important vegetation indices that are effective determinants of biomass for the climax species functional group, whereas NDVI and RVI seem to be good indices of biomass for pioneer species functional group. The strongly predictive percent areas for climax and pioneer species biomass model were 73.98 and 88.08 respectively. Simulated biomass of climax species was mainly continually distributed in the center, north and southwest parts of study area. However, simulated biomass of pioneer species was scattered over the study area.
(6) To identify and characterize the relationships between landscape patterns of different habitat types and species richness of functional groups in the natural tropical forest region, we obtained patch types from a Thematic Mapper imagery classification using a supervised maximum likelihood classification in five adjacent sub-regions in the study region. The mean number of species of different functional groups was calculated for each patch type in each of the five sub-regions. The relationships between landscape patterns and the mean number of species of different functional groups were evaluated with multiple linear regression and principle component analysis. The results showed that significant relations existed between four landscape metrics and the mean number of species of different functional groups at the patch type level. The four landscape metrics included percentage of landscape (PLAND), edge density (PD), area-weighted mean shape index (SHAPE_AM) and total edge contrast index (TECI). The nature of these relations changed according to the functional groups considered, indicating that different functional groups reacted to the landscape pattern differently. The influences of landscape fragmentation appeared to be stronger for climax than for pioneer functional groups. With the increase of habitat diversity and more irregular shape of patch types, the species richness of climax functional groups increased more than that of the pioneer functional groups. While with the increase of PD and TECI, the species richness of pioneer functional groups didn't change significantly, on the contrary, the species richness of the climax functional groups decreased significantly.
(7) Keystone species were identified within the context of functional groups using Dominance Index (DI). The GARP was used to estimate the keystone species' potential distribution and then the Receiver Operating Characteristics was used to evaluate the predictive performance. On this basis, by applying multiple linear regression analysis, we identified themajor factors determining the potential distributions of keystone species. The results showed that identification of keystone species within the pioneer, climax shrub and emergent tree functional groups was easier than within the climax subcanopy and climax canopy tree functional groups. Among the eight keystone species, pioneer species such as Melastoma sanguiueum, Aporosa chinensis and Liquidambar formosana (but except Adinandra hainanensis) had high occurrence probabilities in the north, west and southwest areas of study area. However, climax species such as Psychotria rubra, Ardisia quinquegona and Castanopsis hainanensis (but except Pinus merkusii) have high occurrence probabilities in the central, southeast and south regions of the study region. Minimum and maximum temperature, mean annual temperature and precipitation, aspect and altitude were the key factors determining the potential distributions of keystone species. Evaluation of model's performance indicated excellent predictive abilities of the model for predicting distributions of eight keystone species.
(8) To reconstruct the functional groups based potential natural vegetation (PNV) in the tropical forest landscape, a series of procedures were conducted in this study. Firstly, we used the GIS-based GARP model to estimate the potential distributions of the eight functional groups. Secondly, we identified functional groups based realized natural vegetation (RNV) by using a supervised maximum likelihood classification technique. Thirdly, through overlaying occurrence probability surfaces of the functional groups while considering the distribution of RNV and interactions among the different functional groups, we derived the final functional groups based PNV. The results showed that the well model predictive performances for the functional groups were obtained, with all area under curve (AUC) up to 0.81. The distribution patterns of pioneer and climax functional groups were significantly different which reflected the differences of autoecological functional traits and reactions to environmental changes between the two functional group categories. The differences in spatial distribution patterns and in dispersal extents among functional groups based vegetation types indicated that the spatial autocorrelation existed in compositions of the different vegetation types.
引文
[1] Bierregaard,R.O.,T.E.Lovejoy,V.Kapos,et al.The Biological Dynamics of Tropical Rainforest Fragments.BioScience,1992,42(11):859-866
[2] Richardson,J.E.,EM.Weitz,M.E Fay,et al.Rapid and recent origin of species richness in the Cape flora of South Africa.Nature,2001,412(6843):181-183
[3] Houghton,R.A.,J.L.Hackler.Emissions of carbon from forestry and land-use change in tropical Asia.Global Change Biology,1999,5(4):481-492
[4] Wilson,W.G,P.Lundberg,D.P.Vazquez,et al.Biodiversity and species interactions:extending Lotka-Volterra eommnnity theory.Ecology Letters,2003,6(10):944-952
[5] Peters,C.M.,A.H.Gentry,R.O.Mendelsohn.Valuation of an Amazonian rain forest.Nature,1989,339:655-656
[6] Bermingham,E.,C.Dick,C.Moritz eds.Tropical Rainforsts:Past,Present,and Future.Chicago and.London:University of Chicago Press,2005
[7] FAO.State of the World's Forests.Rome:Foodd and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,1999
[8] Noble,I.R.,R.Dirzo.Forests as human-dominated ecosystems.Science,1997,277:522-525
[9] Chazdon,R.L.Tropical forest recovery:legacies of human impact and natural disturbances.Perspectives in Plant Ecology,Evolution and Systematics,2003,6:51-71
[10] Wright,S.J.Tropical forests in a changing environment.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2005,20:553-560
[11] Andersen,M.,A.Thornhill,H.Koopowitz Tropical forest disruption and stochastic biodiversity losses in Tropical Forest Remants:Ecology,Management,and Conservation of Fragmented Communities W.F.Laurance,R.O.Bierregaard,Eds.Chicago,London:The University of Chicago Press,1997,281-291
[12] 臧润国，安树青，陶建平等．海南岛热带林生物多样性维持机制．北京：科学出版社，2004
[13] Turner,M.G Landscape ecology:what is the state of the science? Annual Review of Ecology,Evolution,and Systematics,2005,36(1):319-344
[14] de Blois,S.,G Domon,A.Bouchard.Landscape issues in plant ecology.Ecography,2002,25(2):244-256
[15] Fortin,M.J.,A.A.Agrawal.Landscape ecology comes of age.Ecology,2005,86:1965-1966
[16] Lovett,GM.,C.G Jones,M.G Turner.Ecosystem Function in Heterogeneous Landscapes.New York:Springer-Verlag,2005
[17] Krhler,P.,T.Ditzer,A.Huth.Concepts for the aggregation of tropical tree species into functional types and application to Sabah's lowland rain forest.Journal of Tropical Ecology,2000,16:591-602
[18] Loreau,M.Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning:recent theoretical advances.Oikos,2000,91:3-17
[19] Gondard,H.,J.Sandrine,A.James,et al.Plant functional types:a promising tool for management and restoration of degraded lands.Applied Vegetation Science,2003,6:223-234
[20] 蒋有绪，王伯荪，臧润国等．海南岛热带林生物多样性及其形成机制．北京：科学出版社，2002
[21] 王伯荪，余世孝，施苏华等．海南岛热带林生物多样性及其物种进化．北京：科学出版社，2005
[22] 胡玉佳，李玉杏．海南岛热带雨林．广州：广东高等教育出版社，1992
[23] 臧润国，刘静艳，董大方．林隙动态与森林生物多样性．北京：中国林业出版社，1999
[24] 李意德，陈步峰，周光益．中国海南岛热带森林及其生物多样性保护研究．北京：中国林业出版社，2002
[25] Ding,Y.,R.G.Zang.Community characteristics of early recovery vegetation on abandoned lands of shifting cultivation in Bawangling of Hainan Island,South China.Journal of Integrative Plant Biology,2005,47(5):530-538
[26] Ding,Y.,R.G.Zang,Y.X.Jiang.Effect ofhillslope gradient on vegetation recovery on abandoned land of shifting cultivation in Hainan Island,South China.Journal of Integrative Plant Biology,2006,48(6):642-653
[27] Southworth,J.,D.Munroe,H.Nagendra.Land cover change and landscape fragmentation--comparing the utility of continuous and discrete analyses for a western Honduras region.Agriculture,Ecosystems & Environment,2004,101(2-3):185-205
[28] Munroe,D.K.,J.Southworth,C.J.Tucker.The dynamics of land cover change in Western Honduras:exploring spatial and temporal complexity.Agricultural Economics,2002,27:355-369
[29] Nagendra,H.,J.Southworth,C.Tucker.Accessibility as a determinant of landscape transformation in Western Honduras:linking pattern and process.Landscape Ecology,2003,18:141-158
[30] Sierra,R.Dynamics and patterns of deforestation in the western Amazon:the Napo deforestation front,1986-1996.Applied Geography,1999,20:1-16
[31] Laurance,W.F.,A.K.M.Albemaz,G Schroth,et al.Predictors of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.Journal of Biogeography,2002,29(5-6):737-748
[32] Sanchez-Azofeifa,G.A.,R.C.Harriss,D.L.Skole.Deforestation in Costa Rica:a quantitative analysis using remote sensing imagery.Biotropica,2001,33(3):378-384
[33] Ochoa-Gaona,S.,M.Gonzalez-Espinosa.Land use and deforestation in the highlands of Chiapas,Mexico.Applied Geography,2000,20:17-42
[34] Cayuela,L.,J.M.R.Benayas,C,Echeverda.Clearance and fragmentation of tropical montane forests in the Highlands of Chiapas,Mexico(1975-2000).Forest Ecology and Management,2006,226(1-3):208-218
[35] FAmes,D.S.,R.F.Nelson,D.L.Skole,et al.Accuracies in Mapping Secondary Tropical Forest Age from Sequential Satellite Imagery.Remote Sensing of Environment,1998,65(1):112-120
[36] Conghe,S.,E.Curtis.The spatial manifestation of forest succession in optical imagery:the potential of multiresolution imagery.Remote Sensing of Environment,2002,82:271-284
[37] Foody,G.M.,G.Palubinskas,R.M.Lucas,et al.Identifying terrestrial carbon sinks:classification of successional stages in regenerating tropical forest from landsat TM data.Remote Sensing of Environment,1996,55(3):205-216
[38] Hernandez-Stefanoni,J.L.Relationships between landscape patterns and species richness of trees,shrubs and vines in a tropical forest.Plant Ecology,2005,179(1):53
[39] Moran,E.F.,E.Brondizio,P.Mausel,et al.Integrating Amazonian vegetation,land-use,and satellite data.Bioscience,1994,44:329-338
[40] Rignot,E.,W.A.Salas,D.L.Skole.Mapping deforestation and secondary growth in Rondrnia,Brazil,using imaging radar and Thematic Mapper data.Remote Sensing of Environment,1997,59:167-179
[41] Montagnini,F.,C.F.Jordan.Tropical Forest Ecology:the Basis for Conservation and Management.Heidelberg:Springer,2005,
[42] Swain,P.H.,S.M.Davis.Remote Sensing:the Quantitative Approach:McGraw-Hill International Book Company,1978
[43] Schowengerdt,R.A.Remote Sensing Models and Methods for Image Processing.2nd ed.New York:Academic Press,1997
[44] Helmer,E.H.,S.Brown,W.B.Cohen.Mapping montane tropical forest successional stage and land use with multi-data Landsat imagery.International Journal of Remote Sensing,2000,21:2163-2183
[45] Turner,M.,GR.H.Gardner,R.V.ONeill.Langscape Ecology in Theory and Practice:Pattern and Process.New York:Springer-Verlag,2001
[46] ONeill,R.V.,J.R.Krummel,R.H.Gardner,et al.Indices of landscape pattern.Landscape Ecology,1988,1:153-162
[47] McGarigal,K.,B.J.Marks,FRAGSTAT Spatial Analysis Program for Quantifying Landscape Structure.USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-351,1995
[48] Cain,D.H.,K.H.Riitters,K.Orvis.A multi-scale analysis of landscape statistic.Landscape Ecology,1997,12:199-212
[49] MoGarigal,K.,FRAGSTATS:Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Quantifying Landscape Structure.United States Department of Agriculture,2002
[50] Abdullah,S.A.,N.Nakagoshi.Changes in landscape spatial pattern in the highly developing state of Selangor,peninsular Malaysia.Landscape and Urban Planning,2006,77(3):263-275
[51] Barbosa,EJ.,d.O.Filho,J.P.Metzger.Thresholds in landscape structure for three common deforestation patterns in the Brazilian Amazon.Landscape Ecology,2006,21(7):1061-1073
[52] Metzger,J.P.Landscape dynamics and equilibrium in areas of slash-and-bum agriculture with short and long fallow period (Bragantina region,NE Brazilian Amazon).Landscape Ecology,2002,17(5):419-431
[53] Endress,B.,J.D.Chinea.Landscape patterns of tropical forest recovery in the Republic of Palau.Biotropica,2001,33:555-565
[54] Mnadenoff,D.J.,M.A.White,J.Pastor,et al.Comparing spatial pattern in unaltered old-growth and disturbed forest landscapes.Ecological Applications,1993,3:294-306
[55] Fahfig,U Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity.Annual Review of Ecology,Evolution,and Systematics,2003,34:487-515
[56] Bierregaard,R.O.,T.E.Lovejoy,C.Gascon,et al.Lessons From Amazonia:The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest.New Haven, Connecticut,USA:Yale University Press,2002
[57] Viana,V.M.,A.A.J.Tabanez Biology and conservation of forest fragments in the Brazilian atlantic moist forest in Forest Pathches in Tropical Landscapes J.Schelhas,R.Greenberg,Eds.Washington,D.C.,Covelo,California:Island Press,1996,151-167
[58] Loreau,M.,S.Naeem,P.Inchausti,et al.Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning:curreent knowledge and future challenges.Science,2001,294:804-808
[59] Ferraz,G,G.J.Russell,P.C.Stouffer,et al.Rates of species loss from Amazonian forest fragments.PNAS,2003,100(24):14069-14073
[60] Hill,J.L.,P.J.Curran.Area,shape and isolation of tropical forest fragments:effects on tree species diversity and implications for conservation.Journal of Biogeography,2003,30(9):1391-1403
[61] Honnay,O.,M.Hermy,P.Coppin.Effects of area,age and diversity of forest patches in Belgium on plant species richness,and implications for conservation and reforestation.Biological Conservation,1999,87(1):73-84
[62] Hobbs,R.J.,C.J.Yates.TURNER REVIEW No.7 Impacts of ecosystem fragmentation on plant populations:generalising the idiosyncratic.Australian Journal of Botany,2003,51:471-488
[63] Haila,Y.A conceptual genealogy of fragmentation research:from island biogeography to landscape ecology.Ecology,2002,12(2):321-334
[64] Laurance,W.E,D.Ptrez-Salicrup,P.Delamtnica,et al.Rain forest fragmentation and the structure of Amazonian liana communities.Ecology,2001,82(1):105-116
[65] Allan,C.,H.Gtran.Tropical forest fragmentation and nest predation - an experimental study in an Eastern Arc montane forest, Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation,2001,10(7):1077-1085
[66] Lindenmayer,D.B.,J.Fischer.Tackling the habitat fragmentation panchreston.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2007,in press
[67] Metzger,J.P.Tree functional group richness and Landscape structure in a Brazilian tropical fragmented landscape.Ecological Applications,2000,10(4):1147-1161
[68] Laurance,W.E,H.E.M.Nascimento,S.G Laurance,et al.Rain forest fragmentation and the proliferation of successional trees.Ecology,2006,87:469-482
[69] del Moral,R.,J.H.Titus,A.M.Cook.Early primary succession on Mount St.Helens,Washington,USA.Journal of Vegetation Science,1995,6:107-120
[70] Cook,W.M.,J.Yao,B.L.Foster,et al.Secondary succession in an experimentally fragmented landscape:community patterns across space and time.Ecology,2005,86(5):1267-1279
[71] Holt, R.D., G.Robinson, M.S. Gaines. Vegetation dynamics in an experimentally fragmented landscape.Ecology,1995,76:1610-1624
[72] Schweiger,E.W.,R.D.Diffendorfer,R.D.Holt,et al.The interaction of habitat fragmentation,plant,and small mammal succession in an old field.Ecological Monographs,2000,70:383-400
[73] Muthuramkumar,S.,N.Ayyappan,N.Parthasarathy,et al.Plant community structure in tropical rain forest fragments of the Western Ghats,India.Biotropica,2006,38(2):143-160
[74] Cayuela,L.,D.J.Golicher,J.M.R.Benayas,et al.Fragmentation,disturbance and tree diversity conservation in tropical montane forests.Journal of Applied Ecology,2006,43(6):1172-1181
[75] White,G.M.,D.H.Boshier,W.Powell.Increased pollen flow counteracts fragmentation in a tropical dry forest:An example from Swietenia humilis Zuecarini.PNAS,2002,99(4):2038-2042
[76] Lowe,A.J.,D.Boshier,M.Ward,et al.Genetic resource impacts of habitat loss and degradation;reconciling empirical evidence and predicted theory for neotropical trees.Heredity,2005,95(4):255-273
[77] Tomimatsu,H.,M.Ohara.Genetic diversity and local population structure of fragmented populations of Trillium camschatcense (Trilliaceae).Biological Conservation,2003,109:249-258
[78] Kahmen,S.,P.Poschlod.Population size,plant performance,and genetic variation in the rare plant Arnica montana L.in the Rhtn,Germany.Basic and Applied Ecology,2000,1:43-51
[79] Hobbs,R.J.,D.M.Richardson,G.W.Davis Mediterranean-type ecosystem:opportunities and constraints for studying the function of biodiversity in Mediterranean-type Ecosystem- the Function of Biodiversity G.W.Davis,D.M.Richardson,Eds.New York:Springer-verlag,1995,1-32
[80] Cummins,K.W.Structure and function of stream ecosystems.BioScience,1974,24(11):631-641
[81] Blondel,J.Guilds or functional groups:does it matter?Oikos,2003,100(2):223-231
[82] Gitay,H.,I.R.Noble What are functional types and how should we seek them?in Plant Functional Types:Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change T.M.Smith,H.H.Shugart,El.Woodward,Eds.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1997,3-19
[83] Lavorel,S.,S.Mcintyre,J.Landsberg,et al.plant functional classifications:from general groups to specific groups based on response to disturbance.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1997,12(12): 474-478
[84] Walker,B.,A.Kinzig,L.Jenny Plant attribute diversity,resilience,and ecosystem function:the nature and significance of dominant and minor species.Ecosystems,1999,2:95-113
[85] Root,R.B.The niche exploitation pattern of the blue-gray Gnatcatcher.Ecological Monographs,1967,37(4):317-350
[86] Grime,J.P.,J.G.Hodgson,R.Hunt.Comparative Plant Ecology:a Functional Approach to British Species.London:Unwin Hyman,1988
[87] Swaine,M.D.,T.C.Whitmore.On the definition of ecological species groups in tropical forests.Vegetatio,1988,75:81-86
[88] Walker,B.H.Landscape to regional scale response of terrestrial ecosystems to global change.AMBIO,1994,23(1):67-73
[89] de Kroon,H.,H.Olff.On the use of the guild concept in plant ecology.Folia Geobot.Phytotax,1995,30:519-528
[90] Skarpe,C.Plant functional types and climate in a Southern African savanna.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7(3):397-404
[91] Chapin,F.S.III.,M.S.Bret-Harte,S.E.Hobbie,et al.Plant functional types as predictors of transient responses of at,erctic vegetation to global change.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:347-358
[92] Bugmann,H.Functional types of trees in temperate and boreal forests:classification and testing.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:359-370
[93] Noble,I.R.,H.Gitay A functional classification for predicting the dynamics of landscapes.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:329-336
[94] Shao,G.F.,H.H.Shugart,B.P.Hayden.Functional classifications of coastal barrier island vegetation.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:391-396
[95] Simberloff,D.,T.Dayan.The guild concept and the structure of ecological communities.Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics,1991,22:115-143
[96] Steneck,R.S.Functional groups in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity S.A.Levin,Ed.San Diego:Academic Press,2001,121-139
[97] Cook,E.R.,J.S.Glitzenstein,P.J.Krusic,et al.Identifying functional groups of trees in west gulf coast forest (U.S.A.):a tree-ring approach.Ecological Applications,2001,11:883-903
[98] Gitay,H.,I.R.Noble,J.H.Connell.Deriving functional types for rain-forest trees.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999,10(5):641-650
[99] Paine,R.T.A note on trophic complexity and community stability.American Naturalist,1969,103:91-93
[100] Mills,L.S.,M.E.Soule,D.F.Doak.The keystone-species Concept in ecology and conservation.BioScience,1993,43(4):219-224
[101] 黄建辉，韩兴国．关键种，关键在哪里?植物生态学报，2001，25(4)：505．509
[102] Power,M.E.,D.Tilman,J.A.Estes,et al.Changes in the quest for keystones.BioScience,1996,46:609-620
[103] Davit,R.D.Linking keystone species and functional groups:a new operational definition of the keystone species concept.Conservation Ecology,2003,7(1):rll
[104] Chapin,F.S.III.,E.D.Sehulze,H.A.Mooney Biodiversity and ecosystem processes.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1992,7(4):107-108
[105] Tilman,D.Functional diversity in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity S.A.LeAn,Ed.San Diego:Academic Press,2001,109-120
[106] Mason,N.W.H.,D.Mouillot,W.G.Lee,et al.Functional richness,functional evenness and functional divergence:the primary components of functional diversity.Oikos,2005,III(I):112-118
[107] Petchey,O.L.,K.J.Gaston.Functional diversity (FD),species richness and community composition.Ecology Letters,2002,5(3):402-411
[108] Mason,N.W.H.,K.MacGillivray,J.B.Steel,et al.An index of functional diversity.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003,14:571-578
[109] Diaz,S.,M.Cabido.Vive la difference:plant functional diversity matters to ecosystem processes.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2001,16(11):646-655
[110] Mouillot,D.,W.H.N.Mason,O.Dumay.Functional regularity:a neglected aspect of functional diversity.Oecologia,2004,142:353-359
[111] Hubbell,P.S.,R.B.Foster Biology,chance and history and the structure of tropical rain forest tree communities in Community Ecology J.Diamond,T.J.Case,Eds.New York:Harper & Row,1986
[112] Brokaw,N.,R.T.Busing.Niche versus chance and tree diversity in forest gaps.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2000,15(5):183-188
[113] Summerbell,G.Regeneration of complex notophyll vine forest (humid subtropical rainforest) in eastern Australia-a review.Cunninghamia,1991,2:391-409
[114] Box,E.O.Plant functional types and climate at the global scale.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7(3):309-320
[115] 唐海萍，蒋高明．植物功能型及其生态学意义．应用生态学报，2000，11(3)461-464
[116] 孙慧珍，国庆喜，周晓峰．植物功能型分类标准及方法．东北林业大学学报，2004，32(2)：81-83
[117] Woodward,E.I.,W.Cramer.Plant functional types and climatic changes:Introduction.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:306-308
[118] Condit,R.,S.P.Hubbell,R.B.Foster.Assessing the response of plant functional types to climate change in tropical forests.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7(3):405-416
[119] Nygaard,B.,R.Ejrnaes.A new approach to functional interpretation of vegetation data.Journal of Vegetation Science,2004,15:49-56
[120] Dumay,O.,P.S.Taft,J.A.Tomasini,et al.Functional groups of lagoon fish species in Languedoc Roussillon,southern France.Journal of Fish Biology,2004,64(4):970-983
[121] Fonseca,C.R.,G.Ganade.Species functional redundancy,random extinctions and the stability of ecosystems.Journal of Ecology,2001,89(1):118-125
[122] Mclntyre,S.,S.Lavorel.Livestock Grazing in Subtropical Pastures:Steps in the analysis of attribute response and plant functional types.Journal of Ecology,2001,89(2):209-226
[123] Gondard,H.,E Romane,J.Aronson,et al.Impact of soil surface disturbances on functional group diversity after clear-cutting in Aleppo pine(Pinus halepensis) forests in southern France.Forest Ecology and Management,2003(180):165-174
[124] Finegan,B.Pattern and process in neotropical secondary rain forests:the first 100 years of succession.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1996,11(3):119-124
[125] Rees,M.,R.Condit,M.Crawley,et al.Long-tern studies of vegetation dynamics.Science,2001,293:650-655
[126] Guariguata,M.R.,R.L.Chazdon,J.S.Denslow,et al.Structure and floristics of secondary and old-growth forest stands in lowland Costa Rica.Plant Ecology,1997,132:107-120
[127] Denslow,J.S.,S.Guzman.Variation in stand structure,light, and seedling abundance across a tropical moist forest chronosequence,Panama.Journal of Vegetation Science,2000,11:201-212
[128] Denslow,J.S.Functional groups diversity and recovery from disturbance in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Processes in Tropical Forests O.G.H.,R.Dirzo,J.H.Cushman,Eds.Berlin:Springer-Verlag Press,1996,127-152
[129] Guariguata,M.R.,R.Ostertag.Neotropical secondary forest succession:changes in structural and functional characteristics.Forest Ecology and Management,2001,148:185-206
[130] Howorth,R.,C.Pendry.Post-cultivation secondary succession in a Venezuelan lower montane rain forest.Biodiversity and Conservation,2006,15(2):693-715
[131] Richards,P.W.The Tropical Rain Forest:An Ecological Study.2nd.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996
[132] Verburg,R.,C.van Eijk-Bos.Effects of selective logging on tree diversity,composition and plant functional type patterns in a Borne,an rain forest.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003,14:99-110
[133] Brown,S.,A.E.Lugo.Tropical secondary forests.Journal of Tropical Ecology,1990,6(1):1-32
[134] Egler,E.Vegetation science concepts.I.Initial floristic composition:a factor in old-field vegetation development.Vegetatio,1952,4:412-417
[135] Tilman,D.Plant Strategies and the Dynamics and Structure of Plant Communities.Princeton,New Jersey,USA:Princeton University Press,1988
[136] Tilman,D.Competition and Biodiversity in Spatially Structured Habitats.Ecology,1994,75(1):2-16
[137] Pacala,S.W.,M.Rees.Models suggesting field experiments to test two hypotheses explaining successional diversity.American Naturalist,1998,152(5):729-737
[138] Hernandez-Stefanoni,J.L.The role of landscape patterns of habitat types on plant species diversity of a tropical forest in Mexico.Biodiversity and Conservation,2006,15:1441-1457
[139] Tabarelli,M.,W.Mantovani,C.A.Peres.Effects of habitat fragmentation on plant guild structure in the montane Atlantic forest of southeastern Brazil.Biological Conservation,1999,91(2-3):119-127
[140] Hill,J.L.,P.J.Curran.Fragment shape and tree species composition in tropical forests:a landscape level investigation.African Journal of Ecology,2005,43:35-43
[141] Benitez-Malvido,J.Impact of forest fragmentation on seedling abundance in a tropical rain forest.Conservation Biology,1998,12:380-389
[142] Metzger,J.P.Relationships between landscape structure and tree species diversity in tropical forests of South-East Brazil.Landscape and Urban Planning,1997,37(1-2):29-35
[143] MacArthur,R.H.,E.O.Wilson.The Theory of Island Biogeography.Princeton,New Jersey,USA: Princeton University Press, 1967
[144] Hubbell, S.P. Neutral theory in community ecology and the hypothesis of functional equivalence. Functional Ecology, 2005, 19(1): 166-172
[145] Grubb, P.J. The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche. Biological Reviews, 1977, 52:107-145
[146] Baker, T.R., M.D. Swaine, D.F.R.P. Burslem. Variation in tropical forest growth rates: combined effects of functional group composition and resource availability. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 2003, 6(1-2): 21-36
[147] Tilman, D. Constraints and tradeoffs: toward a predictive theory of competition and succession. Oikos, 1990, 58:3-15
[148] Grytnes, J.A., J.H. Beaman. Elevational species richness patterns for vascular plants on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. Journal of Biogeography, 2006, 33(10): 1838-1849
[149] Kariuki, M., M. Rolfe, R.G.B. Smith, et al. Diameter growth performance varies with species functional-group and habitat characteristics in subtropical rainforests. Forest Ecology and Management, 2006, 225(1-3): 1-14
[150] Silvertown, J. Plant coexistence and the niche. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 2004, 19:605-611
[151] Yamada, T., P.A. Zuidema, A. Itoh, et al. Strong habitat preference of a tropical rain forest tree does not imply large differences in population dynamics across habitats. Journal of Ecology, 2007, 95(2): 332-342
[152] Pansas, J.G., M.P. Austin. Patterns of plant species richness in relation to different environments: An appraisal. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2001, 12:153-166
[153] Conneli, J.H. Diversity in tropical rain forest and coral reefs. Science, 1978, 199:1302-1310
[154] Turner, M. G., W.L. Barker, C.J. Peterson, et al. Factors influencing succession: lessons from large, infrequent natural disturbances. Ecosystems, 1998, 1:511-523
[155] Turner, M. G., V.H. Dale. Comparing large, infrequent disturbances: what have we learned? Ecosystems, 1998, 1:493-496
[156] Dickinson, M.B., D.F. Whigham, S.M. Hermann. Tree regeneration in felling and natural treefall disturbances in a semideciduous tropical forest in Mexico. Forest Ecology and Management, 2000, 134(1-3): 137-151
[157] Fearnside, P.M., W.F. Laurance. Tropical deforestation and greenhouse-gas emissions. Ecological Applications, 2004, 14(4): 982-986
[158] McIntyre, S., S. Diaz, S. Lavorel, et al. Plant functional types and disturbance dynamics - Introduction. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1999, 10(5): 604-608
[159] Lavorel, S., B. Touzard, J.-D. Lebreton, et al. Identifying functional groups for response to disturbance in an abandoned pasture. Acta Oecologica, 1998, 19(3): 227-240
[160] Snook, L.K. Stand Dynamics of Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) and Associated Species After Fire and Hurricane in the Tropical Forests of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Yale University: New Haven, CT, 1993
[161] Vandermeer, J., I. Granzow de la Cerda, D. Boucher, et al. Hurricane disturbance and tropical tree species diverstity. Science, 2000, 290:788-791
[162] Cochrane, M.A. Fire science for rainforests. Nature, 2003, 421(6926): 913-919
[163] Pausas, J.G., R.A. Bradstock, D.A. Keith, et al. Plant functional traits in relation to fire in crown-fire ecosystems. Ecology, 2004, 85(4): 1085-1100
[164] Connell, J.H., P.T. Green. Seedling dynamics over thirty-two years in a tropical rain forest tree. Ecology, 2000, 81:568-584
[165] Vinebrooke, R.D., K.L. Cottingham, J. Norberg, et al. Impacts of multiple stressors on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: the role of species co-tolerance. Oikos, 2004, 104(3): 451-457
[166] Scheffer, M., S. Carpenter, J.A. Foley, et al. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature, 2001, 413: 591-596
[167] Naeem, S. Species redundancy and ecosystem reliability. Conservation Biology, 1998, 12:39-45
[168] Yachi, S., M. Loreau. Biodiversity and ecosystem productivity in a fluctuating environment: the insurance hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 1999, 96:1463-1468
[169] D. Vinebrooke, R., K. L. Cottingham, M.S.J. Norberg, et al. Impacts of multiple stressors on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: the role of species co-tolerance. Oikos, 2004, 104(3): 451-457
[170] Hooper, D.U., F.S. Chapin Ⅲ, J.J. Ewel, et al. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecological Monographs, 2005, 75(1): 3-35
[171] Korner, C. Scaling from species to vegetation: the usefulness of functional groups in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function.Ecological studies,vol.99 E.D.Schulze,H.A.Mooney,Eds.Berlin,Germany:Springer-Verlag,1993,117-140
[172] Smith,T.M.,H.H.Shugart,E.I.Woodward.Plant Functional Types.Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,1997
[173] Harrington,R.,I.Woiwod,T.Sparks.Climate change and trophic interactions.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1999,14:146-150
[174] Condit,R.,S.P.Hubbell,R.B.Foster.Assessing the response of plant functional types to climatic change in tropical forests.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7(3):405-416
[175] Borchert,R.Soil and stem water storage determine phenology and distribution of tropical dry forest trees.Ecology,1994,75(5):1437-1449
[176] Wright,S.J.,O.Calderon.Seasonal,El Nino and longer term changes in flower and seed production in a moist tropical forest.Ecology Letters,2006,9(1):35-44
[177] Curran,L.M.,I.Caniago,G.D.Paoli,et al.Impact of El Nino and logging on canopy tree recruitment in Borneo.Science,1999,286:2184-2188
[178] Chazdon,R.L.,A.R.Brenes,B.V.Alvarado.Effects of climate and stand age on annual tree dynamics in tropical secondary-growth rain forests.Ecology,2005,86:1808-1815
[179] McPherson,J.M.,W.Jetz.Effects of species'ecology on the accuracy of distribution models.Ecography,2007,30(1):135-151
[180] Loehle,C.Strategy Space and the Disturbance Spectrum:A Life-History Model for Tree Species Coexistence.The American Naturalist,2000,156(1):14-33
[181] Campbell,B.D.,D.M.Stafford Smith,A.J.Ash.A rule-based model for the functional analysis of vegetation change in Australasian grasslands.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999,10:723-730
[182] Cramer,W.Using plant functional types in a global vegetation model in Plant Functional Types:Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change T.M.Smith,H.H.Shugart,El.Woodward,Eds.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1997,271-288
[183] Box,E.O.Macroclimate and Plant Forms:An Introduction to Predictive Modeling in Phytogeography.Tasks for Vegetation Science.Vol.1.The Hague:Dr.W.Junk BV Publishers,1981,258
[184] Box,E.O.Factors determining distributions of tree species and plant functional types.Vegetatio,1995,121:101-116
[185] Prentice,I.C.,W.Cramer,S.P.Harrison,et al.A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance,soil properties and climate.Journal of Biogeography,1992,19:117-134
[186] Prentice,I.C.,T.Webb Iii.BIOME 6000:reconstructing global mid-Holocene vegetation patterns from palaeoecological records.Journal of Biogeography,1998,25(6):997-1005
[187] Haxeltine,A.,I.C.Prentice.BIOME3:An equilibrium terrestrial biosphere model based on ecophysiological constraints,resource availability,and competition among plant functional types.Global Biogeochemical Cycles,1996,10:693-709
[188] Bossel,H.Modelling forest dynamics:moving from description to explanation.Forest Ecology and Management,1991,42:129-142
[189] Kohler,P.,A.Huth.The effects of tree species grouping in tropical rainforest modelling:Simulations with the individual-based model F.Ecological Modelling,1998,109(3):301-321
[190] Gourlet-Fleury,S.,E.Houllier.Modelling diameter increment in a lowland evergreen rain forest in French Guiana.Forest Ecology and Management,2000,131(1-3):269-289
[191] Favrichon,V.Modeling the dynamics and species composition of a tropical,mixed-species uneven-aged nutural forest:effects of altermative cutting regimes.Forest Science,1998,44:113-124
[192] Chave,J.Study of structural,successional and spatial patterns in tropical rain forests using TROLL,a spatially explicit forest model.Ecological Modelling,1999,124(2-3):233-254
[193] Bossel,H.,H.Krieger.Simulation of multi-species tropical forest dynamics using a vertically and horizontally structured model.Forest Ecology and Management,1994,69(1-3):123-144
[194] Pausas,J.G Response of Plant Functional Types to Changes in the Fire Regime in Mediterranean Ecosystems:A Simulation Approach.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999,10(5):717-722
[195] Franklin,J.,A.D.Syphard,D.J.Mladenoff,et al.Simulating the effects of different fire regimes on plant functional groups in Southern California.Ecological Modelling,2001,142:261-283
[196] Kammesheidt,L.,P.Kohler,A.Huth.Simulating logging scenarios in secondary forest embedded in a fragmented neotropical landscape.Forest Ecology and Management,2002,170(1-3):89-105
[197] Guisan,A.,N.E.Zimmerman.Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology.Ecological Modelling,2000,135:147-186
[198] Wilson,E.O.The Diversity of Life.London:Harvard University Press,1999
[199] Leathwick,J.R.New Zealand's potential forest pattern as predicted form current species-environment relationships.New Zealand Journal of Botany,2001,39:447-464
[200] Breiman,L.,J.H.Friedman,R.A.Olshen,et al.Classification and Regression Trees.Belmont,CA:Wadsworth International Group,1984
[201] Mastrorillo,S.,S.Lek,E Dauba,et al.The use of artificial neural networks to predict the presence of small-bodied fish in a river.Freshwater Biology,1997,38:237-246
[202] McCullagh,P.,J.A.Nelder.Generalized Linear Models.London:Chapman & Hall,1989
[203] Hastie,T.,R.Tibshirani.Generalised Additive Models.London:Chapman and Hall,1990
[204] Skidmore,A.K.,A.Gauld,P.Walker.Classification of kangaroo distribution using three GIS models.International Journal of Information Systems,1996,10:441-454
[205] Stockwell,D.R.B.,J.H.Beach,A.Stewart,et al.The use of the GARP genetic algorithm and Internet grid computing in the Lifemapper world atlas of species biodiversity.Ecological Modelling,2006,195(1-2):139-145
[206] Thuiller,W.,M.B.Araujo,S.Lavorel.Generalised models versus classification tree analysis:a comparative study for predicting spatial distributions of plant species at different spatial scales.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003,14:669-680
[207] Pearce,J.,S.Ferrier.An evaluation of alternative algorithms for fitting species distribution models using logistic regression.Ecological Modelling,2000,128:127-147
[208] Bio,A.M.E,R.Alkemande,A.Barendregt.Determining alternative models for vegetation response analysis - a non-parametric approach.Journal of Vegetation Science,1998,9:5-16
[209] Segurado,P.,M.B.Araujo.An evaluation of methods for modelling species distributions.Journal of Biogeography,2004,31:1555-1568
[210] Gili,J.-M.Variability of the keystone species concept in marine ecosystems.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2002,17(11):499-499
[211] Ebenman,B.,T.Jonsson.Using community viability analysis to identify fragile systems and keystone species.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2005,20(10):568-575
[212] McCann,K.,A.Hastings,G.R.Huxel.Weak trophic interactions and the balance of nature.Nature,1998,395:794-798
[213] Berlow,E.L.Strong effects of weak interactions in ecological communities.Nature,1999,398:330-334
[214] Ferrier,S.,A.Guisan.Spatial modelling of biodiversity at the community level.Journal of Applied Ecology,2006,43:393-404
[215] Ferrier,S.,M.Drielsma,G.Manion.Extended statistical approaches to modelling spatial pattern in biodiversity in northeast New South Wales.II.Community-level modelling.Biodiversity and Conservation,2002,11:2309-2338
[216] Boj6rquez-Tapia,L.A.,I.Azuara,E.Ezcurra,et al.Identifying conservation priorities in Mexico through geographic information systmes and modeling.Ecological Applications,1995,5:215-231
[217] Guisan,A.,S.B.Weiss,A.D.Weiss.GLM versus CCA spatial modeling of plant species distribution.Plant Ecology,1999,143:107-122
[218] Lavorel,S.,E.Gamier.Predicting changes in community composition and ecosystem functioning from plant traits:revisiting the Holy Grail.Functional Ecology,2002,16(5):545-556
[219] Paruelo,J.M.,E.G.Jobbagy,O.E.Sala.Current distribution of ecosystem functional types in temperate South America.Ecosystems,2001,4:683-698
[220] Duckworth,J.C.,K.M.,R.P.M.Plant functional types:an alternative to taxonomic plant community description in biogeography?Progress in Physical Geography,2000,24(4):515-542
[221] Pausas,J.G.The effect of landscape pattern on Mediterranean vegetation dynamics:A modelling approach using functional types.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003,14:365-374
[222] Bonan,G.B.,L.Samuel.Landscapes as pathches of plant functional types:An integrating concept for climate and ecosystem models.Global Biogeochemical Cycles,2002,16(2):5-1
[223] Hill,M.O.Functional types for global modelling.Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters,1998,7(4):312-313
[224] Guisan,A.,A.Lehmann,S.Ferrier,et al.Making better biogeographical predictions of species'distributions.Journal of Applied Ecology,2006,43(3):386-392
[225] Lehmann,A.,J.M.Overton,J.R.Leathwick.GRASP:generalized regression analysis and spatial prediction.Ecological Modelling,2002,157:189-207
[226] Maggini,R.,A.Lehmann,N.E Zimmermann,et al.Improving generalized regression analysis for the spatial prediction of forest communities.Journal of Biogeography,2006,33(10):1729-1749
[227] Leathwick,J.R.,M.P.Austin.Competitive interactions between tree species in New Zealand's old-growth indigenous forests.Ecology,2001,82(9):2560-2573
[228] Huston,M.A.Introductory essay:critical issues for improving predictions in Predicting Species Occurrences:Issues of Accuracy and Scale J.M.Scott,P.J.Heglund,M.L.Morrison, et al., Eds.Covelo,CA:Island Press,2002,7-21
[229] 闫淑君，洪伟，吴承祯等．福建省森林景观时空动态特征研究．中国生态农业学报，2005，13(3)：162-164
[230] 亓兴兰，刘健，余坤勇等．基于RS与GIS的闽江流域森林景观格局分析．福建林学院学报，2006，26(1)：3640
[231] 刘文俊，马有鑫，胡华斌等．西双版纳勐仑地区景观格局变化定量分析．生态学报，2006，26(9)：3088-3097
[232] 甘淑，何大明，党承林．澜沧江流域上、中、下游典型案例区景观格局对比分析．山地学报，2002，20(5)：564-569
[233] 许建初，张佩芳，王雨华．云南澜沧江流域土地利用和覆盖变化．云南植物研究，2003，25(2)：145-154
[234] 刘文俊，马有鑫，胡华斌等．滇南热带雨林区士地利用／覆盖变化分析—以西双版纳勐仑地区例．地学报，2005，23(1)：71-79
[235] 张佩芳，赫维人，何祥等．云南西双版纳森林空间变化研究．地理学报，1999，54，增刊：139-145
[236] 黄建文，陈永富，王晓慧等．海南岛热带林动态变化的遥感监测．林业科学研究，2002，15(2)：203-206
[237] 菅利荣，李明阳．GIS分析方法在森林景观格局变化中的应用．中南林学院学报，2002，22(1)：86-89
[238] 闫明，钟章成，方兴．缙云山生境片断化对常绿阔叶林生物多样性的影响．生态学报，2005，25(7)：1642-1648
[239] 马有鑫，刘玉洪，张克映．西双版纳热带雨林片断小气候边缘效应的初步研究．植物生态学报，1998，22：250-255
[240] 彭少麟．南亚热带演替群落的边缘效应及其对森林片断化恢复的意义．生态学报，2000，20(1)：1-8
[241] 朱华，许再富，王洪等．西双版纳傣族“龙山”片断热带雨林植物多样性的变化研究．广西植物，1997，17：213-219
[242] 朱华，许再富，王洪等．西双版纳片断热带雨林的结构、物种组成及其变化的研究．植物生态学报，2000，24(5)：560-568
[243] 渠春梅，韩兴国，苏波等．西双版纳片断化热带雨林常绿乔木幼树水分利用效率的边缘效应研究．植物生态学报，2001，25：1-5
[244] 黄世能，王伯荪，李意德．海南岛尖峰岭次生热带山地雨林的边缘效应．林业科学研究，2004，17：693-699
[245] 王峥峰，高三红，田胜尼等．南亚热带森林片断化对厚壳桂种群遗传结构的影响．生物多样性，2005，13：324-331
[246] 许再富，朱华，王应祥等．澜沧江下游／湄公河上游片断热带雨林物种多样性动态．植物生态学报，2004，28(5)：585-593
[247] 唐勇，曹敏，白昆甲．片断化热带雨林土壤种子库初步研究．山地学报，2000，18：568-571
[248] 陈小勇，陈波，蒋屹峰．片断化对常绿阔叶林种类组成的影响．华东师范大学学报：自然科学版，2003(3)：69-74
[249] 白永飞，陈佐忠．锡林河流域羊草草原植物种群和功能群的长期变异性及其对群落稳定性的影响．植物生态学报，2000，24(6)：641-647
[250] 白永飞，李凌浩，黄建辉等．内蒙古高原针茅草原植物多样性与植物功能群组成对群落初级生产力稳定性的影响．植物学报，2001，43(3)：280-287
[251] 韩梅，杨利民，张永刚等．中国东北样带羊草群落C_3和C_4植物功能群生物量及其对环境变化的响应．生态学报，2006，26：1825-1832
[252] 左小安，赵学勇，张铜会等．退化沙质草场群落特征及功能群生物量的空间变异性．水土保持通报，2006，26(1)：20-25
[253] 王国杰，汪诗平，郝彦宾等．水分梯度上放牧对内蒙古主要草原群落功能群多样性与生产力关系的影响．生态学报，2005，25(7)：1649-1656
[254] 王长庭，龙瑞军，丁路明．高寒草甸不同草地类型功能群多样性及组成对植物群落生产力的影响．生物多样性，2004，12(4)：403-409
[255] 杜茜，沈海亮，王季槐．宁夏荒漠草原植物群落结构和物种多样性研究．生态学杂志，2006，25(2)：222-224
[256] Tang,H.P.,X.S.Zhang.A new approach to distinguishing photosynthetic types of plants:a case study in northeast China transect (NECT) platform.Photosynthetiea,1999,37:97-106
[257] Liu,X.Q.,R.Z.Wang,Y.Z.Li.Photosynthetic pathway types in rangland plant species from Inner Mongolia,North China.Photosynthetica,2004,42:339-344
[258] 沈泽昊，张新时．基于植物分布地形格局的植物功能型划分研究．植物学报，2000，42(11)： 1190-1196
[259] 翁恩生，周广胜．用于全球变化研究的中国植物功能型划分．植物生态学报，2005，29：81-97
[260] Ni,J.Plant functional types and climate along a precipitation gradient in temperate grasslands,north-east China and south-east Mongolia.Journal of Arid Environments,2003,53(4):501-516
[261] 刘晓强，王仁忠．北京北部农牧交错区C_4植物及其形态功能型和生境分析．生态学报，2006，26(5)：1509-1515
[262] 白永飞，张丽霞，张焱等．内蒙古锡林河流域草原群落植物功能群组成沿水热梯度变化的样带研究．植物生态学报，2002，26(3)：3108-316
[263] 王国宏．地带性木本植物群落功能型的水热分布格局．林业科学，2002，38(1)：15-23
[264] 牛书丽，蒋高明，高雷鸣等．浑善达克沙地不同植物功能型光合作用和水分利用特征的比较．生态学报，2005，25(4)：699-704
[265] 陈世苹，白永飞，韩兴国．内蒙古锡林河流域植物功能群组成及其水分利用效率的变化—依水分生态类群划分．植物学报，2003，45(10)：1251-1260
[266] 焦树英，韩国栋，李永强等．不同载畜率对荒漠草原群落结构和功能群生产力的影响．西北植物学报，2006，26(3)：564-571
[267] 王正文，邢福，祝廷成等．松嫩平原羊草草地植物功能群组成及多样性特征对水淹干扰的响应．植物生态学报，2002，26(6)：708-716
[268] 许凯扬，叶万辉，曹洪麟等．植物群落的生物多样性及其可入侵性关系的实验研究．植物生态学报，2004，28(3)：385-391
[269] 丁易．海南岛退化热带森林植被恢复生态学研究，中国林业科学研究院博士学位论文，2006，18-21
[270] 臧润国，成克武，李俊清等．天然林生物多样性保育与恢复．北京：中国科学技术出版社，2005
[271] Primack,R.,R.Corlett.Tropical Rain Forests:An Ecological and Biogeographical Comparison.Oxford:Blackwell Science Publishing,2005
[272] Laurance,W.F,A.K.M.Albernaz,P.M.Fearnside,et al.Deforestation in Amazonia.Science,2004,304:1109
[273] Turner,I.M.Species loss in fragments of tropical rain forest:a review of the evidence.Journal of Applied Ecology,1996,33:200-209
[274] Laurance,W.F,S.Bergen,M.A.Cochrane,et al.The future of the Amazon in Tropical Rainforsts:Past,Present,and Future E.Bermingham,C.Dick,C.Moritz,Eds.Chicage and London:University of Chicago Press,2005,583-609
[275] Pan,D.,G.Domon,D.Marceau,et al.Spatial pattern of coniferous and deciduous forest patches in an Eastern North America agricultural landscape:the influence of land use and physical attributes.Landscape Ecology,2001,16(2):99-110
[276] Kramer,E.A.Measuring landscape changes in remnant tropical dry forest,in Tropical Forest Remnants:Ecology,Management and Conservation of Fragmented Communities W.F.Laurance,R.O.Bierregaard,Eds.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1997,386-399
[277] Ramakrishnan,P.S.Sustainable development,climate change and tropical rain forest landscape.Climatic Change,1998,39:583-600
[278] Werneck,M.S.,E.V.Franceschinelli.Dynamics of a dry forest fragment after the exclusion of human disturbance in southeastern Brazil.Plant Ecology,2004,174:337-346
[279] Bierregaard,R.O.,W.F.Laurance,J.W.Sites,et al.Key priorities for the study of fragmented tropical ecosystems in Tropical Forest Remnants:Ecology,Management,and Conservation of Fragmented Communities W.F.Laurance,R.O.Bierregaard,Eds.Chicago,London:The University of Chicago Press,1997,515-525
[280] Etter,A.,C.McAlpine,D.Pullar,et al.Modeling the age of tropical moist forest fragments in heavily-cleared lowland landscapes of Colombia.Forest Ecology and Management,2005,208(1-3):249-260
[281] Pregitzer,K.S.,E.S.Euskirchen.Carbon cycling and storage in world forests:biome patterns related to forest age.Global Change Biology,2004,10(12):2052-2077
[282] Burgos,A.,J.M.Maass.Vegetation change associated with land-use in tropical dry forest areas of Western Mexico.Agriculture,Ecosystems & Environment,2004,104(3):475-481
[283] Dunn,R.R.Recovery of faunal communities during tropical forest regeneration.Conservation Biology,2004,18(2):302-309
[284] Ross,K.A.,B.J.Fox,M.D.Fox.Changes to plant species richness in forest fragments:fragment age,disturbance and fire history may be as important as area.Journal of Biogeography,2002,29:749-765
[285] Song,C.,T.A.Schroeder,W.B.Cohen.Predicting temperate conifer forest successional stage distributions with multitemporal Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery.Remote Sensing of Environment, 2006,in press
[286] Kuplich,T.M.Classifying regenerating forest stages in Amazonia using remotely sensed images and a neural network.Forest Ecology and Management,2006,234:1-9
[287] Turner,I.M.,R.T.Codett.The conservation value of small,isolated fragments of lowland tropical rain forest.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1996,11(8):330-333
[288] Wang,B.S.,S.L.Peng.Vegetation Ecology:Communities and Ecosystem.Beijng:Chinese Environment Science Press,1997.(in Chinese)
[289] Duncan,R.S.,V.E.Duncan.Forest succession and distance from forest edge in an afro-tropical grassland.Biotropica,2000,32(1):33-41
[290] Chen,Y.F,X.S.Yang.Sustainable Management for Natural Tropical Forests in Hainan Islang of China.Beijing:China Science and Technology Press,2001.(in Chinese)
[291] Hill,R.A.,G.M.Foody.Separability of tropical rain-forest types in the Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone,Peru.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1994,15:2687-2693
[292] Espirito-santo,E.D.B.,Y.E.Shimabukuro,T.M.Kuplich.Mapping forest successional stages following deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia using multi-temporal Landsat images.International Journal of Remote Sensing,2005,26(3):635-642
[293] Lucas,R.M.,M.Honzak,P.J.Curran,et al.Mapping the regional extent of tropical forest regeneration stages in the Brazilian Legal Amazon using NOAA AVHRR data.International Journal of Remote Sensing,2000,21(15):2855-2881
[294] Poudevigne,I.,D.Alard.Landscape and agricultural patterns in rural areas:a case study in the Brionne Basin,Normandy,France.Journal of Environmental Management,1997,50:335-349
[295] ESRI.ARCGIS.Redlands,California,USA:Environmental Systems Research Institute,Inc.,2003
[296] SPSS,SPSSfor Windows.SPSS:Chicago,2004
[297] ESRI.ArcView GIS 3.3.Redlands:Environmental Systems Research Institute,Inc.,2002
[298] Bunce,R.,C.Barr,R.Clarke,et al.Land classification of Great Britain.Journal of Biogeography,1996,23:625-634
[299] Saldarriaga,J.g.,D.C.West,M.L.Tharp,et al.Long-term chronosequence of forest succession in the upper Rio Negro of Colombia and Venezuela.Journal of Ecology,1988,76:938-958
[300] Brokaw,N.Fragments past,present and future.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1998,13(10):382-383
[301] Godefroid,S.,N.Koedam.Distribution pattern of the flora in a peri-urban forest:an effect of the city-forest ecotone.Landscape and Urban Planning,2003,65:169-185
[302] Bresee,M.K.,J.Le Moine,S.Mather,et al.Disturbance and landscape dynamics in the Chequamegon National Forest Wisconsin,USA,from 1972 to 2001.Landscape Ecology,2004,19(3):291-309
[303] Fu,B.J.,L.D.Chen.Landscape diversity types and their ecological significance.Acta Geographica Sinica,1996,51:454-462(in Chinese with English abstract)
[304] Thomlinson,J.R.,M.I.Serrano,T.L6pez,et al.Land-use dynamics in a post-agricultural Puerto Rican landscape (1936-1988).Biotropica,1996,18:525-536
[305] Hardngton,GN.,A.K.Irvine,F.H.J.Crome,et al.Regeneration of large-seeded trees in Australian rainforest fragments:a study of higher-order interactions in Tropical Forest Remnants:Ecology,Management,and Conservation of Fragmented Communities W.E Laurance,R.O.Bierregaard,Eds.Chicago,Illinois,USA:The University of Chicago Press,1997
[306] Boner,A.Secondary succession of semi-arid Mediterranean old-fields in south-eastern Spain:Insights for conservation and restoration of degraded lands.Journal of Arid Environments,2004(56):213-233
[307] Aide,T.M.,J.K.Zimmerman,J.B.Pascarella,et al.Forest regeneration in a chronosequence of tropical abandoned pastures:Implications for restoration ecology.Restoration Ecology,2000,8(4):328-338
[308] Zahawi,R.A.,C.K.Augspurger.Early plant succession in abandoned pastures in Ecuador.Biotropica,1999,31:540-552
[309] Whitmore,T.C.An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests.2nd.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998
[310] Lawrence,D.Erosion of tree diversity during 200 years of shifting cultivation in Bornean rain forest.Ecological Applications,2004,14(6):1855-1869
[311] Pascarella,J.B.,T.M.Aide,M.I.Serrano,et al.Land-use history and forest regeneration in the Cayey Mountains,Puerto Rico.Ecosystems,2000,3(3):217-218
[312] Foster,D.R.Thoreaus country:a historical-ecological perspective on conservation in the New England landscape.Journal of Biogeography,2002,29:1537～1555
[313] Vitousek,P.M.,D.U.Hooper.Biological diversity and terrestrial ecosystem biogeochemistry in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function.H.A.Mooney,E.D.Schulze eds.Berlin:Springer-Berlag,1993
[314] Duckworth,J.C.,R.G.H.Bunce,A.J.C.Malloch.Vegetation-environment relationships in Atlantic European calcareous grasslands.Journal of Vegetation Science,2000,11(1):15-22
[315] Grubb,P.J.Leaf form and function - towards a radical new approach.New Phytologist,2002,155(3):317-320
[316] French,D.D.,N.Picozzi."Functional groups'of bird species,biodiversity and landscapes in Scotland.Journal of Biogeography,2002,29(2):231-259
[317] Thuiller,W.,S.Lavorel,M.T.Sykes,et al.Using niche-based modelling to assess the impact of climate change on tree functional diversity in Europe.Diversity & Distributions,2006,12(1):49-60
[318] Breshears,D.D.,J.B.Faidey.Interrelationships between plant functional types and soil moisture heterogeneity for semiarid landscapes within the grassland/forest continuum:a unified conceptual model.Landscape Ecology,1999(14):465-478
[319] Sternberg,M.,M.Gutman,A.Perevolotsky,et al.Vegetation response to grazing management in a Mediterranean herbaceous community:a functional group approach.Journal of Applied Ecology,2000,37(2):224-237
[320] Chen,X.,B.L.Li.Spatial variability of functional plant types of trees in NE China.Applied Ecology and Enviromnental Research,2005,3(2):39-49
[321] Orians,G.H.,R.Dirzo,J.H.Cushman.Biodiversity and ecosystem processes in tropical forests,in EcologicalStudies,M.M.Caldwell ed.Vol.122.New York:Springer,1996
[322] Reyes,G.B.,S.Capman,J.Lugo,Wood densities of tropical tree species,in General Technical Report SO-88.Washington,DC,New Orleans,LA:USDA Forest Service,1992
[340] 臧润国，杨彦承，林瑞昌等．海南霸王岭热带山地雨林森林循环与群落特征研究．林业科学，2003，39(5)：1-9
[341] Noss,R.F.Indicators for monitoring biodiversity:a hierarchical approach.Conservation Biology,1990(4):355-364
[342] Clark,D.B.,M.Palmer,D.A.Clark.Edaphic factors and the landscape-scale distribution of tropical rain forest trees.Ecology,1999,80:2662-2675
[343] Webb,C.O.,D.R.Peart.Habitat associations of trees and seedings in a Bornean rain forests.Journal of Ecology,2000(88):464-478
[344] Marts,R.H.,M.G.L.Duc.Factors controlling vegetation change in long-term experiments designed to restore heathland in Breckland,UK Applied Vegetation Science,2000,3(2):135-146
[323] 臧润国，杨彦承，蒋有绪．海南岛霸王岭热带山地雨林群落结构及树种多样性特征的研究．植物生态学报，2001，25(3)：270-275
[324] Laurance,W.F.Rainforest fragmentation kills big tree.Nature,2000,404:836
[325] Chun,W.Y.Flora Hainanica,Vol I.Beijing:Science Press,1964.(in Chinese)
[326] Chun,W.Y.Flora Itainanica,Vol II.Beijing:Science Press,1965.(in Chinese)
[327] Guangdong Institute of Botany.Flora Hainanica,Vol III.Beijing:Science Press,1974.(in Chinese)
[328] Guangdong Institute of Botany.Flora Hainanica,Vol IV.Beijing:Science Press,1977.(in Chinese)
[329] Denslow,J.S.Disturbance and diversity in tropical rain forests:the density effect.Ecological Applications,1995,5(4):962-968
[330] Shugart,H.H.Plant and ecosystem functional types in Plant Functional Types:Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change T.M.Smith,H.H.Shugart,F.I.Woodward,Eds.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,1997,20-45
[331] Bazzaz,E.A.The physiological ecology of plant succession.Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics,1979,10:351-371
[332] Whitmore,T.C.Canopy gaps and the two major groups of forest trees.Ecology,1989,70(3):536-538
[333] Kammesheidt,L.Some autecological characteristics of successional and climax tree species in Venezuela.Acta Oecologica,2000,21(1):37-48
[334] Thomas,S.C.Asymptotic height as a predictor of growth and allometric characteristics in Malaysian rain forest.American Journal of Botany,1996,83:556-566
[335] Suzuki,E.Diversity in specific gravity and water content of wood among Borne.an tropical rainforest trees.Ecological Research,1999,14(3):211-224
[336] Westoby,M.,D.S.Falster,A.T.Moles,et al.Plant ecological strategies:some leading dimensions of variation between species.Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics,2002,33:125-159
[337] Dalling,J.W.,S.P.Hubbell.Seed size,growth rate and gap microsite conditions as determinants of recruitment success for pioneer species.Journal of Ecology,2002,90(3):557-568
[338] Coomes,D.A.,P.J.Grubb.Colonization,tolerance,competition and seed-size variation within functional groups.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2003,18:283-291
[339] Chaneton,E.J.,J.M.Facelli.Disturbance effects on plant community diversity:spatial scales and dominance hierarchies.Vegetatio,1991,93(22):143-155
[345] Michael,C.W.,A.S.Thomas.Influences of environment and disturbance on forest patterns in coastal oregon watersheds.Ecology,2001,82(5):1443-1459
[346] Svenning,J.C.,D.A.Kinner,R.E Stallard.Ecological determinism in plant community structure across a tropical forest landscape.Ecology,2004,85(9):2526-2538
[347] Borcard,D.,P.Legendre,P.Drapeau.Partialling out the spatial component of ecological variation.Ecology,1992,73(3):1045-1055
[348] φkland,R.H.Partitioning the variation in a plot-by-species data matrix that is related to n sets of explanatory variables.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003(14):693-700
[349] 沈泽昊，张新时．三峡大老岭地区森林植被的空间格局分析及其地形解释．植物学报，2000，42(10)：1089-1095
[350] Lavorel,S.,W.Cramer.Functional response of vegetation to land use and disturbance.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999(10):604-732
[351] Mcintyre,S.,S.Lavorel,J.Landsberg,et al.Disturbance response in vegetation towards a global perspective on functional traits.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999(10):621-630
[352] Chapin,F.S.III.,K.Autumn,E Pugnaire,Evolution of suites of traits in response to environmental stress.The American Naturalist,1993,142:S78-S92
[353] Herbert,D.A.,E.B.Rastetter,G.R.Shaver,et al.Effects of plant growth characteristics on biogeochemistry and community composition in a changing climate.Ecosystems,1999,2:367-382
[354] Hooper,D.U.,M.Solano,A.Symstad,et al.Species diversity,functional diversity,and ecosystem functioning in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning:Synthesis and Perspectives M.Loreau,S. Naeem,P.Inchausti,Ed.New York:Oxford University Press,2002
[355] 海南木材研究联合工作组．海南木材：鉴别，材性及利用．广州：广东省林业局，1966
[356] Legendre,P.,L.Legendre.Numerical Ecology:Developments in Environmental Modelling.The Netherlands:Elsevier,Smsterdam,1998
[357] Keddy,P.A.Assembly and response rules:two goals for predictive community ecology.Journal of Vegetation Science,1992,3:157-164
[358] Real,R.,A.Marcia Barbosa,D.Porras,et al.Relative importance of environment,human activity and spatial situation in determining the distribution of terrestrial mammal diversity in Argentina.Journal of Biogeography,2003,30(6):939-947
[359] Foody,G.M.,R.A.Hill.Classification of tropical forest classes from Landsat TM data.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1996,17:2353-2367
[360] 李书娟，曾辉．遥感技术在景观生态学研究中的应用．遥感学报，2002，6(3)：233-240
[361] 赵光，邵国凡，郝占庆等．长白山森林景观破碎的遥感探测．生态学报，2001，21(9)：1393-1402
[362] Wolter,P.T.,M.A.White.Recent forest cover type transitions and landscape structural changes in northeast Minnesota,USA.Landscape Ecology,2002,17(2):133-155
[363] Tottrup,C.Improving tropical forest mapping using multi-date Landsat TM data and pre-elassification image smoothing.International Journal of Remote Sensing,2004,25(4):717-730
[364] Mueller-Dombois,D.,H.Ellenberg.Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology.New York:John Wiley & Sons,1974
[365] Hara,M.,K.Hirata,M.Fujihara,et al.Vegetation structure in relation to micro-landform in an evergreen broad-leaved forest on Amami Ohshima Island,South-West Japan.Ecological Research,1996,11:325-337
[366] Pinder,J.E.III.,G.C.Kroh,J.D.White,et al.The relationships between vegetation types and topography in Lassen Vocainic National Park.Plant Ecology,1997.131:17-29
[367] 沈泽昊，张新时．地形对亚热带山地景观尺度植被格局影响的梯度分析．植物生态学报，2000，24(4)：430-435
[368] 吴晓莆，唐志尧，崔海亭等．北京地区不同地形条件下的土地覆盖动态．植物生态学报，2006，30(2)：239-251
[369] Fensham,R.,R.Fairfax.The use of the land survey record to reconstruct pre-European vegetation patterns in the Darling Downs,Queensland,Australia.Journal of Biogeography,1997,24:827-836
[370] Bickford,S.,B.Mackey.Reconstructing pre-impact vegetation cover in modified landscapes using environmental modelling,historical surveys and remnant vegetation data:a case study in the Fleurieu Peninsula,South Australia.Journal of Biogeography,2004,31(5):787-805
[371] 张谧，熊高明，陈志刚等．数字高程模型在群落内物种共存研究中的应用—以神农架米心水青冈-曼青冈群落的地形模型建立为例．植物生态学报，2005，29(2)：197-201
[372] Abella,S.R.,W.W.Covington.Vegetation-environment relationships and ecological species groups of an Arizona Pinus ponderosa landscape,USA.Plant Ecology,2006,185:255-268
[373] 戴昌达，雷莉萍．TM图象的光谱信息特征与最佳波段组合．环境遥感，1989，4(4)：282-292
[374] Lucas,R.M.,M.Honzak,G.M.Foody,et al.Characterizing tropical secondary forests using multi-temporal Landsat sensor imagery,international Journal of Remote Sensing,1993,14:3061-3067
[375] Cohen,W.B.,T.A.Spies, M.Fiorclla.Estimation of the age and structure of forests in a multi-ownership landscape of Western Oregon,U.S.A.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1995,16:721-746
[376] ERDAS.Erdas Field Guide 5th ed.Atlanta,Georgia:ERDAS Inc.,1999
[377] Homer,C.G.,R.D.Ramscy,T.C.Edwards,ct al.Landscape cover-type modeling using a multi-scene Thematic Mapper mosaic.Photogrammctric Engineering and Remote Sensing,1997,63:59-67
[378] Hutchinson,M.F.ANUDEM Version 4.6 User Guide.Canberra:Centre for Resource and Environmental Sutdies,1999,UP,L:http://cres.anu.cdu.au/outputs/softwarc.php
[379] 马克明，傅伯杰．北京东灵山地区景观格局及破碎化评价．植物生态学报，2000，24(3)：320-326
[380] Hu,Y.J.,X.Q.Ding.A study on the plant species diversity of tropical natural forest in Bawangling,ainan Island.Chinese Biodiversity,2000,8(4):370-377(in Chinese with English abstract)
[381] Saxena,K.G.,A.k.Tiwari,M.C.Porwal,et al.Vegetation maps,mapping needs and scope of digital processing of Landsat Thematic Mapper data in tropical region of south-west India.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1992,13(11):2017-2037
[382] Steininger,M.K.Tropical secondary forest regrowth in the Amazon:age,area and change estimation with Thematic Mapper data.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1996,17:9-27
[383] Alves,D.,D.L.Skole.Characterizing and cover dynamics using multi-temporal imagery.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1996,17:835-839
[384] Chave,J.,B.Ritra,M.-A.Dubois.Estimation of biomass in a neotropical forest of French Guiana: spatial and temporal variability.Journal of Tropical Ecology,2001,17(01):79-96
[385] Haripriya,G.Estimates of biomass in Indian forests.Biomass and Bioenergy,2000,19:245-258
[386] Houghton,R.A.,D.L.Skole,C.A.Nobre,et al.Annual fluxes of carbon from deforestation and regrowth in the Brazilian Amazon.Nature,2000,403(6767):301-304
[387] Vanclay,J.K.Growth models for tropical forests:a synthesis of models and methods.Forest Science,1995,41:7-42
[388] 陈德祥，李意德，骆土寿等．海南岛尖峰岭鸡毛松人工林乔木层生物量和生产力研究．林业科学研究，2004，17(5)：598-604
[389] 李意德．海南岛热带山地雨林林分生物量估测方法比较分析．生态学报，1993，13(4)：313-320
[390] 李意德，张振才．尖峰岭热带山地雨林生物量的初步研究．植物生态学与地植物学学报，1992，16(4)：293-300
[391] Carlson,T.,D.Ripley.On the relation between NDVI,fractional vegetation cover,and Leaf Area Index.Remote Sensing of Environment,1997,62:241-252
[392] 李素英，李晓兵，莺歌等．基于植被指数的典型草原区生物量模型—以内蒙古锡林浩特市为例．植物生态学报，2007，31：23-31
[393] 黄敬峰，王秀珍．天山北坡中东段天然草地光谱植被指数特征．山地学报，1999，17(2)：119-124
[394] Todd,S.W.,R.M.Heifer,D.G.Milchunas.Biomass estimation on grazed and ungrazed rangelands using spectral indicese.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1998,19:427-438
[395] Freitas,S.R.,M.C.S.Mello,C.B.M.Cruz.Relationships between forest structure and vegetation indices in Atlantic Rainforest.Forest Ecology and Management,2005,218(1-3):353-362
[396] Tan,K.,S.Piao,C.Peng,et al.Satellite-based estimation of biomass carbon stocks for northeast China's forests between 1982 and 1999.Forest Ecology and Management,2007,240(1-3):114-121
[397] Dong,J.,R.K.Kaufmann,R.B.Myneni,et al.Remote sensing estimates of boreal and temperate forest woody biomass:carbon pools,sources,and sinks.Remote Sensing of Environment,2003,84(3):393-410
[398] Boyd,D.S.,G.M.Foody,P.J.Curran,et al.An assessment of radiance in Landsat TM middle and thermal infrared wavebands for the detection of tropical forest regeneration.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1996,17:249-261
[399] Lu,D.,P.Mausel,E.Brondizio,et al.Relationships between forest stand parameters and Landsat TM spectral responses in the Brazilian Amazon Basin.Forest Ecology and Management,2004,198(1-3):149-167
[400] Chave,J.,R.Condit,S.Aguilar,et al.Error propogation and scaling for tropical forest biomass estimates.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,Series B,2004,359:409-420
[401] Houghton,R.A.,K.T.Lawrence,J.L.Hackler,et al.The spatial distribution of forest biomass in the Brazilian Amazon:a comparison of estimates.Global Change Biology,2001,7(7):731-746
[402] Dogan, H., M. Dogan. A New approach to diversity indices—modeling and mapping plant biodiversity of Nallihan (A3-Ankara/Turkey) forest ecosystem in frame of geographic information systems. Biodiversity and Conservation, 2006, 15(3): 855-878
[403] 王正兴,刘闯,A. L. Huete．植被指数研究进展：从AVHRR-NDVI到MODIS-EVI．生态学报,2003,23(5)：979-987
[404] Gamon, J.A., C.B. Field, M.L. Goulden, et al. Relationships between NDVI, canopy structure, and photosynthesis in three Californian vegetation types. Ecological Applications, 1995, 5(1): 28-41
[405] Boyd, D.S., G.M. Foody, P.J. Curran. The relationship between the biomass of Cameroonian tropical forests and radiation reflected in middle infrared wavelengths (3.0-5.0μm). International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1999, 20(5): 1017-1023
[406] Foody, G.M., M.E. Cutler, J. McMorrow, et al. Mapping the biomass of Bornean tropical rain forest from remotely sensed data. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 2001, 10(4): 379-387
[407] Phua, M.-H., H. Saito. Estimation of biomass of a mountainous tropical forest using Landsat TM data. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 2003, 29(4): 429-440
[408] Foody, G.M., D.S. Boyd, M.E.J. Cutler. Predictive relations of tropical forest biomass from Landsat TM data and their transferability between regions. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2003, 85:463-474
[409] Saatchi, S.S., R.A. Houghton, R.C. Dos Santos Alvala, et al. Distribution of aboveground live biomass in the Amazon basin. Global Change Biology, 2007, 13(4): 816-837
[410] Hansen, A.J., T.A. Spies, F.J. Swanson, et al. Conserving biodiversity in managed forests: Lessons from natural forests. BioScience, 1991, 41:382-392
[411] Grashof-Bokdam, C.J. Forest species in an agricultural landscape in the Netherlands: effects of habitat fragmentation. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1997, 8:21-28
[412] Jacquemyn, H., J. Butaye, M. Dumortier, et al. Effects of age and distance on the compostion of mixed deciduous forest fragments in an agricultural landscape. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2001, 12: 635-342
[413] Jacquemyn, H., R. Brys, M. Hermy. Patch occupancy, population size and reproductive success of a forest herb (Primula elatior) in a fragmented landscape. Oecologia, 2002, 130:617-625
[414] Kolb, A., M. Diekmarm. Effects of environment, habitat configuration and forest continuity on the distribution of forest plant species. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2004, 15:199-208
[415] Sala, O.E., F.S. Chapin Ⅲ, J.J. Armesto, et al. Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science, 2000, 287(5459): 1770-1774
[416] Hellmann, J.J., G.W. Fowler. Bias, precision, and accuracy of four measures of species richness. Ecological Applications, 1999, 9:824-834
[417] Ernoult, A., Y. Tremauville, D. Cellier, et al. Potential landscape drivers of biodiversity components in a flood plain: Past or present patterns? Biological Conservation, 2006, 127(1): 1-17
[418] Krauss, J., A.M. Klein, I. Steffan-Dewenter, et al. Effects of habitat area, isolation, and landscape diversity on plant species richness of calcareous grasslands. Biodiversity and Conservation, 2004, 13: 1427-1439
[419] Dauber, J., M. Hirsch, D. Simmering, et al. Landscape structure as an indicator of biodiversity: matrix effects on species richness. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2003, 98(1-3): 321-329
[420] Honnay, O., K. Piessens, W. Van Landuyt, et al. Satellite based land use and landscape complexity indices as predictors for regional plant species diversity. Landscape and Urban Planning, 2003, 63: 241-250.
[421] Fagan, W.F., R.S. Cantrell, C. Cosner. How habitat edges change species interactions. American Naturalist, 1999, 153(165-182)
[422] Matlack, G.R. Plant species migration in a mixed-history forest landscape in Eastern North America. Ecology, 1994, 75:1492-1502
[423] Hargis, C.D., J.A. Bossonette, J.L. David. The behavior of landscape metrics commonly used in the study of habitat fragmentation. Landscape Ecology, 1998, 13:167-186
[424] Mazerolle, M.J., M.A. Villard. Patch characteristics and landscape context as predictor of species presence and abundance: a review. EcoScience, 1999, 6(1): 117-124
[425] Chang, Y., R.C. Bu, Y.M. Hu, et al. Dynamics of forest landscape boundary at Changbai Mountain. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 2004, 15(1): 15-20 (in Chinese with English abstract)
[426] Laurance, W.F., H.L. Wasconcelos Ecological effects of habitat fragmentation in the tropical in Agroforestry and Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Landscapes G. Schroth, G.A.B. Da Fonseca, C.A. Harvey, et al., Edso Washington, Covelo, London: Island Press, 2004
[427] Zacharias, D., D. Brandes. Species area-relationships and frequency-floristical data analysis of 44 isolated woods in northwestern Germany. Vegetatio, 1990, 88:21-29
[428] Alvarez-Buylla,E.,R.Garcia-Barros.Seed and forest dynamics:a theoretical framework and an example from the neotropics.American Naturalist,1991,137(2):133-154
[429] Chazdon,R.L.,S.Careaga,C.Webb,et al.Community and phylogenetic structure of reproductive traits of woody species in wet tropical forests.Ecological Monographs,2003,73:331-348
[430] Schupp,E.W.,H.F.Howe,C.k.Augspurger,et al.Arrival and survival in tropical treefall gaps.Ecology,1989,70(3):562-564
[431] Alvarez-Buylla,E.,M,Martinez-Ramos.Demography and allometry of Cecropia obtusifolia,a neotropical pioneer tree-- and evaluation of the climax-- pioneer paradigm for tropical rain forest.Journal of Ecology,1992,80:275-290
[432] Hansson,L.,P.Angelstam.Landscape ecology as a theoretical basis for nature conservation.Landscape Ecology,1991,5:191-201
[433] Potts,M,D.,P.S.Ashton,L.S.Kaufman,et al.Habitat patterns in tropical rain forests:a comparison of 105 plots in Northwest Borneo.Ecology,2002,83(10):2782-2797
[434] Guisan,A.,W.Thuiller.Predicting species distribution:offering more than simple habitat models.Ecology Letters,2005,8:993-1009
[435] Hutchinson,G.E.Concluding remarks.Populations studies:animal ecology and demography.Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology,1957,22:415-427
[436] Patterson,B.D.Contingency and determinism in mammalian biogeography:the role of history.Journal of Mammalogy,1999,80:345-360
[437] Peterson,A.T.,K.P.Cohoon.Sensitivity of distributional prediction algorithms to geographic data completeness.Ecological Modelling,1999,117:159-164
[438] Underwood,E.C.,R.Klinger,P.E.Moore.Predicting patterns of non-native plant invasions in Yosemite National Park,California,USA.Diversity & Distributions,2004,10(5-6):447-459
[439] Peterson,A.T.,J.Soberon,V.Sanchez-Cordero.Conservatism of ecological niches in evolutionary time.Science,1999,285(5431):1265-1267
[440] Raven,P.H.,E.O.Wilson.A fifty-year plan for biodiversity surveys.Science,1992,258:1099-1100
[441] Voss,R.S.,L.H.Emmons.Mammalian diversity in Neotropical lowland rainforests:a preliminary assessment.Bulletin of the American museum of natural history,1996,230:1-115
[442] Krogh,S.N.,M.S.Zeisset,E.Jackson,et al.Presence/absence of a keystone species as an indicator of rangeland health.Journal of Arid Environments,2002,50(3):513-519
[443] Li,W.,Z.Wang,Z.Ma,et al.A regression model for the spatial distribution of red-crown crane in Yancheng Biosphere Reserve,China.Ecological Modelling,1997,103(2-3):115-121
[444] Nix,H.A.A biogeographic analysis of Australian elapid snakes in Atlas of Australian elapid snakes R.Longrnore,Ed.Canberra:Australian Government Publishing Service,1986,4-15
[445] Stockwell,D.R.B.,D.P.Peters.THe GARP modelling system:problems and solutions to automated spatial prediction.International Journal of Information Systems,1999,13:143-158
[446] Stockwell,D.R.B.,A.T.Peterson.Effects of sample size on accuracy of species distribution models.Ecological Modelling,2002,148(1):1-13
[447] Stockman,A.K.,D.A.Beamer,J.E.Bond.An evaluation of a GARP model as an approach to predicting the spatial distribution of non-vagile invertebrate species.Diversity & Distributions,2006,12(1):81-89
[448] 李红梅，韩红香，薛大勇．利用GARP生态位模型预测日本松干蚧在中国的地理分布．昆虫学报，2005，48(1)：95-100
[449] Peterson,A.T.,M.Pages,D.A.Kluza.Predicting the potential invasive distributions of four alien plant species in North America.Weed Science,2003,51:863-868
[450] Willmott,C.J.,K.Matsuura.Smart interpolation of annually averaged air temperature in the United States.Journal of Applied Meteorology,1999,34(12):2577-2586
[451] 阎洪．薄板光顺样条插值与中国气候空间模拟．地理科学，2004，24(2)：163-169
[452] 阎洪．气候时空数据的样条插值与应用．地理与地理信息科学，2003，19(5)：27-31
[453] Hutchinson,M.F.ANUSPLIN Version 4.1 User Guide.Canberra:Centre for Resource and Environmental Sutdies,2000,URL:http://cres.anu.edu.au/outputs/software.php
[454] Berger,W.H.,F.L.Parker.Diversity of planktonic Foraminifera in deep sea sediments.Science,1970,168:1345-1347
[455] Scachetti-Pereira,R.Desktop GARP.www.lifemapper.org/desktopgarp,2001
[456] Chen,P.f.,E.O.Wiley,K.M.Mcnyset.Ecological niche modeling as a predictive tool:silver and bighead carps in North America.Biological Invasions,2006,9:43-51
[457] Swets,J.A.Measuring the accuracy of diagnostic systems.Science,1988,240:1285-1293
[458] Jordan,F,A.Takacs-Santa,I.Molnar.Are liability theoretical quest for key stones.Oikos,1999,86: 453-462
[459] Hurlbert, S.H. Functional importance vs keyness: reformulating some questions in theoretical biocenology. Australian Journal of Ecology, 1997, 22:369-382
[460] Paine, R.T. A conversation on refining the concept of keystone species. Conservation Biology, 1995, 9: 962-964
[461] Power, M.E., L.S. Mills. The keystone cops meet in Hilo. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 1995, 10(5): 182-184
[462] Christianou, M., B. Ebenman. Keystone species and vulnerable species in ecological communities: strong or weak interactors? Journal of Theoretical Biology, 2005, 235(1): 95-103
[463] Loreau, M. Does functional redundancy exist? Oikos, 2004, 104(3): 606-611
[464] Beerling, D.J., B. Huntley, J.P. bailey. Climate and the distribution of Fallopia japonica:use of an introduced species to test the predictive capacity of response surfaces. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1995, 6:269-282
[465] Swenson, N.G. Gis-based niche models reveal unifying climatic mechanisms that maintain the location of avian hybrid zones in a North American sutrue zone. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 2005, 19(3): 717-725
[466] Saunders, D.A., R.J. Hobbs, C.R. Margules. Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: a review. Conservation Biology, 1991, 5(1): 18-32
[467] Peterson, A.T., D.A. Vieglais. Predicting species invasions using ecological niche modeling: new approaches from bioinformatics atack a pressing problem. BioScience, 2001, 51:363-371
[468] Anderson, R.P., M. Gomez-Laverde, A.T. Peterson. Geographical distributions of spiny pocket mice in South America: insights from predictive models. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 2002, 11(2): 131-141
[469] Wiley, E.O., K.M. McNyset, A.T. Peterson, et al. Niche modeling and geographic range predictions in the marine environment using a machine-learning algorithm. Oceanography, 2003, 16(3): 120-127
[470] Monica, P., A.T. Peterson. Predicting the potential invasive distribution for Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. in China. Journal of Wuhan Botanical Research, 2003, 21(2): 137-142
[471] Westhoff, V., E. van der Maarel The Brann-Blanquet approach in Ordination and Classification of Communities. Handbook of Vegetation Science R.H. Whittaker, Ed. Junk, The Hague, NL, 1973, 617-726
[472] Ricotta, C., M.L. Carranza, G. Avena, et al. Are potential nuturai vegetation maps a meaningful alternative to neutral landscape models. Applied Vegetation Science, 2002, 5:271-275
[473] Chytry, M. Potential replacement vegetation: an approach to vegetation mapping of cultural landscapes. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1:177-188
[474] Zerbe, S. Potential natural vegetation: validity and applicability in landscape planning and nature conservation. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1: 165-172
[475] Gavilan, R.G., F, Fernandez-Gonzalez, C. Blasi. Climatic classification and ordination of the Spanish Sistema Central: relationships with potential vegetation. Plant Ecology, 1998, 139:1-11
[476] Sykes, M.T., I.C. Prentice, F. Laarif. Quantifying the impact of global climate change on potential natural vegetation. Climatic Change, 1999, 41(1): 37-52
[477] Franklin, J. Enhancing a regional vegetation map with predictive models of dominant plant species in chaparral. Applied Vegetation Science, 2002, 5:135-146
[478] Austin, M.P. An ecological perspective on biodiversity investigations: examples from Australian eucalypt forest. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 1998, 85:2-17
[479] Ferrier, S. Mapping spatial pattern in biodiversity for regional conservation planning: where to from here? Systematic Biology, 2002, 51:331-363
[480] Zimmermann, N.E., F. Kienast. Predictive mapping of alpine grasslands in Switzerland: species versus community approach. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1999, 10:469-482
[481] Hilbert, D.W., B. Ostendorf. The utility of artificial neural networks for modelling the distribution of vegetation in past, present and future climates. Ecological Modelling, 2001, 146:311-327
[482] van Etten, E.J.B. Mapping vegetation in an arid, mountainous region of Western Australia. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1: 189-200
[483] Lux, A., F.A. Bemmerlein-Lux. Two vegetation maps of the same island: floristic units versus structural units. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1: 201-210
[484] Kamada, M., T. Okabe. Vegetation mapping with the aid of low-altitude aerial photography. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1: 211-218
[485] Mckenzie, N.L., L. Belbin, C.R. Margules, et al. Selecting representative reserve systems in remote areas. Biological Conservation, 1989, 50:239-261
[486] Walker,B.H.Biodiversity and ecological redundancy.Conservation Biology,1992,6:18-23
[487] Rosenfeld,J.C.Functional redundancy in ecology and conservation.Oikos,2002,98:156-162
[488] Batek,M.J.,A.J.Rebertus,W.A.Schroeder,et al.Reconstruction of early nineteenth-century vegetation and fire regimes in the Missouri Ozarks.Journal of Biogeography,1999,26(2):397-412
[489] Manies,K.L.,D.J.Mladenoff.Testing methods to produce landscape-scale presettlement vegetatio maps from the U.S.public land survey records.Landscape Ecology,2000,15(8):741-754
[490] Moravec,J.Reconstructed natural versus potential natural vegetation in vegetation mapping - a discussion of concepts.Applied Vegetation Science,1998,1:173-176
[491] Wang,J.,J.Ni.Review of modelling the distribution of plant species.Journal of Plant Ecology,2006,30(6):1040-1053
[492] Nielsen,S.E.,C.J.Johnson,D.C.Heard,et al.Can models of presence-absence be used to scale abundance?Two case studies considering extremes in life history.Ecography,2005,28(2):197-208
[493] Araujo,M.B.,A.Guisan.Five (or so) challenges for species distribution modelling.Journal of Biogeography,2006,33(10):1677-1688
[494] Steinitz,O.,J.Heller,A.Tsoar,et al.Environment,dispersal and patterns of species similarity.Journal of Biogeography,2006,33(6):1044-1054
[2] Richardson,J.E.,EM.Weitz,M.E Fay,et al.Rapid and recent origin of species richness in the Cape flora of South Africa.Nature,2001,412(6843):181-183
[3] Houghton,R.A.,J.L.Hackler.Emissions of carbon from forestry and land-use change in tropical Asia.Global Change Biology,1999,5(4):481-492
[4] Wilson,W.G,P.Lundberg,D.P.Vazquez,et al.Biodiversity and species interactions:extending Lotka-Volterra eommnnity theory.Ecology Letters,2003,6(10):944-952
[5] Peters,C.M.,A.H.Gentry,R.O.Mendelsohn.Valuation of an Amazonian rain forest.Nature,1989,339:655-656
[6] Bermingham,E.,C.Dick,C.Moritz eds.Tropical Rainforsts:Past,Present,and Future.Chicago and.London:University of Chicago Press,2005
[7] FAO.State of the World's Forests.Rome:Foodd and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,1999
[8] Noble,I.R.,R.Dirzo.Forests as human-dominated ecosystems.Science,1997,277:522-525
[9] Chazdon,R.L.Tropical forest recovery:legacies of human impact and natural disturbances.Perspectives in Plant Ecology,Evolution and Systematics,2003,6:51-71
[10] Wright,S.J.Tropical forests in a changing environment.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2005,20:553-560
[11] Andersen,M.,A.Thornhill,H.Koopowitz Tropical forest disruption and stochastic biodiversity losses in Tropical Forest Remants:Ecology,Management,and Conservation of Fragmented Communities W.F.Laurance,R.O.Bierregaard,Eds.Chicago,London:The University of Chicago Press,1997,281-291
[12] 臧润国，安树青，陶建平等．海南岛热带林生物多样性维持机制．北京：科学出版社，2004
[13] Turner,M.G Landscape ecology:what is the state of the science? Annual Review of Ecology,Evolution,and Systematics,2005,36(1):319-344
[14] de Blois,S.,G Domon,A.Bouchard.Landscape issues in plant ecology.Ecography,2002,25(2):244-256
[15] Fortin,M.J.,A.A.Agrawal.Landscape ecology comes of age.Ecology,2005,86:1965-1966
[16] Lovett,GM.,C.G Jones,M.G Turner.Ecosystem Function in Heterogeneous Landscapes.New York:Springer-Verlag,2005
[17] Krhler,P.,T.Ditzer,A.Huth.Concepts for the aggregation of tropical tree species into functional types and application to Sabah's lowland rain forest.Journal of Tropical Ecology,2000,16:591-602
[18] Loreau,M.Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning:recent theoretical advances.Oikos,2000,91:3-17
[19] Gondard,H.,J.Sandrine,A.James,et al.Plant functional types:a promising tool for management and restoration of degraded lands.Applied Vegetation Science,2003,6:223-234
[20] 蒋有绪，王伯荪，臧润国等．海南岛热带林生物多样性及其形成机制．北京：科学出版社，2002
[21] 王伯荪，余世孝，施苏华等．海南岛热带林生物多样性及其物种进化．北京：科学出版社，2005
[22] 胡玉佳，李玉杏．海南岛热带雨林．广州：广东高等教育出版社，1992
[23] 臧润国，刘静艳，董大方．林隙动态与森林生物多样性．北京：中国林业出版社，1999
[24] 李意德，陈步峰，周光益．中国海南岛热带森林及其生物多样性保护研究．北京：中国林业出版社，2002
[25] Ding,Y.,R.G.Zang.Community characteristics of early recovery vegetation on abandoned lands of shifting cultivation in Bawangling of Hainan Island,South China.Journal of Integrative Plant Biology,2005,47(5):530-538
[26] Ding,Y.,R.G.Zang,Y.X.Jiang.Effect ofhillslope gradient on vegetation recovery on abandoned land of shifting cultivation in Hainan Island,South China.Journal of Integrative Plant Biology,2006,48(6):642-653
[27] Southworth,J.,D.Munroe,H.Nagendra.Land cover change and landscape fragmentation--comparing the utility of continuous and discrete analyses for a western Honduras region.Agriculture,Ecosystems & Environment,2004,101(2-3):185-205
[28] Munroe,D.K.,J.Southworth,C.J.Tucker.The dynamics of land cover change in Western Honduras:exploring spatial and temporal complexity.Agricultural Economics,2002,27:355-369
[29] Nagendra,H.,J.Southworth,C.Tucker.Accessibility as a determinant of landscape transformation in Western Honduras:linking pattern and process.Landscape Ecology,2003,18:141-158
[30] Sierra,R.Dynamics and patterns of deforestation in the western Amazon:the Napo deforestation front,1986-1996.Applied Geography,1999,20:1-16
[31] Laurance,W.F.,A.K.M.Albemaz,G Schroth,et al.Predictors of deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon.Journal of Biogeography,2002,29(5-6):737-748
[32] Sanchez-Azofeifa,G.A.,R.C.Harriss,D.L.Skole.Deforestation in Costa Rica:a quantitative analysis using remote sensing imagery.Biotropica,2001,33(3):378-384
[33] Ochoa-Gaona,S.,M.Gonzalez-Espinosa.Land use and deforestation in the highlands of Chiapas,Mexico.Applied Geography,2000,20:17-42
[34] Cayuela,L.,J.M.R.Benayas,C,Echeverda.Clearance and fragmentation of tropical montane forests in the Highlands of Chiapas,Mexico(1975-2000).Forest Ecology and Management,2006,226(1-3):208-218
[35] FAmes,D.S.,R.F.Nelson,D.L.Skole,et al.Accuracies in Mapping Secondary Tropical Forest Age from Sequential Satellite Imagery.Remote Sensing of Environment,1998,65(1):112-120
[36] Conghe,S.,E.Curtis.The spatial manifestation of forest succession in optical imagery:the potential of multiresolution imagery.Remote Sensing of Environment,2002,82:271-284
[37] Foody,G.M.,G.Palubinskas,R.M.Lucas,et al.Identifying terrestrial carbon sinks:classification of successional stages in regenerating tropical forest from landsat TM data.Remote Sensing of Environment,1996,55(3):205-216
[38] Hernandez-Stefanoni,J.L.Relationships between landscape patterns and species richness of trees,shrubs and vines in a tropical forest.Plant Ecology,2005,179(1):53
[39] Moran,E.F.,E.Brondizio,P.Mausel,et al.Integrating Amazonian vegetation,land-use,and satellite data.Bioscience,1994,44:329-338
[40] Rignot,E.,W.A.Salas,D.L.Skole.Mapping deforestation and secondary growth in Rondrnia,Brazil,using imaging radar and Thematic Mapper data.Remote Sensing of Environment,1997,59:167-179
[41] Montagnini,F.,C.F.Jordan.Tropical Forest Ecology:the Basis for Conservation and Management.Heidelberg:Springer,2005,
[42] Swain,P.H.,S.M.Davis.Remote Sensing:the Quantitative Approach:McGraw-Hill International Book Company,1978
[43] Schowengerdt,R.A.Remote Sensing Models and Methods for Image Processing.2nd ed.New York:Academic Press,1997
[44] Helmer,E.H.,S.Brown,W.B.Cohen.Mapping montane tropical forest successional stage and land use with multi-data Landsat imagery.International Journal of Remote Sensing,2000,21:2163-2183
[45] Turner,M.,GR.H.Gardner,R.V.ONeill.Langscape Ecology in Theory and Practice:Pattern and Process.New York:Springer-Verlag,2001
[46] ONeill,R.V.,J.R.Krummel,R.H.Gardner,et al.Indices of landscape pattern.Landscape Ecology,1988,1:153-162
[47] McGarigal,K.,B.J.Marks,FRAGSTAT Spatial Analysis Program for Quantifying Landscape Structure.USDA Forest Service General Technical Report PNW-GTR-351,1995
[48] Cain,D.H.,K.H.Riitters,K.Orvis.A multi-scale analysis of landscape statistic.Landscape Ecology,1997,12:199-212
[49] MoGarigal,K.,FRAGSTATS:Spatial Pattern Analysis Program for Quantifying Landscape Structure.United States Department of Agriculture,2002
[50] Abdullah,S.A.,N.Nakagoshi.Changes in landscape spatial pattern in the highly developing state of Selangor,peninsular Malaysia.Landscape and Urban Planning,2006,77(3):263-275
[51] Barbosa,EJ.,d.O.Filho,J.P.Metzger.Thresholds in landscape structure for three common deforestation patterns in the Brazilian Amazon.Landscape Ecology,2006,21(7):1061-1073
[52] Metzger,J.P.Landscape dynamics and equilibrium in areas of slash-and-bum agriculture with short and long fallow period (Bragantina region,NE Brazilian Amazon).Landscape Ecology,2002,17(5):419-431
[53] Endress,B.,J.D.Chinea.Landscape patterns of tropical forest recovery in the Republic of Palau.Biotropica,2001,33:555-565
[54] Mnadenoff,D.J.,M.A.White,J.Pastor,et al.Comparing spatial pattern in unaltered old-growth and disturbed forest landscapes.Ecological Applications,1993,3:294-306
[55] Fahfig,U Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity.Annual Review of Ecology,Evolution,and Systematics,2003,34:487-515
[56] Bierregaard,R.O.,T.E.Lovejoy,C.Gascon,et al.Lessons From Amazonia:The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest.New Haven, Connecticut,USA:Yale University Press,2002
[57] Viana,V.M.,A.A.J.Tabanez Biology and conservation of forest fragments in the Brazilian atlantic moist forest in Forest Pathches in Tropical Landscapes J.Schelhas,R.Greenberg,Eds.Washington,D.C.,Covelo,California:Island Press,1996,151-167
[58] Loreau,M.,S.Naeem,P.Inchausti,et al.Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning:curreent knowledge and future challenges.Science,2001,294:804-808
[59] Ferraz,G,G.J.Russell,P.C.Stouffer,et al.Rates of species loss from Amazonian forest fragments.PNAS,2003,100(24):14069-14073
[60] Hill,J.L.,P.J.Curran.Area,shape and isolation of tropical forest fragments:effects on tree species diversity and implications for conservation.Journal of Biogeography,2003,30(9):1391-1403
[61] Honnay,O.,M.Hermy,P.Coppin.Effects of area,age and diversity of forest patches in Belgium on plant species richness,and implications for conservation and reforestation.Biological Conservation,1999,87(1):73-84
[62] Hobbs,R.J.,C.J.Yates.TURNER REVIEW No.7 Impacts of ecosystem fragmentation on plant populations:generalising the idiosyncratic.Australian Journal of Botany,2003,51:471-488
[63] Haila,Y.A conceptual genealogy of fragmentation research:from island biogeography to landscape ecology.Ecology,2002,12(2):321-334
[64] Laurance,W.E,D.Ptrez-Salicrup,P.Delamtnica,et al.Rain forest fragmentation and the structure of Amazonian liana communities.Ecology,2001,82(1):105-116
[65] Allan,C.,H.Gtran.Tropical forest fragmentation and nest predation - an experimental study in an Eastern Arc montane forest, Tanzania. Biodiversity and Conservation,2001,10(7):1077-1085
[66] Lindenmayer,D.B.,J.Fischer.Tackling the habitat fragmentation panchreston.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2007,in press
[67] Metzger,J.P.Tree functional group richness and Landscape structure in a Brazilian tropical fragmented landscape.Ecological Applications,2000,10(4):1147-1161
[68] Laurance,W.E,H.E.M.Nascimento,S.G Laurance,et al.Rain forest fragmentation and the proliferation of successional trees.Ecology,2006,87:469-482
[69] del Moral,R.,J.H.Titus,A.M.Cook.Early primary succession on Mount St.Helens,Washington,USA.Journal of Vegetation Science,1995,6:107-120
[70] Cook,W.M.,J.Yao,B.L.Foster,et al.Secondary succession in an experimentally fragmented landscape:community patterns across space and time.Ecology,2005,86(5):1267-1279
[71] Holt, R.D., G.Robinson, M.S. Gaines. Vegetation dynamics in an experimentally fragmented landscape.Ecology,1995,76:1610-1624
[72] Schweiger,E.W.,R.D.Diffendorfer,R.D.Holt,et al.The interaction of habitat fragmentation,plant,and small mammal succession in an old field.Ecological Monographs,2000,70:383-400
[73] Muthuramkumar,S.,N.Ayyappan,N.Parthasarathy,et al.Plant community structure in tropical rain forest fragments of the Western Ghats,India.Biotropica,2006,38(2):143-160
[74] Cayuela,L.,D.J.Golicher,J.M.R.Benayas,et al.Fragmentation,disturbance and tree diversity conservation in tropical montane forests.Journal of Applied Ecology,2006,43(6):1172-1181
[75] White,G.M.,D.H.Boshier,W.Powell.Increased pollen flow counteracts fragmentation in a tropical dry forest:An example from Swietenia humilis Zuecarini.PNAS,2002,99(4):2038-2042
[76] Lowe,A.J.,D.Boshier,M.Ward,et al.Genetic resource impacts of habitat loss and degradation;reconciling empirical evidence and predicted theory for neotropical trees.Heredity,2005,95(4):255-273
[77] Tomimatsu,H.,M.Ohara.Genetic diversity and local population structure of fragmented populations of Trillium camschatcense (Trilliaceae).Biological Conservation,2003,109:249-258
[78] Kahmen,S.,P.Poschlod.Population size,plant performance,and genetic variation in the rare plant Arnica montana L.in the Rhtn,Germany.Basic and Applied Ecology,2000,1:43-51
[79] Hobbs,R.J.,D.M.Richardson,G.W.Davis Mediterranean-type ecosystem:opportunities and constraints for studying the function of biodiversity in Mediterranean-type Ecosystem- the Function of Biodiversity G.W.Davis,D.M.Richardson,Eds.New York:Springer-verlag,1995,1-32
[80] Cummins,K.W.Structure and function of stream ecosystems.BioScience,1974,24(11):631-641
[81] Blondel,J.Guilds or functional groups:does it matter?Oikos,2003,100(2):223-231
[82] Gitay,H.,I.R.Noble What are functional types and how should we seek them?in Plant Functional Types:Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change T.M.Smith,H.H.Shugart,El.Woodward,Eds.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1997,3-19
[83] Lavorel,S.,S.Mcintyre,J.Landsberg,et al.plant functional classifications:from general groups to specific groups based on response to disturbance.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1997,12(12): 474-478
[84] Walker,B.,A.Kinzig,L.Jenny Plant attribute diversity,resilience,and ecosystem function:the nature and significance of dominant and minor species.Ecosystems,1999,2:95-113
[85] Root,R.B.The niche exploitation pattern of the blue-gray Gnatcatcher.Ecological Monographs,1967,37(4):317-350
[86] Grime,J.P.,J.G.Hodgson,R.Hunt.Comparative Plant Ecology:a Functional Approach to British Species.London:Unwin Hyman,1988
[87] Swaine,M.D.,T.C.Whitmore.On the definition of ecological species groups in tropical forests.Vegetatio,1988,75:81-86
[88] Walker,B.H.Landscape to regional scale response of terrestrial ecosystems to global change.AMBIO,1994,23(1):67-73
[89] de Kroon,H.,H.Olff.On the use of the guild concept in plant ecology.Folia Geobot.Phytotax,1995,30:519-528
[90] Skarpe,C.Plant functional types and climate in a Southern African savanna.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7(3):397-404
[91] Chapin,F.S.III.,M.S.Bret-Harte,S.E.Hobbie,et al.Plant functional types as predictors of transient responses of at,erctic vegetation to global change.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:347-358
[92] Bugmann,H.Functional types of trees in temperate and boreal forests:classification and testing.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:359-370
[93] Noble,I.R.,H.Gitay A functional classification for predicting the dynamics of landscapes.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:329-336
[94] Shao,G.F.,H.H.Shugart,B.P.Hayden.Functional classifications of coastal barrier island vegetation.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:391-396
[95] Simberloff,D.,T.Dayan.The guild concept and the structure of ecological communities.Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics,1991,22:115-143
[96] Steneck,R.S.Functional groups in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity S.A.Levin,Ed.San Diego:Academic Press,2001,121-139
[97] Cook,E.R.,J.S.Glitzenstein,P.J.Krusic,et al.Identifying functional groups of trees in west gulf coast forest (U.S.A.):a tree-ring approach.Ecological Applications,2001,11:883-903
[98] Gitay,H.,I.R.Noble,J.H.Connell.Deriving functional types for rain-forest trees.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999,10(5):641-650
[99] Paine,R.T.A note on trophic complexity and community stability.American Naturalist,1969,103:91-93
[100] Mills,L.S.,M.E.Soule,D.F.Doak.The keystone-species Concept in ecology and conservation.BioScience,1993,43(4):219-224
[101] 黄建辉，韩兴国．关键种，关键在哪里?植物生态学报，2001，25(4)：505．509
[102] Power,M.E.,D.Tilman,J.A.Estes,et al.Changes in the quest for keystones.BioScience,1996,46:609-620
[103] Davit,R.D.Linking keystone species and functional groups:a new operational definition of the keystone species concept.Conservation Ecology,2003,7(1):rll
[104] Chapin,F.S.III.,E.D.Sehulze,H.A.Mooney Biodiversity and ecosystem processes.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1992,7(4):107-108
[105] Tilman,D.Functional diversity in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity S.A.LeAn,Ed.San Diego:Academic Press,2001,109-120
[106] Mason,N.W.H.,D.Mouillot,W.G.Lee,et al.Functional richness,functional evenness and functional divergence:the primary components of functional diversity.Oikos,2005,III(I):112-118
[107] Petchey,O.L.,K.J.Gaston.Functional diversity (FD),species richness and community composition.Ecology Letters,2002,5(3):402-411
[108] Mason,N.W.H.,K.MacGillivray,J.B.Steel,et al.An index of functional diversity.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003,14:571-578
[109] Diaz,S.,M.Cabido.Vive la difference:plant functional diversity matters to ecosystem processes.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2001,16(11):646-655
[110] Mouillot,D.,W.H.N.Mason,O.Dumay.Functional regularity:a neglected aspect of functional diversity.Oecologia,2004,142:353-359
[111] Hubbell,P.S.,R.B.Foster Biology,chance and history and the structure of tropical rain forest tree communities in Community Ecology J.Diamond,T.J.Case,Eds.New York:Harper & Row,1986
[112] Brokaw,N.,R.T.Busing.Niche versus chance and tree diversity in forest gaps.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2000,15(5):183-188
[113] Summerbell,G.Regeneration of complex notophyll vine forest (humid subtropical rainforest) in eastern Australia-a review.Cunninghamia,1991,2:391-409
[114] Box,E.O.Plant functional types and climate at the global scale.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7(3):309-320
[115] 唐海萍，蒋高明．植物功能型及其生态学意义．应用生态学报，2000，11(3)461-464
[116] 孙慧珍，国庆喜，周晓峰．植物功能型分类标准及方法．东北林业大学学报，2004，32(2)：81-83
[117] Woodward,E.I.,W.Cramer.Plant functional types and climatic changes:Introduction.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7:306-308
[118] Condit,R.,S.P.Hubbell,R.B.Foster.Assessing the response of plant functional types to climate change in tropical forests.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7(3):405-416
[119] Nygaard,B.,R.Ejrnaes.A new approach to functional interpretation of vegetation data.Journal of Vegetation Science,2004,15:49-56
[120] Dumay,O.,P.S.Taft,J.A.Tomasini,et al.Functional groups of lagoon fish species in Languedoc Roussillon,southern France.Journal of Fish Biology,2004,64(4):970-983
[121] Fonseca,C.R.,G.Ganade.Species functional redundancy,random extinctions and the stability of ecosystems.Journal of Ecology,2001,89(1):118-125
[122] Mclntyre,S.,S.Lavorel.Livestock Grazing in Subtropical Pastures:Steps in the analysis of attribute response and plant functional types.Journal of Ecology,2001,89(2):209-226
[123] Gondard,H.,E Romane,J.Aronson,et al.Impact of soil surface disturbances on functional group diversity after clear-cutting in Aleppo pine(Pinus halepensis) forests in southern France.Forest Ecology and Management,2003(180):165-174
[124] Finegan,B.Pattern and process in neotropical secondary rain forests:the first 100 years of succession.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1996,11(3):119-124
[125] Rees,M.,R.Condit,M.Crawley,et al.Long-tern studies of vegetation dynamics.Science,2001,293:650-655
[126] Guariguata,M.R.,R.L.Chazdon,J.S.Denslow,et al.Structure and floristics of secondary and old-growth forest stands in lowland Costa Rica.Plant Ecology,1997,132:107-120
[127] Denslow,J.S.,S.Guzman.Variation in stand structure,light, and seedling abundance across a tropical moist forest chronosequence,Panama.Journal of Vegetation Science,2000,11:201-212
[128] Denslow,J.S.Functional groups diversity and recovery from disturbance in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Processes in Tropical Forests O.G.H.,R.Dirzo,J.H.Cushman,Eds.Berlin:Springer-Verlag Press,1996,127-152
[129] Guariguata,M.R.,R.Ostertag.Neotropical secondary forest succession:changes in structural and functional characteristics.Forest Ecology and Management,2001,148:185-206
[130] Howorth,R.,C.Pendry.Post-cultivation secondary succession in a Venezuelan lower montane rain forest.Biodiversity and Conservation,2006,15(2):693-715
[131] Richards,P.W.The Tropical Rain Forest:An Ecological Study.2nd.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1996
[132] Verburg,R.,C.van Eijk-Bos.Effects of selective logging on tree diversity,composition and plant functional type patterns in a Borne,an rain forest.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003,14:99-110
[133] Brown,S.,A.E.Lugo.Tropical secondary forests.Journal of Tropical Ecology,1990,6(1):1-32
[134] Egler,E.Vegetation science concepts.I.Initial floristic composition:a factor in old-field vegetation development.Vegetatio,1952,4:412-417
[135] Tilman,D.Plant Strategies and the Dynamics and Structure of Plant Communities.Princeton,New Jersey,USA:Princeton University Press,1988
[136] Tilman,D.Competition and Biodiversity in Spatially Structured Habitats.Ecology,1994,75(1):2-16
[137] Pacala,S.W.,M.Rees.Models suggesting field experiments to test two hypotheses explaining successional diversity.American Naturalist,1998,152(5):729-737
[138] Hernandez-Stefanoni,J.L.The role of landscape patterns of habitat types on plant species diversity of a tropical forest in Mexico.Biodiversity and Conservation,2006,15:1441-1457
[139] Tabarelli,M.,W.Mantovani,C.A.Peres.Effects of habitat fragmentation on plant guild structure in the montane Atlantic forest of southeastern Brazil.Biological Conservation,1999,91(2-3):119-127
[140] Hill,J.L.,P.J.Curran.Fragment shape and tree species composition in tropical forests:a landscape level investigation.African Journal of Ecology,2005,43:35-43
[141] Benitez-Malvido,J.Impact of forest fragmentation on seedling abundance in a tropical rain forest.Conservation Biology,1998,12:380-389
[142] Metzger,J.P.Relationships between landscape structure and tree species diversity in tropical forests of South-East Brazil.Landscape and Urban Planning,1997,37(1-2):29-35
[143] MacArthur,R.H.,E.O.Wilson.The Theory of Island Biogeography.Princeton,New Jersey,USA: Princeton University Press, 1967
[144] Hubbell, S.P. Neutral theory in community ecology and the hypothesis of functional equivalence. Functional Ecology, 2005, 19(1): 166-172
[145] Grubb, P.J. The maintenance of species-richness in plant communities: the importance of the regeneration niche. Biological Reviews, 1977, 52:107-145
[146] Baker, T.R., M.D. Swaine, D.F.R.P. Burslem. Variation in tropical forest growth rates: combined effects of functional group composition and resource availability. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 2003, 6(1-2): 21-36
[147] Tilman, D. Constraints and tradeoffs: toward a predictive theory of competition and succession. Oikos, 1990, 58:3-15
[148] Grytnes, J.A., J.H. Beaman. Elevational species richness patterns for vascular plants on Mount Kinabalu, Borneo. Journal of Biogeography, 2006, 33(10): 1838-1849
[149] Kariuki, M., M. Rolfe, R.G.B. Smith, et al. Diameter growth performance varies with species functional-group and habitat characteristics in subtropical rainforests. Forest Ecology and Management, 2006, 225(1-3): 1-14
[150] Silvertown, J. Plant coexistence and the niche. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 2004, 19:605-611
[151] Yamada, T., P.A. Zuidema, A. Itoh, et al. Strong habitat preference of a tropical rain forest tree does not imply large differences in population dynamics across habitats. Journal of Ecology, 2007, 95(2): 332-342
[152] Pansas, J.G., M.P. Austin. Patterns of plant species richness in relation to different environments: An appraisal. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2001, 12:153-166
[153] Conneli, J.H. Diversity in tropical rain forest and coral reefs. Science, 1978, 199:1302-1310
[154] Turner, M. G., W.L. Barker, C.J. Peterson, et al. Factors influencing succession: lessons from large, infrequent natural disturbances. Ecosystems, 1998, 1:511-523
[155] Turner, M. G., V.H. Dale. Comparing large, infrequent disturbances: what have we learned? Ecosystems, 1998, 1:493-496
[156] Dickinson, M.B., D.F. Whigham, S.M. Hermann. Tree regeneration in felling and natural treefall disturbances in a semideciduous tropical forest in Mexico. Forest Ecology and Management, 2000, 134(1-3): 137-151
[157] Fearnside, P.M., W.F. Laurance. Tropical deforestation and greenhouse-gas emissions. Ecological Applications, 2004, 14(4): 982-986
[158] McIntyre, S., S. Diaz, S. Lavorel, et al. Plant functional types and disturbance dynamics - Introduction. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1999, 10(5): 604-608
[159] Lavorel, S., B. Touzard, J.-D. Lebreton, et al. Identifying functional groups for response to disturbance in an abandoned pasture. Acta Oecologica, 1998, 19(3): 227-240
[160] Snook, L.K. Stand Dynamics of Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) and Associated Species After Fire and Hurricane in the Tropical Forests of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Yale University: New Haven, CT, 1993
[161] Vandermeer, J., I. Granzow de la Cerda, D. Boucher, et al. Hurricane disturbance and tropical tree species diverstity. Science, 2000, 290:788-791
[162] Cochrane, M.A. Fire science for rainforests. Nature, 2003, 421(6926): 913-919
[163] Pausas, J.G., R.A. Bradstock, D.A. Keith, et al. Plant functional traits in relation to fire in crown-fire ecosystems. Ecology, 2004, 85(4): 1085-1100
[164] Connell, J.H., P.T. Green. Seedling dynamics over thirty-two years in a tropical rain forest tree. Ecology, 2000, 81:568-584
[165] Vinebrooke, R.D., K.L. Cottingham, J. Norberg, et al. Impacts of multiple stressors on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: the role of species co-tolerance. Oikos, 2004, 104(3): 451-457
[166] Scheffer, M., S. Carpenter, J.A. Foley, et al. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature, 2001, 413: 591-596
[167] Naeem, S. Species redundancy and ecosystem reliability. Conservation Biology, 1998, 12:39-45
[168] Yachi, S., M. Loreau. Biodiversity and ecosystem productivity in a fluctuating environment: the insurance hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 1999, 96:1463-1468
[169] D. Vinebrooke, R., K. L. Cottingham, M.S.J. Norberg, et al. Impacts of multiple stressors on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning: the role of species co-tolerance. Oikos, 2004, 104(3): 451-457
[170] Hooper, D.U., F.S. Chapin Ⅲ, J.J. Ewel, et al. Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of current knowledge. Ecological Monographs, 2005, 75(1): 3-35
[171] Korner, C. Scaling from species to vegetation: the usefulness of functional groups in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function.Ecological studies,vol.99 E.D.Schulze,H.A.Mooney,Eds.Berlin,Germany:Springer-Verlag,1993,117-140
[172] Smith,T.M.,H.H.Shugart,E.I.Woodward.Plant Functional Types.Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,1997
[173] Harrington,R.,I.Woiwod,T.Sparks.Climate change and trophic interactions.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1999,14:146-150
[174] Condit,R.,S.P.Hubbell,R.B.Foster.Assessing the response of plant functional types to climatic change in tropical forests.Journal of Vegetation Science,1996,7(3):405-416
[175] Borchert,R.Soil and stem water storage determine phenology and distribution of tropical dry forest trees.Ecology,1994,75(5):1437-1449
[176] Wright,S.J.,O.Calderon.Seasonal,El Nino and longer term changes in flower and seed production in a moist tropical forest.Ecology Letters,2006,9(1):35-44
[177] Curran,L.M.,I.Caniago,G.D.Paoli,et al.Impact of El Nino and logging on canopy tree recruitment in Borneo.Science,1999,286:2184-2188
[178] Chazdon,R.L.,A.R.Brenes,B.V.Alvarado.Effects of climate and stand age on annual tree dynamics in tropical secondary-growth rain forests.Ecology,2005,86:1808-1815
[179] McPherson,J.M.,W.Jetz.Effects of species'ecology on the accuracy of distribution models.Ecography,2007,30(1):135-151
[180] Loehle,C.Strategy Space and the Disturbance Spectrum:A Life-History Model for Tree Species Coexistence.The American Naturalist,2000,156(1):14-33
[181] Campbell,B.D.,D.M.Stafford Smith,A.J.Ash.A rule-based model for the functional analysis of vegetation change in Australasian grasslands.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999,10:723-730
[182] Cramer,W.Using plant functional types in a global vegetation model in Plant Functional Types:Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change T.M.Smith,H.H.Shugart,El.Woodward,Eds.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1997,271-288
[183] Box,E.O.Macroclimate and Plant Forms:An Introduction to Predictive Modeling in Phytogeography.Tasks for Vegetation Science.Vol.1.The Hague:Dr.W.Junk BV Publishers,1981,258
[184] Box,E.O.Factors determining distributions of tree species and plant functional types.Vegetatio,1995,121:101-116
[185] Prentice,I.C.,W.Cramer,S.P.Harrison,et al.A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance,soil properties and climate.Journal of Biogeography,1992,19:117-134
[186] Prentice,I.C.,T.Webb Iii.BIOME 6000:reconstructing global mid-Holocene vegetation patterns from palaeoecological records.Journal of Biogeography,1998,25(6):997-1005
[187] Haxeltine,A.,I.C.Prentice.BIOME3:An equilibrium terrestrial biosphere model based on ecophysiological constraints,resource availability,and competition among plant functional types.Global Biogeochemical Cycles,1996,10:693-709
[188] Bossel,H.Modelling forest dynamics:moving from description to explanation.Forest Ecology and Management,1991,42:129-142
[189] Kohler,P.,A.Huth.The effects of tree species grouping in tropical rainforest modelling:Simulations with the individual-based model F.Ecological Modelling,1998,109(3):301-321
[190] Gourlet-Fleury,S.,E.Houllier.Modelling diameter increment in a lowland evergreen rain forest in French Guiana.Forest Ecology and Management,2000,131(1-3):269-289
[191] Favrichon,V.Modeling the dynamics and species composition of a tropical,mixed-species uneven-aged nutural forest:effects of altermative cutting regimes.Forest Science,1998,44:113-124
[192] Chave,J.Study of structural,successional and spatial patterns in tropical rain forests using TROLL,a spatially explicit forest model.Ecological Modelling,1999,124(2-3):233-254
[193] Bossel,H.,H.Krieger.Simulation of multi-species tropical forest dynamics using a vertically and horizontally structured model.Forest Ecology and Management,1994,69(1-3):123-144
[194] Pausas,J.G Response of Plant Functional Types to Changes in the Fire Regime in Mediterranean Ecosystems:A Simulation Approach.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999,10(5):717-722
[195] Franklin,J.,A.D.Syphard,D.J.Mladenoff,et al.Simulating the effects of different fire regimes on plant functional groups in Southern California.Ecological Modelling,2001,142:261-283
[196] Kammesheidt,L.,P.Kohler,A.Huth.Simulating logging scenarios in secondary forest embedded in a fragmented neotropical landscape.Forest Ecology and Management,2002,170(1-3):89-105
[197] Guisan,A.,N.E.Zimmerman.Predictive habitat distribution models in ecology.Ecological Modelling,2000,135:147-186
[198] Wilson,E.O.The Diversity of Life.London:Harvard University Press,1999
[199] Leathwick,J.R.New Zealand's potential forest pattern as predicted form current species-environment relationships.New Zealand Journal of Botany,2001,39:447-464
[200] Breiman,L.,J.H.Friedman,R.A.Olshen,et al.Classification and Regression Trees.Belmont,CA:Wadsworth International Group,1984
[201] Mastrorillo,S.,S.Lek,E Dauba,et al.The use of artificial neural networks to predict the presence of small-bodied fish in a river.Freshwater Biology,1997,38:237-246
[202] McCullagh,P.,J.A.Nelder.Generalized Linear Models.London:Chapman & Hall,1989
[203] Hastie,T.,R.Tibshirani.Generalised Additive Models.London:Chapman and Hall,1990
[204] Skidmore,A.K.,A.Gauld,P.Walker.Classification of kangaroo distribution using three GIS models.International Journal of Information Systems,1996,10:441-454
[205] Stockwell,D.R.B.,J.H.Beach,A.Stewart,et al.The use of the GARP genetic algorithm and Internet grid computing in the Lifemapper world atlas of species biodiversity.Ecological Modelling,2006,195(1-2):139-145
[206] Thuiller,W.,M.B.Araujo,S.Lavorel.Generalised models versus classification tree analysis:a comparative study for predicting spatial distributions of plant species at different spatial scales.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003,14:669-680
[207] Pearce,J.,S.Ferrier.An evaluation of alternative algorithms for fitting species distribution models using logistic regression.Ecological Modelling,2000,128:127-147
[208] Bio,A.M.E,R.Alkemande,A.Barendregt.Determining alternative models for vegetation response analysis - a non-parametric approach.Journal of Vegetation Science,1998,9:5-16
[209] Segurado,P.,M.B.Araujo.An evaluation of methods for modelling species distributions.Journal of Biogeography,2004,31:1555-1568
[210] Gili,J.-M.Variability of the keystone species concept in marine ecosystems.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2002,17(11):499-499
[211] Ebenman,B.,T.Jonsson.Using community viability analysis to identify fragile systems and keystone species.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2005,20(10):568-575
[212] McCann,K.,A.Hastings,G.R.Huxel.Weak trophic interactions and the balance of nature.Nature,1998,395:794-798
[213] Berlow,E.L.Strong effects of weak interactions in ecological communities.Nature,1999,398:330-334
[214] Ferrier,S.,A.Guisan.Spatial modelling of biodiversity at the community level.Journal of Applied Ecology,2006,43:393-404
[215] Ferrier,S.,M.Drielsma,G.Manion.Extended statistical approaches to modelling spatial pattern in biodiversity in northeast New South Wales.II.Community-level modelling.Biodiversity and Conservation,2002,11:2309-2338
[216] Boj6rquez-Tapia,L.A.,I.Azuara,E.Ezcurra,et al.Identifying conservation priorities in Mexico through geographic information systmes and modeling.Ecological Applications,1995,5:215-231
[217] Guisan,A.,S.B.Weiss,A.D.Weiss.GLM versus CCA spatial modeling of plant species distribution.Plant Ecology,1999,143:107-122
[218] Lavorel,S.,E.Gamier.Predicting changes in community composition and ecosystem functioning from plant traits:revisiting the Holy Grail.Functional Ecology,2002,16(5):545-556
[219] Paruelo,J.M.,E.G.Jobbagy,O.E.Sala.Current distribution of ecosystem functional types in temperate South America.Ecosystems,2001,4:683-698
[220] Duckworth,J.C.,K.M.,R.P.M.Plant functional types:an alternative to taxonomic plant community description in biogeography?Progress in Physical Geography,2000,24(4):515-542
[221] Pausas,J.G.The effect of landscape pattern on Mediterranean vegetation dynamics:A modelling approach using functional types.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003,14:365-374
[222] Bonan,G.B.,L.Samuel.Landscapes as pathches of plant functional types:An integrating concept for climate and ecosystem models.Global Biogeochemical Cycles,2002,16(2):5-1
[223] Hill,M.O.Functional types for global modelling.Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters,1998,7(4):312-313
[224] Guisan,A.,A.Lehmann,S.Ferrier,et al.Making better biogeographical predictions of species'distributions.Journal of Applied Ecology,2006,43(3):386-392
[225] Lehmann,A.,J.M.Overton,J.R.Leathwick.GRASP:generalized regression analysis and spatial prediction.Ecological Modelling,2002,157:189-207
[226] Maggini,R.,A.Lehmann,N.E Zimmermann,et al.Improving generalized regression analysis for the spatial prediction of forest communities.Journal of Biogeography,2006,33(10):1729-1749
[227] Leathwick,J.R.,M.P.Austin.Competitive interactions between tree species in New Zealand's old-growth indigenous forests.Ecology,2001,82(9):2560-2573
[228] Huston,M.A.Introductory essay:critical issues for improving predictions in Predicting Species Occurrences:Issues of Accuracy and Scale J.M.Scott,P.J.Heglund,M.L.Morrison, et al., Eds.Covelo,CA:Island Press,2002,7-21
[229] 闫淑君，洪伟，吴承祯等．福建省森林景观时空动态特征研究．中国生态农业学报，2005，13(3)：162-164
[230] 亓兴兰，刘健，余坤勇等．基于RS与GIS的闽江流域森林景观格局分析．福建林学院学报，2006，26(1)：3640
[231] 刘文俊，马有鑫，胡华斌等．西双版纳勐仑地区景观格局变化定量分析．生态学报，2006，26(9)：3088-3097
[232] 甘淑，何大明，党承林．澜沧江流域上、中、下游典型案例区景观格局对比分析．山地学报，2002，20(5)：564-569
[233] 许建初，张佩芳，王雨华．云南澜沧江流域土地利用和覆盖变化．云南植物研究，2003，25(2)：145-154
[234] 刘文俊，马有鑫，胡华斌等．滇南热带雨林区士地利用／覆盖变化分析—以西双版纳勐仑地区例．地学报，2005，23(1)：71-79
[235] 张佩芳，赫维人，何祥等．云南西双版纳森林空间变化研究．地理学报，1999，54，增刊：139-145
[236] 黄建文，陈永富，王晓慧等．海南岛热带林动态变化的遥感监测．林业科学研究，2002，15(2)：203-206
[237] 菅利荣，李明阳．GIS分析方法在森林景观格局变化中的应用．中南林学院学报，2002，22(1)：86-89
[238] 闫明，钟章成，方兴．缙云山生境片断化对常绿阔叶林生物多样性的影响．生态学报，2005，25(7)：1642-1648
[239] 马有鑫，刘玉洪，张克映．西双版纳热带雨林片断小气候边缘效应的初步研究．植物生态学报，1998，22：250-255
[240] 彭少麟．南亚热带演替群落的边缘效应及其对森林片断化恢复的意义．生态学报，2000，20(1)：1-8
[241] 朱华，许再富，王洪等．西双版纳傣族“龙山”片断热带雨林植物多样性的变化研究．广西植物，1997，17：213-219
[242] 朱华，许再富，王洪等．西双版纳片断热带雨林的结构、物种组成及其变化的研究．植物生态学报，2000，24(5)：560-568
[243] 渠春梅，韩兴国，苏波等．西双版纳片断化热带雨林常绿乔木幼树水分利用效率的边缘效应研究．植物生态学报，2001，25：1-5
[244] 黄世能，王伯荪，李意德．海南岛尖峰岭次生热带山地雨林的边缘效应．林业科学研究，2004，17：693-699
[245] 王峥峰，高三红，田胜尼等．南亚热带森林片断化对厚壳桂种群遗传结构的影响．生物多样性，2005，13：324-331
[246] 许再富，朱华，王应祥等．澜沧江下游／湄公河上游片断热带雨林物种多样性动态．植物生态学报，2004，28(5)：585-593
[247] 唐勇，曹敏，白昆甲．片断化热带雨林土壤种子库初步研究．山地学报，2000，18：568-571
[248] 陈小勇，陈波，蒋屹峰．片断化对常绿阔叶林种类组成的影响．华东师范大学学报：自然科学版，2003(3)：69-74
[249] 白永飞，陈佐忠．锡林河流域羊草草原植物种群和功能群的长期变异性及其对群落稳定性的影响．植物生态学报，2000，24(6)：641-647
[250] 白永飞，李凌浩，黄建辉等．内蒙古高原针茅草原植物多样性与植物功能群组成对群落初级生产力稳定性的影响．植物学报，2001，43(3)：280-287
[251] 韩梅，杨利民，张永刚等．中国东北样带羊草群落C_3和C_4植物功能群生物量及其对环境变化的响应．生态学报，2006，26：1825-1832
[252] 左小安，赵学勇，张铜会等．退化沙质草场群落特征及功能群生物量的空间变异性．水土保持通报，2006，26(1)：20-25
[253] 王国杰，汪诗平，郝彦宾等．水分梯度上放牧对内蒙古主要草原群落功能群多样性与生产力关系的影响．生态学报，2005，25(7)：1649-1656
[254] 王长庭，龙瑞军，丁路明．高寒草甸不同草地类型功能群多样性及组成对植物群落生产力的影响．生物多样性，2004，12(4)：403-409
[255] 杜茜，沈海亮，王季槐．宁夏荒漠草原植物群落结构和物种多样性研究．生态学杂志，2006，25(2)：222-224
[256] Tang,H.P.,X.S.Zhang.A new approach to distinguishing photosynthetic types of plants:a case study in northeast China transect (NECT) platform.Photosynthetiea,1999,37:97-106
[257] Liu,X.Q.,R.Z.Wang,Y.Z.Li.Photosynthetic pathway types in rangland plant species from Inner Mongolia,North China.Photosynthetica,2004,42:339-344
[258] 沈泽昊，张新时．基于植物分布地形格局的植物功能型划分研究．植物学报，2000，42(11)： 1190-1196
[259] 翁恩生，周广胜．用于全球变化研究的中国植物功能型划分．植物生态学报，2005，29：81-97
[260] Ni,J.Plant functional types and climate along a precipitation gradient in temperate grasslands,north-east China and south-east Mongolia.Journal of Arid Environments,2003,53(4):501-516
[261] 刘晓强，王仁忠．北京北部农牧交错区C_4植物及其形态功能型和生境分析．生态学报，2006，26(5)：1509-1515
[262] 白永飞，张丽霞，张焱等．内蒙古锡林河流域草原群落植物功能群组成沿水热梯度变化的样带研究．植物生态学报，2002，26(3)：3108-316
[263] 王国宏．地带性木本植物群落功能型的水热分布格局．林业科学，2002，38(1)：15-23
[264] 牛书丽，蒋高明，高雷鸣等．浑善达克沙地不同植物功能型光合作用和水分利用特征的比较．生态学报，2005，25(4)：699-704
[265] 陈世苹，白永飞，韩兴国．内蒙古锡林河流域植物功能群组成及其水分利用效率的变化—依水分生态类群划分．植物学报，2003，45(10)：1251-1260
[266] 焦树英，韩国栋，李永强等．不同载畜率对荒漠草原群落结构和功能群生产力的影响．西北植物学报，2006，26(3)：564-571
[267] 王正文，邢福，祝廷成等．松嫩平原羊草草地植物功能群组成及多样性特征对水淹干扰的响应．植物生态学报，2002，26(6)：708-716
[268] 许凯扬，叶万辉，曹洪麟等．植物群落的生物多样性及其可入侵性关系的实验研究．植物生态学报，2004，28(3)：385-391
[269] 丁易．海南岛退化热带森林植被恢复生态学研究，中国林业科学研究院博士学位论文，2006，18-21
[270] 臧润国，成克武，李俊清等．天然林生物多样性保育与恢复．北京：中国科学技术出版社，2005
[271] Primack,R.,R.Corlett.Tropical Rain Forests:An Ecological and Biogeographical Comparison.Oxford:Blackwell Science Publishing,2005
[272] Laurance,W.F,A.K.M.Albernaz,P.M.Fearnside,et al.Deforestation in Amazonia.Science,2004,304:1109
[273] Turner,I.M.Species loss in fragments of tropical rain forest:a review of the evidence.Journal of Applied Ecology,1996,33:200-209
[274] Laurance,W.F,S.Bergen,M.A.Cochrane,et al.The future of the Amazon in Tropical Rainforsts:Past,Present,and Future E.Bermingham,C.Dick,C.Moritz,Eds.Chicage and London:University of Chicago Press,2005,583-609
[275] Pan,D.,G.Domon,D.Marceau,et al.Spatial pattern of coniferous and deciduous forest patches in an Eastern North America agricultural landscape:the influence of land use and physical attributes.Landscape Ecology,2001,16(2):99-110
[276] Kramer,E.A.Measuring landscape changes in remnant tropical dry forest,in Tropical Forest Remnants:Ecology,Management and Conservation of Fragmented Communities W.F.Laurance,R.O.Bierregaard,Eds.Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1997,386-399
[277] Ramakrishnan,P.S.Sustainable development,climate change and tropical rain forest landscape.Climatic Change,1998,39:583-600
[278] Werneck,M.S.,E.V.Franceschinelli.Dynamics of a dry forest fragment after the exclusion of human disturbance in southeastern Brazil.Plant Ecology,2004,174:337-346
[279] Bierregaard,R.O.,W.F.Laurance,J.W.Sites,et al.Key priorities for the study of fragmented tropical ecosystems in Tropical Forest Remnants:Ecology,Management,and Conservation of Fragmented Communities W.F.Laurance,R.O.Bierregaard,Eds.Chicago,London:The University of Chicago Press,1997,515-525
[280] Etter,A.,C.McAlpine,D.Pullar,et al.Modeling the age of tropical moist forest fragments in heavily-cleared lowland landscapes of Colombia.Forest Ecology and Management,2005,208(1-3):249-260
[281] Pregitzer,K.S.,E.S.Euskirchen.Carbon cycling and storage in world forests:biome patterns related to forest age.Global Change Biology,2004,10(12):2052-2077
[282] Burgos,A.,J.M.Maass.Vegetation change associated with land-use in tropical dry forest areas of Western Mexico.Agriculture,Ecosystems & Environment,2004,104(3):475-481
[283] Dunn,R.R.Recovery of faunal communities during tropical forest regeneration.Conservation Biology,2004,18(2):302-309
[284] Ross,K.A.,B.J.Fox,M.D.Fox.Changes to plant species richness in forest fragments:fragment age,disturbance and fire history may be as important as area.Journal of Biogeography,2002,29:749-765
[285] Song,C.,T.A.Schroeder,W.B.Cohen.Predicting temperate conifer forest successional stage distributions with multitemporal Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery.Remote Sensing of Environment, 2006,in press
[286] Kuplich,T.M.Classifying regenerating forest stages in Amazonia using remotely sensed images and a neural network.Forest Ecology and Management,2006,234:1-9
[287] Turner,I.M.,R.T.Codett.The conservation value of small,isolated fragments of lowland tropical rain forest.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1996,11(8):330-333
[288] Wang,B.S.,S.L.Peng.Vegetation Ecology:Communities and Ecosystem.Beijng:Chinese Environment Science Press,1997.(in Chinese)
[289] Duncan,R.S.,V.E.Duncan.Forest succession and distance from forest edge in an afro-tropical grassland.Biotropica,2000,32(1):33-41
[290] Chen,Y.F,X.S.Yang.Sustainable Management for Natural Tropical Forests in Hainan Islang of China.Beijing:China Science and Technology Press,2001.(in Chinese)
[291] Hill,R.A.,G.M.Foody.Separability of tropical rain-forest types in the Tambopata-Candamo Reserved Zone,Peru.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1994,15:2687-2693
[292] Espirito-santo,E.D.B.,Y.E.Shimabukuro,T.M.Kuplich.Mapping forest successional stages following deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia using multi-temporal Landsat images.International Journal of Remote Sensing,2005,26(3):635-642
[293] Lucas,R.M.,M.Honzak,P.J.Curran,et al.Mapping the regional extent of tropical forest regeneration stages in the Brazilian Legal Amazon using NOAA AVHRR data.International Journal of Remote Sensing,2000,21(15):2855-2881
[294] Poudevigne,I.,D.Alard.Landscape and agricultural patterns in rural areas:a case study in the Brionne Basin,Normandy,France.Journal of Environmental Management,1997,50:335-349
[295] ESRI.ARCGIS.Redlands,California,USA:Environmental Systems Research Institute,Inc.,2003
[296] SPSS,SPSSfor Windows.SPSS:Chicago,2004
[297] ESRI.ArcView GIS 3.3.Redlands:Environmental Systems Research Institute,Inc.,2002
[298] Bunce,R.,C.Barr,R.Clarke,et al.Land classification of Great Britain.Journal of Biogeography,1996,23:625-634
[299] Saldarriaga,J.g.,D.C.West,M.L.Tharp,et al.Long-term chronosequence of forest succession in the upper Rio Negro of Colombia and Venezuela.Journal of Ecology,1988,76:938-958
[300] Brokaw,N.Fragments past,present and future.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,1998,13(10):382-383
[301] Godefroid,S.,N.Koedam.Distribution pattern of the flora in a peri-urban forest:an effect of the city-forest ecotone.Landscape and Urban Planning,2003,65:169-185
[302] Bresee,M.K.,J.Le Moine,S.Mather,et al.Disturbance and landscape dynamics in the Chequamegon National Forest Wisconsin,USA,from 1972 to 2001.Landscape Ecology,2004,19(3):291-309
[303] Fu,B.J.,L.D.Chen.Landscape diversity types and their ecological significance.Acta Geographica Sinica,1996,51:454-462(in Chinese with English abstract)
[304] Thomlinson,J.R.,M.I.Serrano,T.L6pez,et al.Land-use dynamics in a post-agricultural Puerto Rican landscape (1936-1988).Biotropica,1996,18:525-536
[305] Hardngton,GN.,A.K.Irvine,F.H.J.Crome,et al.Regeneration of large-seeded trees in Australian rainforest fragments:a study of higher-order interactions in Tropical Forest Remnants:Ecology,Management,and Conservation of Fragmented Communities W.E Laurance,R.O.Bierregaard,Eds.Chicago,Illinois,USA:The University of Chicago Press,1997
[306] Boner,A.Secondary succession of semi-arid Mediterranean old-fields in south-eastern Spain:Insights for conservation and restoration of degraded lands.Journal of Arid Environments,2004(56):213-233
[307] Aide,T.M.,J.K.Zimmerman,J.B.Pascarella,et al.Forest regeneration in a chronosequence of tropical abandoned pastures:Implications for restoration ecology.Restoration Ecology,2000,8(4):328-338
[308] Zahawi,R.A.,C.K.Augspurger.Early plant succession in abandoned pastures in Ecuador.Biotropica,1999,31:540-552
[309] Whitmore,T.C.An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests.2nd.Oxford:Oxford University Press,1998
[310] Lawrence,D.Erosion of tree diversity during 200 years of shifting cultivation in Bornean rain forest.Ecological Applications,2004,14(6):1855-1869
[311] Pascarella,J.B.,T.M.Aide,M.I.Serrano,et al.Land-use history and forest regeneration in the Cayey Mountains,Puerto Rico.Ecosystems,2000,3(3):217-218
[312] Foster,D.R.Thoreaus country:a historical-ecological perspective on conservation in the New England landscape.Journal of Biogeography,2002,29:1537～1555
[313] Vitousek,P.M.,D.U.Hooper.Biological diversity and terrestrial ecosystem biogeochemistry in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function.H.A.Mooney,E.D.Schulze eds.Berlin:Springer-Berlag,1993
[314] Duckworth,J.C.,R.G.H.Bunce,A.J.C.Malloch.Vegetation-environment relationships in Atlantic European calcareous grasslands.Journal of Vegetation Science,2000,11(1):15-22
[315] Grubb,P.J.Leaf form and function - towards a radical new approach.New Phytologist,2002,155(3):317-320
[316] French,D.D.,N.Picozzi."Functional groups'of bird species,biodiversity and landscapes in Scotland.Journal of Biogeography,2002,29(2):231-259
[317] Thuiller,W.,S.Lavorel,M.T.Sykes,et al.Using niche-based modelling to assess the impact of climate change on tree functional diversity in Europe.Diversity & Distributions,2006,12(1):49-60
[318] Breshears,D.D.,J.B.Faidey.Interrelationships between plant functional types and soil moisture heterogeneity for semiarid landscapes within the grassland/forest continuum:a unified conceptual model.Landscape Ecology,1999(14):465-478
[319] Sternberg,M.,M.Gutman,A.Perevolotsky,et al.Vegetation response to grazing management in a Mediterranean herbaceous community:a functional group approach.Journal of Applied Ecology,2000,37(2):224-237
[320] Chen,X.,B.L.Li.Spatial variability of functional plant types of trees in NE China.Applied Ecology and Enviromnental Research,2005,3(2):39-49
[321] Orians,G.H.,R.Dirzo,J.H.Cushman.Biodiversity and ecosystem processes in tropical forests,in EcologicalStudies,M.M.Caldwell ed.Vol.122.New York:Springer,1996
[322] Reyes,G.B.,S.Capman,J.Lugo,Wood densities of tropical tree species,in General Technical Report SO-88.Washington,DC,New Orleans,LA:USDA Forest Service,1992
[340] 臧润国，杨彦承，林瑞昌等．海南霸王岭热带山地雨林森林循环与群落特征研究．林业科学，2003，39(5)：1-9
[341] Noss,R.F.Indicators for monitoring biodiversity:a hierarchical approach.Conservation Biology,1990(4):355-364
[342] Clark,D.B.,M.Palmer,D.A.Clark.Edaphic factors and the landscape-scale distribution of tropical rain forest trees.Ecology,1999,80:2662-2675
[343] Webb,C.O.,D.R.Peart.Habitat associations of trees and seedings in a Bornean rain forests.Journal of Ecology,2000(88):464-478
[344] Marts,R.H.,M.G.L.Duc.Factors controlling vegetation change in long-term experiments designed to restore heathland in Breckland,UK Applied Vegetation Science,2000,3(2):135-146
[323] 臧润国，杨彦承，蒋有绪．海南岛霸王岭热带山地雨林群落结构及树种多样性特征的研究．植物生态学报，2001，25(3)：270-275
[324] Laurance,W.F.Rainforest fragmentation kills big tree.Nature,2000,404:836
[325] Chun,W.Y.Flora Hainanica,Vol I.Beijing:Science Press,1964.(in Chinese)
[326] Chun,W.Y.Flora Itainanica,Vol II.Beijing:Science Press,1965.(in Chinese)
[327] Guangdong Institute of Botany.Flora Hainanica,Vol III.Beijing:Science Press,1974.(in Chinese)
[328] Guangdong Institute of Botany.Flora Hainanica,Vol IV.Beijing:Science Press,1977.(in Chinese)
[329] Denslow,J.S.Disturbance and diversity in tropical rain forests:the density effect.Ecological Applications,1995,5(4):962-968
[330] Shugart,H.H.Plant and ecosystem functional types in Plant Functional Types:Their Relevance to Ecosystem Properties and Global Change T.M.Smith,H.H.Shugart,F.I.Woodward,Eds.Cambridge,UK:Cambridge University Press,1997,20-45
[331] Bazzaz,E.A.The physiological ecology of plant succession.Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics,1979,10:351-371
[332] Whitmore,T.C.Canopy gaps and the two major groups of forest trees.Ecology,1989,70(3):536-538
[333] Kammesheidt,L.Some autecological characteristics of successional and climax tree species in Venezuela.Acta Oecologica,2000,21(1):37-48
[334] Thomas,S.C.Asymptotic height as a predictor of growth and allometric characteristics in Malaysian rain forest.American Journal of Botany,1996,83:556-566
[335] Suzuki,E.Diversity in specific gravity and water content of wood among Borne.an tropical rainforest trees.Ecological Research,1999,14(3):211-224
[336] Westoby,M.,D.S.Falster,A.T.Moles,et al.Plant ecological strategies:some leading dimensions of variation between species.Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics,2002,33:125-159
[337] Dalling,J.W.,S.P.Hubbell.Seed size,growth rate and gap microsite conditions as determinants of recruitment success for pioneer species.Journal of Ecology,2002,90(3):557-568
[338] Coomes,D.A.,P.J.Grubb.Colonization,tolerance,competition and seed-size variation within functional groups.Trends in Ecology & Evolution,2003,18:283-291
[339] Chaneton,E.J.,J.M.Facelli.Disturbance effects on plant community diversity:spatial scales and dominance hierarchies.Vegetatio,1991,93(22):143-155
[345] Michael,C.W.,A.S.Thomas.Influences of environment and disturbance on forest patterns in coastal oregon watersheds.Ecology,2001,82(5):1443-1459
[346] Svenning,J.C.,D.A.Kinner,R.E Stallard.Ecological determinism in plant community structure across a tropical forest landscape.Ecology,2004,85(9):2526-2538
[347] Borcard,D.,P.Legendre,P.Drapeau.Partialling out the spatial component of ecological variation.Ecology,1992,73(3):1045-1055
[348] φkland,R.H.Partitioning the variation in a plot-by-species data matrix that is related to n sets of explanatory variables.Journal of Vegetation Science,2003(14):693-700
[349] 沈泽昊，张新时．三峡大老岭地区森林植被的空间格局分析及其地形解释．植物学报，2000，42(10)：1089-1095
[350] Lavorel,S.,W.Cramer.Functional response of vegetation to land use and disturbance.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999(10):604-732
[351] Mcintyre,S.,S.Lavorel,J.Landsberg,et al.Disturbance response in vegetation towards a global perspective on functional traits.Journal of Vegetation Science,1999(10):621-630
[352] Chapin,F.S.III.,K.Autumn,E Pugnaire,Evolution of suites of traits in response to environmental stress.The American Naturalist,1993,142:S78-S92
[353] Herbert,D.A.,E.B.Rastetter,G.R.Shaver,et al.Effects of plant growth characteristics on biogeochemistry and community composition in a changing climate.Ecosystems,1999,2:367-382
[354] Hooper,D.U.,M.Solano,A.Symstad,et al.Species diversity,functional diversity,and ecosystem functioning in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning:Synthesis and Perspectives M.Loreau,S. Naeem,P.Inchausti,Ed.New York:Oxford University Press,2002
[355] 海南木材研究联合工作组．海南木材：鉴别，材性及利用．广州：广东省林业局，1966
[356] Legendre,P.,L.Legendre.Numerical Ecology:Developments in Environmental Modelling.The Netherlands:Elsevier,Smsterdam,1998
[357] Keddy,P.A.Assembly and response rules:two goals for predictive community ecology.Journal of Vegetation Science,1992,3:157-164
[358] Real,R.,A.Marcia Barbosa,D.Porras,et al.Relative importance of environment,human activity and spatial situation in determining the distribution of terrestrial mammal diversity in Argentina.Journal of Biogeography,2003,30(6):939-947
[359] Foody,G.M.,R.A.Hill.Classification of tropical forest classes from Landsat TM data.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1996,17:2353-2367
[360] 李书娟，曾辉．遥感技术在景观生态学研究中的应用．遥感学报，2002，6(3)：233-240
[361] 赵光，邵国凡，郝占庆等．长白山森林景观破碎的遥感探测．生态学报，2001，21(9)：1393-1402
[362] Wolter,P.T.,M.A.White.Recent forest cover type transitions and landscape structural changes in northeast Minnesota,USA.Landscape Ecology,2002,17(2):133-155
[363] Tottrup,C.Improving tropical forest mapping using multi-date Landsat TM data and pre-elassification image smoothing.International Journal of Remote Sensing,2004,25(4):717-730
[364] Mueller-Dombois,D.,H.Ellenberg.Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology.New York:John Wiley & Sons,1974
[365] Hara,M.,K.Hirata,M.Fujihara,et al.Vegetation structure in relation to micro-landform in an evergreen broad-leaved forest on Amami Ohshima Island,South-West Japan.Ecological Research,1996,11:325-337
[366] Pinder,J.E.III.,G.C.Kroh,J.D.White,et al.The relationships between vegetation types and topography in Lassen Vocainic National Park.Plant Ecology,1997.131:17-29
[367] 沈泽昊，张新时．地形对亚热带山地景观尺度植被格局影响的梯度分析．植物生态学报，2000，24(4)：430-435
[368] 吴晓莆，唐志尧，崔海亭等．北京地区不同地形条件下的土地覆盖动态．植物生态学报，2006，30(2)：239-251
[369] Fensham,R.,R.Fairfax.The use of the land survey record to reconstruct pre-European vegetation patterns in the Darling Downs,Queensland,Australia.Journal of Biogeography,1997,24:827-836
[370] Bickford,S.,B.Mackey.Reconstructing pre-impact vegetation cover in modified landscapes using environmental modelling,historical surveys and remnant vegetation data:a case study in the Fleurieu Peninsula,South Australia.Journal of Biogeography,2004,31(5):787-805
[371] 张谧，熊高明，陈志刚等．数字高程模型在群落内物种共存研究中的应用—以神农架米心水青冈-曼青冈群落的地形模型建立为例．植物生态学报，2005，29(2)：197-201
[372] Abella,S.R.,W.W.Covington.Vegetation-environment relationships and ecological species groups of an Arizona Pinus ponderosa landscape,USA.Plant Ecology,2006,185:255-268
[373] 戴昌达，雷莉萍．TM图象的光谱信息特征与最佳波段组合．环境遥感，1989，4(4)：282-292
[374] Lucas,R.M.,M.Honzak,G.M.Foody,et al.Characterizing tropical secondary forests using multi-temporal Landsat sensor imagery,international Journal of Remote Sensing,1993,14:3061-3067
[375] Cohen,W.B.,T.A.Spies, M.Fiorclla.Estimation of the age and structure of forests in a multi-ownership landscape of Western Oregon,U.S.A.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1995,16:721-746
[376] ERDAS.Erdas Field Guide 5th ed.Atlanta,Georgia:ERDAS Inc.,1999
[377] Homer,C.G.,R.D.Ramscy,T.C.Edwards,ct al.Landscape cover-type modeling using a multi-scene Thematic Mapper mosaic.Photogrammctric Engineering and Remote Sensing,1997,63:59-67
[378] Hutchinson,M.F.ANUDEM Version 4.6 User Guide.Canberra:Centre for Resource and Environmental Sutdies,1999,UP,L:http://cres.anu.cdu.au/outputs/softwarc.php
[379] 马克明，傅伯杰．北京东灵山地区景观格局及破碎化评价．植物生态学报，2000，24(3)：320-326
[380] Hu,Y.J.,X.Q.Ding.A study on the plant species diversity of tropical natural forest in Bawangling,ainan Island.Chinese Biodiversity,2000,8(4):370-377(in Chinese with English abstract)
[381] Saxena,K.G.,A.k.Tiwari,M.C.Porwal,et al.Vegetation maps,mapping needs and scope of digital processing of Landsat Thematic Mapper data in tropical region of south-west India.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1992,13(11):2017-2037
[382] Steininger,M.K.Tropical secondary forest regrowth in the Amazon:age,area and change estimation with Thematic Mapper data.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1996,17:9-27
[383] Alves,D.,D.L.Skole.Characterizing and cover dynamics using multi-temporal imagery.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1996,17:835-839
[384] Chave,J.,B.Ritra,M.-A.Dubois.Estimation of biomass in a neotropical forest of French Guiana: spatial and temporal variability.Journal of Tropical Ecology,2001,17(01):79-96
[385] Haripriya,G.Estimates of biomass in Indian forests.Biomass and Bioenergy,2000,19:245-258
[386] Houghton,R.A.,D.L.Skole,C.A.Nobre,et al.Annual fluxes of carbon from deforestation and regrowth in the Brazilian Amazon.Nature,2000,403(6767):301-304
[387] Vanclay,J.K.Growth models for tropical forests:a synthesis of models and methods.Forest Science,1995,41:7-42
[388] 陈德祥，李意德，骆土寿等．海南岛尖峰岭鸡毛松人工林乔木层生物量和生产力研究．林业科学研究，2004，17(5)：598-604
[389] 李意德．海南岛热带山地雨林林分生物量估测方法比较分析．生态学报，1993，13(4)：313-320
[390] 李意德，张振才．尖峰岭热带山地雨林生物量的初步研究．植物生态学与地植物学学报，1992，16(4)：293-300
[391] Carlson,T.,D.Ripley.On the relation between NDVI,fractional vegetation cover,and Leaf Area Index.Remote Sensing of Environment,1997,62:241-252
[392] 李素英，李晓兵，莺歌等．基于植被指数的典型草原区生物量模型—以内蒙古锡林浩特市为例．植物生态学报，2007，31：23-31
[393] 黄敬峰，王秀珍．天山北坡中东段天然草地光谱植被指数特征．山地学报，1999，17(2)：119-124
[394] Todd,S.W.,R.M.Heifer,D.G.Milchunas.Biomass estimation on grazed and ungrazed rangelands using spectral indicese.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1998,19:427-438
[395] Freitas,S.R.,M.C.S.Mello,C.B.M.Cruz.Relationships between forest structure and vegetation indices in Atlantic Rainforest.Forest Ecology and Management,2005,218(1-3):353-362
[396] Tan,K.,S.Piao,C.Peng,et al.Satellite-based estimation of biomass carbon stocks for northeast China's forests between 1982 and 1999.Forest Ecology and Management,2007,240(1-3):114-121
[397] Dong,J.,R.K.Kaufmann,R.B.Myneni,et al.Remote sensing estimates of boreal and temperate forest woody biomass:carbon pools,sources,and sinks.Remote Sensing of Environment,2003,84(3):393-410
[398] Boyd,D.S.,G.M.Foody,P.J.Curran,et al.An assessment of radiance in Landsat TM middle and thermal infrared wavebands for the detection of tropical forest regeneration.International Journal of Remote Sensing,1996,17:249-261
[399] Lu,D.,P.Mausel,E.Brondizio,et al.Relationships between forest stand parameters and Landsat TM spectral responses in the Brazilian Amazon Basin.Forest Ecology and Management,2004,198(1-3):149-167
[400] Chave,J.,R.Condit,S.Aguilar,et al.Error propogation and scaling for tropical forest biomass estimates.Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,Series B,2004,359:409-420
[401] Houghton,R.A.,K.T.Lawrence,J.L.Hackler,et al.The spatial distribution of forest biomass in the Brazilian Amazon:a comparison of estimates.Global Change Biology,2001,7(7):731-746
[402] Dogan, H., M. Dogan. A New approach to diversity indices—modeling and mapping plant biodiversity of Nallihan (A3-Ankara/Turkey) forest ecosystem in frame of geographic information systems. Biodiversity and Conservation, 2006, 15(3): 855-878
[403] 王正兴,刘闯,A. L. Huete．植被指数研究进展：从AVHRR-NDVI到MODIS-EVI．生态学报,2003,23(5)：979-987
[404] Gamon, J.A., C.B. Field, M.L. Goulden, et al. Relationships between NDVI, canopy structure, and photosynthesis in three Californian vegetation types. Ecological Applications, 1995, 5(1): 28-41
[405] Boyd, D.S., G.M. Foody, P.J. Curran. The relationship between the biomass of Cameroonian tropical forests and radiation reflected in middle infrared wavelengths (3.0-5.0μm). International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1999, 20(5): 1017-1023
[406] Foody, G.M., M.E. Cutler, J. McMorrow, et al. Mapping the biomass of Bornean tropical rain forest from remotely sensed data. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 2001, 10(4): 379-387
[407] Phua, M.-H., H. Saito. Estimation of biomass of a mountainous tropical forest using Landsat TM data. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 2003, 29(4): 429-440
[408] Foody, G.M., D.S. Boyd, M.E.J. Cutler. Predictive relations of tropical forest biomass from Landsat TM data and their transferability between regions. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2003, 85:463-474
[409] Saatchi, S.S., R.A. Houghton, R.C. Dos Santos Alvala, et al. Distribution of aboveground live biomass in the Amazon basin. Global Change Biology, 2007, 13(4): 816-837
[410] Hansen, A.J., T.A. Spies, F.J. Swanson, et al. Conserving biodiversity in managed forests: Lessons from natural forests. BioScience, 1991, 41:382-392
[411] Grashof-Bokdam, C.J. Forest species in an agricultural landscape in the Netherlands: effects of habitat fragmentation. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1997, 8:21-28
[412] Jacquemyn, H., J. Butaye, M. Dumortier, et al. Effects of age and distance on the compostion of mixed deciduous forest fragments in an agricultural landscape. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2001, 12: 635-342
[413] Jacquemyn, H., R. Brys, M. Hermy. Patch occupancy, population size and reproductive success of a forest herb (Primula elatior) in a fragmented landscape. Oecologia, 2002, 130:617-625
[414] Kolb, A., M. Diekmarm. Effects of environment, habitat configuration and forest continuity on the distribution of forest plant species. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2004, 15:199-208
[415] Sala, O.E., F.S. Chapin Ⅲ, J.J. Armesto, et al. Global biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science, 2000, 287(5459): 1770-1774
[416] Hellmann, J.J., G.W. Fowler. Bias, precision, and accuracy of four measures of species richness. Ecological Applications, 1999, 9:824-834
[417] Ernoult, A., Y. Tremauville, D. Cellier, et al. Potential landscape drivers of biodiversity components in a flood plain: Past or present patterns? Biological Conservation, 2006, 127(1): 1-17
[418] Krauss, J., A.M. Klein, I. Steffan-Dewenter, et al. Effects of habitat area, isolation, and landscape diversity on plant species richness of calcareous grasslands. Biodiversity and Conservation, 2004, 13: 1427-1439
[419] Dauber, J., M. Hirsch, D. Simmering, et al. Landscape structure as an indicator of biodiversity: matrix effects on species richness. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 2003, 98(1-3): 321-329
[420] Honnay, O., K. Piessens, W. Van Landuyt, et al. Satellite based land use and landscape complexity indices as predictors for regional plant species diversity. Landscape and Urban Planning, 2003, 63: 241-250.
[421] Fagan, W.F., R.S. Cantrell, C. Cosner. How habitat edges change species interactions. American Naturalist, 1999, 153(165-182)
[422] Matlack, G.R. Plant species migration in a mixed-history forest landscape in Eastern North America. Ecology, 1994, 75:1492-1502
[423] Hargis, C.D., J.A. Bossonette, J.L. David. The behavior of landscape metrics commonly used in the study of habitat fragmentation. Landscape Ecology, 1998, 13:167-186
[424] Mazerolle, M.J., M.A. Villard. Patch characteristics and landscape context as predictor of species presence and abundance: a review. EcoScience, 1999, 6(1): 117-124
[425] Chang, Y., R.C. Bu, Y.M. Hu, et al. Dynamics of forest landscape boundary at Changbai Mountain. Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology, 2004, 15(1): 15-20 (in Chinese with English abstract)
[426] Laurance, W.F., H.L. Wasconcelos Ecological effects of habitat fragmentation in the tropical in Agroforestry and Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Landscapes G. Schroth, G.A.B. Da Fonseca, C.A. Harvey, et al., Edso Washington, Covelo, London: Island Press, 2004
[427] Zacharias, D., D. Brandes. Species area-relationships and frequency-floristical data analysis of 44 isolated woods in northwestern Germany. Vegetatio, 1990, 88:21-29
[428] Alvarez-Buylla,E.,R.Garcia-Barros.Seed and forest dynamics:a theoretical framework and an example from the neotropics.American Naturalist,1991,137(2):133-154
[429] Chazdon,R.L.,S.Careaga,C.Webb,et al.Community and phylogenetic structure of reproductive traits of woody species in wet tropical forests.Ecological Monographs,2003,73:331-348
[430] Schupp,E.W.,H.F.Howe,C.k.Augspurger,et al.Arrival and survival in tropical treefall gaps.Ecology,1989,70(3):562-564
[431] Alvarez-Buylla,E.,M,Martinez-Ramos.Demography and allometry of Cecropia obtusifolia,a neotropical pioneer tree-- and evaluation of the climax-- pioneer paradigm for tropical rain forest.Journal of Ecology,1992,80:275-290
[432] Hansson,L.,P.Angelstam.Landscape ecology as a theoretical basis for nature conservation.Landscape Ecology,1991,5:191-201
[433] Potts,M,D.,P.S.Ashton,L.S.Kaufman,et al.Habitat patterns in tropical rain forests:a comparison of 105 plots in Northwest Borneo.Ecology,2002,83(10):2782-2797
[434] Guisan,A.,W.Thuiller.Predicting species distribution:offering more than simple habitat models.Ecology Letters,2005,8:993-1009
[435] Hutchinson,G.E.Concluding remarks.Populations studies:animal ecology and demography.Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology,1957,22:415-427
[436] Patterson,B.D.Contingency and determinism in mammalian biogeography:the role of history.Journal of Mammalogy,1999,80:345-360
[437] Peterson,A.T.,K.P.Cohoon.Sensitivity of distributional prediction algorithms to geographic data completeness.Ecological Modelling,1999,117:159-164
[438] Underwood,E.C.,R.Klinger,P.E.Moore.Predicting patterns of non-native plant invasions in Yosemite National Park,California,USA.Diversity & Distributions,2004,10(5-6):447-459
[439] Peterson,A.T.,J.Soberon,V.Sanchez-Cordero.Conservatism of ecological niches in evolutionary time.Science,1999,285(5431):1265-1267
[440] Raven,P.H.,E.O.Wilson.A fifty-year plan for biodiversity surveys.Science,1992,258:1099-1100
[441] Voss,R.S.,L.H.Emmons.Mammalian diversity in Neotropical lowland rainforests:a preliminary assessment.Bulletin of the American museum of natural history,1996,230:1-115
[442] Krogh,S.N.,M.S.Zeisset,E.Jackson,et al.Presence/absence of a keystone species as an indicator of rangeland health.Journal of Arid Environments,2002,50(3):513-519
[443] Li,W.,Z.Wang,Z.Ma,et al.A regression model for the spatial distribution of red-crown crane in Yancheng Biosphere Reserve,China.Ecological Modelling,1997,103(2-3):115-121
[444] Nix,H.A.A biogeographic analysis of Australian elapid snakes in Atlas of Australian elapid snakes R.Longrnore,Ed.Canberra:Australian Government Publishing Service,1986,4-15
[445] Stockwell,D.R.B.,D.P.Peters.THe GARP modelling system:problems and solutions to automated spatial prediction.International Journal of Information Systems,1999,13:143-158
[446] Stockwell,D.R.B.,A.T.Peterson.Effects of sample size on accuracy of species distribution models.Ecological Modelling,2002,148(1):1-13
[447] Stockman,A.K.,D.A.Beamer,J.E.Bond.An evaluation of a GARP model as an approach to predicting the spatial distribution of non-vagile invertebrate species.Diversity & Distributions,2006,12(1):81-89
[448] 李红梅，韩红香，薛大勇．利用GARP生态位模型预测日本松干蚧在中国的地理分布．昆虫学报，2005，48(1)：95-100
[449] Peterson,A.T.,M.Pages,D.A.Kluza.Predicting the potential invasive distributions of four alien plant species in North America.Weed Science,2003,51:863-868
[450] Willmott,C.J.,K.Matsuura.Smart interpolation of annually averaged air temperature in the United States.Journal of Applied Meteorology,1999,34(12):2577-2586
[451] 阎洪．薄板光顺样条插值与中国气候空间模拟．地理科学，2004，24(2)：163-169
[452] 阎洪．气候时空数据的样条插值与应用．地理与地理信息科学，2003，19(5)：27-31
[453] Hutchinson,M.F.ANUSPLIN Version 4.1 User Guide.Canberra:Centre for Resource and Environmental Sutdies,2000,URL:http://cres.anu.edu.au/outputs/software.php
[454] Berger,W.H.,F.L.Parker.Diversity of planktonic Foraminifera in deep sea sediments.Science,1970,168:1345-1347
[455] Scachetti-Pereira,R.Desktop GARP.www.lifemapper.org/desktopgarp,2001
[456] Chen,P.f.,E.O.Wiley,K.M.Mcnyset.Ecological niche modeling as a predictive tool:silver and bighead carps in North America.Biological Invasions,2006,9:43-51
[457] Swets,J.A.Measuring the accuracy of diagnostic systems.Science,1988,240:1285-1293
[458] Jordan,F,A.Takacs-Santa,I.Molnar.Are liability theoretical quest for key stones.Oikos,1999,86: 453-462
[459] Hurlbert, S.H. Functional importance vs keyness: reformulating some questions in theoretical biocenology. Australian Journal of Ecology, 1997, 22:369-382
[460] Paine, R.T. A conversation on refining the concept of keystone species. Conservation Biology, 1995, 9: 962-964
[461] Power, M.E., L.S. Mills. The keystone cops meet in Hilo. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 1995, 10(5): 182-184
[462] Christianou, M., B. Ebenman. Keystone species and vulnerable species in ecological communities: strong or weak interactors? Journal of Theoretical Biology, 2005, 235(1): 95-103
[463] Loreau, M. Does functional redundancy exist? Oikos, 2004, 104(3): 606-611
[464] Beerling, D.J., B. Huntley, J.P. bailey. Climate and the distribution of Fallopia japonica:use of an introduced species to test the predictive capacity of response surfaces. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1995, 6:269-282
[465] Swenson, N.G. Gis-based niche models reveal unifying climatic mechanisms that maintain the location of avian hybrid zones in a North American sutrue zone. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 2005, 19(3): 717-725
[466] Saunders, D.A., R.J. Hobbs, C.R. Margules. Biological consequences of ecosystem fragmentation: a review. Conservation Biology, 1991, 5(1): 18-32
[467] Peterson, A.T., D.A. Vieglais. Predicting species invasions using ecological niche modeling: new approaches from bioinformatics atack a pressing problem. BioScience, 2001, 51:363-371
[468] Anderson, R.P., M. Gomez-Laverde, A.T. Peterson. Geographical distributions of spiny pocket mice in South America: insights from predictive models. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 2002, 11(2): 131-141
[469] Wiley, E.O., K.M. McNyset, A.T. Peterson, et al. Niche modeling and geographic range predictions in the marine environment using a machine-learning algorithm. Oceanography, 2003, 16(3): 120-127
[470] Monica, P., A.T. Peterson. Predicting the potential invasive distribution for Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng. in China. Journal of Wuhan Botanical Research, 2003, 21(2): 137-142
[471] Westhoff, V., E. van der Maarel The Brann-Blanquet approach in Ordination and Classification of Communities. Handbook of Vegetation Science R.H. Whittaker, Ed. Junk, The Hague, NL, 1973, 617-726
[472] Ricotta, C., M.L. Carranza, G. Avena, et al. Are potential nuturai vegetation maps a meaningful alternative to neutral landscape models. Applied Vegetation Science, 2002, 5:271-275
[473] Chytry, M. Potential replacement vegetation: an approach to vegetation mapping of cultural landscapes. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1:177-188
[474] Zerbe, S. Potential natural vegetation: validity and applicability in landscape planning and nature conservation. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1: 165-172
[475] Gavilan, R.G., F, Fernandez-Gonzalez, C. Blasi. Climatic classification and ordination of the Spanish Sistema Central: relationships with potential vegetation. Plant Ecology, 1998, 139:1-11
[476] Sykes, M.T., I.C. Prentice, F. Laarif. Quantifying the impact of global climate change on potential natural vegetation. Climatic Change, 1999, 41(1): 37-52
[477] Franklin, J. Enhancing a regional vegetation map with predictive models of dominant plant species in chaparral. Applied Vegetation Science, 2002, 5:135-146
[478] Austin, M.P. An ecological perspective on biodiversity investigations: examples from Australian eucalypt forest. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 1998, 85:2-17
[479] Ferrier, S. Mapping spatial pattern in biodiversity for regional conservation planning: where to from here? Systematic Biology, 2002, 51:331-363
[480] Zimmermann, N.E., F. Kienast. Predictive mapping of alpine grasslands in Switzerland: species versus community approach. Journal of Vegetation Science, 1999, 10:469-482
[481] Hilbert, D.W., B. Ostendorf. The utility of artificial neural networks for modelling the distribution of vegetation in past, present and future climates. Ecological Modelling, 2001, 146:311-327
[482] van Etten, E.J.B. Mapping vegetation in an arid, mountainous region of Western Australia. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1: 189-200
[483] Lux, A., F.A. Bemmerlein-Lux. Two vegetation maps of the same island: floristic units versus structural units. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1: 201-210
[484] Kamada, M., T. Okabe. Vegetation mapping with the aid of low-altitude aerial photography. Applied Vegetation Science, 1998, 1: 211-218
[485] Mckenzie, N.L., L. Belbin, C.R. Margules, et al. Selecting representative reserve systems in remote areas. Biological Conservation, 1989, 50:239-261
[486] Walker,B.H.Biodiversity and ecological redundancy.Conservation Biology,1992,6:18-23
[487] Rosenfeld,J.C.Functional redundancy in ecology and conservation.Oikos,2002,98:156-162
[488] Batek,M.J.,A.J.Rebertus,W.A.Schroeder,et al.Reconstruction of early nineteenth-century vegetation and fire regimes in the Missouri Ozarks.Journal of Biogeography,1999,26(2):397-412
[489] Manies,K.L.,D.J.Mladenoff.Testing methods to produce landscape-scale presettlement vegetatio maps from the U.S.public land survey records.Landscape Ecology,2000,15(8):741-754
[490] Moravec,J.Reconstructed natural versus potential natural vegetation in vegetation mapping - a discussion of concepts.Applied Vegetation Science,1998,1:173-176
[491] Wang,J.,J.Ni.Review of modelling the distribution of plant species.Journal of Plant Ecology,2006,30(6):1040-1053
[492] Nielsen,S.E.,C.J.Johnson,D.C.Heard,et al.Can models of presence-absence be used to scale abundance?Two case studies considering extremes in life history.Ecography,2005,28(2):197-208
[493] Araujo,M.B.,A.Guisan.Five (or so) challenges for species distribution modelling.Journal of Biogeography,2006,33(10):1677-1688
[494] Steinitz,O.,J.Heller,A.Tsoar,et al.Environment,dispersal and patterns of species similarity.Journal of Biogeography,2006,33(6):1044-1054