想象与符号世界及语言的力量
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摘要
玛丽·雪莱所著《弗兰肯斯坦》自从1818年出版以来，吸引了无数读者并被译成多国文字。近年来评论家们对它的关注更是愈来愈热。本文结合了法国当代重要的精神分析学家和哲学家雅克·拉康(Jacques Lacan 1901—1981)的关于人类心理发展的理论以及女性主义批评理论，并以此为理论框架，详尽分析了小说中的主要角色维克多·弗兰肯斯坦及其创造物——“怪物”的心理发展，二者的关系，怪物形象所包含的意义，以及语言在人类心理发展，尤其是性别确定中的作用。本文分为五个部分。
第一章简要回顾了《弗兰肯斯坦》自1818年出版以来获得的关注及评论。评论家们从各个角度，运用很多不同批评方法对该小说进行了分析，近年来大量关于它的评述更是引人瞩目。本章还特别把已有的关于该小说的心理分析及女性主义批评提出来单独论述。
第二章简述了本论文的理论框架，即雅克·拉康(Jacques Lacan 1901—1981)的关于人类心理发展的理论。在拉康的主体理论当中，“人”在从婴儿期开始的心理发展过程中，其丰富内涵和外延(想象级)被逐渐消解。人成了各种关系中的符号，一旦赖以存在的符号关系消失，人也就变的毫无意义。当孩子认识到自己是人类中的一员，就自然而然的进入预设的语言体系和由此而来的语言机制(符号级)。目前方兴未艾的西方女性主义文化批评家们也把拉康看作自己的理论先驱之一。
第三章详尽分析了“想象级”和“符号级”这两个概念在《弗兰肯斯坦》中的体现，二者的关系，以及后者对前者的排斥性。小说显示出“符号级”世界对“想象级”世界的排斥及否定是以消解母性的躯体为代价。而“怪物”这一形象正象征着“想象级”世界。
第四章把重心放在了“符号级”世界，尤其是其中的女性性别的构建上。“符号级”世界在本质上是一种预设的语言体系。在玛丽的《弗兰肯斯坦》中，语言在对“怪物”的排斥及否定中发挥了巨大的作用。本章论述了语言在“符号级”范畴中的巨大影响，包括它对女性定位及人类社会知识的制约作用。文章指出，语言本身的改变才是实现性别平等，发展人类社会知识的关键。
Since Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein was published in 1818, its popularity has indeed been prodigious. But academic criticism of this novel has been thin until the last twenty years. Now the novel has been gradually taken quite seriously for its possible effect on a popular audience, revaluated and admitted to the high-culture pantheon of Romanticism. Critics analyze it from various kinds of perspectives.
According to Lacan's theories about the imaginary and symbolic orders, gender and language, and feminists' drawing on the ideas of Lacan, the present thesis purports to join the two aspects together, and then try further exploration in a psychoanalytic reading of Frankenstein with feminist components. Mary's novel describes clear human's path to the Symbolic orders from Imaginary orders and what will happen if something goes wrong in this process; moreover, she also stresses the essential role of language in it, especially in the aspect of gender identity.
This paper consists of five chapters.
Chapter 1 presents the critical history of Frankenstein, with emphasizing the previous feminist and psychoanalytic readings on the novel.
Chapter 2 presents Lacan's theories on the imaginary and symbolic orders, gender and language, which functions as theoretical frame in this reading. This part firstly looks back the origin of psychoanalytic approach to literature, and secondly describes Lacan's theories on the imaginary and symbolic orders, gender and language, as well as the feminists' drawing on the ideas of him.
Chapter 3 makes a detailed discussion about the concepts of imaginary orders and symbolic orders reflected in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, and the relationship between them as well. The novel describes vividly the contrast between the world of the mirror-image, or double (the Imaginary), and that of kinship, language, and social life (the Symbolic). And this novel in turn demonstrates that the symbolic order's insistence on denying the Imaginary comes at the cost of excluding the maternal body. This part focuses on two points. The first is the relation among the image of mother and two leading characters in this novel (Victor Frankenstein and the monster), and the second is the monster's path to monstrosity.
Chapter 4 concentrates on the functions of language in the building of Symbolic orders, especially of women's identity, which is clearly showed in the novel. Rather than being a reflection of society, rather than merely adding to knowledge, language determines knowledge and society. According to Lacan's theories on language and feminists' point of view, it is language that builds the Symbolic system; language is a realm of
第一章简要回顾了《弗兰肯斯坦》自1818年出版以来获得的关注及评论。评论家们从各个角度，运用很多不同批评方法对该小说进行了分析，近年来大量关于它的评述更是引人瞩目。本章还特别把已有的关于该小说的心理分析及女性主义批评提出来单独论述。
第二章简述了本论文的理论框架，即雅克·拉康(Jacques Lacan 1901—1981)的关于人类心理发展的理论。在拉康的主体理论当中，“人”在从婴儿期开始的心理发展过程中，其丰富内涵和外延(想象级)被逐渐消解。人成了各种关系中的符号，一旦赖以存在的符号关系消失，人也就变的毫无意义。当孩子认识到自己是人类中的一员，就自然而然的进入预设的语言体系和由此而来的语言机制(符号级)。目前方兴未艾的西方女性主义文化批评家们也把拉康看作自己的理论先驱之一。
第三章详尽分析了“想象级”和“符号级”这两个概念在《弗兰肯斯坦》中的体现，二者的关系，以及后者对前者的排斥性。小说显示出“符号级”世界对“想象级”世界的排斥及否定是以消解母性的躯体为代价。而“怪物”这一形象正象征着“想象级”世界。
第四章把重心放在了“符号级”世界，尤其是其中的女性性别的构建上。“符号级”世界在本质上是一种预设的语言体系。在玛丽的《弗兰肯斯坦》中，语言在对“怪物”的排斥及否定中发挥了巨大的作用。本章论述了语言在“符号级”范畴中的巨大影响，包括它对女性定位及人类社会知识的制约作用。文章指出，语言本身的改变才是实现性别平等，发展人类社会知识的关键。
Since Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein was published in 1818, its popularity has indeed been prodigious. But academic criticism of this novel has been thin until the last twenty years. Now the novel has been gradually taken quite seriously for its possible effect on a popular audience, revaluated and admitted to the high-culture pantheon of Romanticism. Critics analyze it from various kinds of perspectives.
According to Lacan's theories about the imaginary and symbolic orders, gender and language, and feminists' drawing on the ideas of Lacan, the present thesis purports to join the two aspects together, and then try further exploration in a psychoanalytic reading of Frankenstein with feminist components. Mary's novel describes clear human's path to the Symbolic orders from Imaginary orders and what will happen if something goes wrong in this process; moreover, she also stresses the essential role of language in it, especially in the aspect of gender identity.
This paper consists of five chapters.
Chapter 1 presents the critical history of Frankenstein, with emphasizing the previous feminist and psychoanalytic readings on the novel.
Chapter 2 presents Lacan's theories on the imaginary and symbolic orders, gender and language, which functions as theoretical frame in this reading. This part firstly looks back the origin of psychoanalytic approach to literature, and secondly describes Lacan's theories on the imaginary and symbolic orders, gender and language, as well as the feminists' drawing on the ideas of him.
Chapter 3 makes a detailed discussion about the concepts of imaginary orders and symbolic orders reflected in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, and the relationship between them as well. The novel describes vividly the contrast between the world of the mirror-image, or double (the Imaginary), and that of kinship, language, and social life (the Symbolic). And this novel in turn demonstrates that the symbolic order's insistence on denying the Imaginary comes at the cost of excluding the maternal body. This part focuses on two points. The first is the relation among the image of mother and two leading characters in this novel (Victor Frankenstein and the monster), and the second is the monster's path to monstrosity.
Chapter 4 concentrates on the functions of language in the building of Symbolic orders, especially of women's identity, which is clearly showed in the novel. Rather than being a reflection of society, rather than merely adding to knowledge, language determines knowledge and society. According to Lacan's theories on language and feminists' point of view, it is language that builds the Symbolic system; language is a realm of
引文
Armstrong, Nancy. Desire and Domestic Fiction. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
Botting, Fred. "Frankenstein and the Language of Monstrosity." Reviewing Romanticism. eds. Philip W. Martin and Robin Jarvis. London: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd., 1992.
Brooks, Peter. "'Godlike Science/Unhallowed Arts': Language, and Monstrosity in Frankenstein." New Literary History 9, 1978.
Cohn, Carol. "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals." Feminist Theory in Practice and Process. Eds. Micheline Maison, Jean O'Barr, Sarah Westphal-Wihl, and Mary Wyer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989: 107-138.
Davis, Robert Con, ed. The Fictional Father: Lacanian Readings of the Text. Amherst: U of Massachusetts P, 1981.
________.ed. "Lancan and Narration." Modern Language Notes 5, 1983: 843-1063.
Dussinger, John A. "Kinship and Guilt in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein." Studies in the Novel 8, 1976.
Edgeworth, Maria. Lessons for Literary Ladies. New York: Garland Publishing, 1974.
Ellis, Kate. "Monsters in the Garden: Mary Shelley and the Bourgeois Family," in The Endurance of Frankenstein: Essays on Mary Shelley's Novel. eds. George Levine and U. C. Knoepflmacher. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.
________. The Contested Castle. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989.
Felman, Shoshana, ed. Literature and Psychoanalysis: The question of Reading: otherwise. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.
Freud, Sigmund. Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. Trans. Joan Riviere. London: Allen, 1922.
Froula, Christine. "When Eve Reads Milton: Undoing the Canonical Economy." Canons. Ed. Robert yon Hallberg. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1984. 149-75.
Gillbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. "Horror's Twin: Mary Shelley's Monstrous Eve." Ch. 7 of The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979.
Hill, J. M. "Frankenstein and the Physiognomy of Desire," American Imago 32, 1975: 335-58.Hodges, Devon. "Frankenstein and the Feminine Subversion of the Novel." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature 2.2, Fall 1983: 155-164.
Homans, Margaret. "Beating Demons: Frankenstein's Circumvention of the Maternal." Bearing the Word: Language and Female Experience in Nineteenth-Century Women's Writing. Ed. Homans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
Horne, Richard. The Spirit of the Age. 2 vols. London: Smith and Elder, 1844.
Irigaray, Luce. "The Blind Spot of an Old Dream of Symmetry." In The Speculum of the Other Woman. Trans. Gillian C. Gill. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985.
Jacobus, Mary. "Is There a Woman in This Text?" New Literary History: A Journal of Theory and Interpretation 14.1, Autumn 1982.
Johnson, Barbara. "My Monster / My Self." Diacritics 12,1982.
Jones, Ann Rosalind. "Writhing the Body: Toward an Understanding of L'Ecriture Feminine." Showalter, New Feminist Criticism. 1985.
Jung, Carl Gustav. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Trans. R.F.C Hull. New York: Knopf Publishing Group, 1965
________, ed. Man and his Symbols. New York: Dell, 1977
Kaplan, Morton. "Fantasy of Paternity and the Doppelganger: Mary Shelley's Frankenstein." In The Unspoken Motive: A Guide to Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism. By Kaplan and Robert Kloss. New York: Freedom Press, 1973.
Keach, William. Shelley's Style. New York: Methuen, 1984.
Kiely, Robert. The Romantic Novel in England. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972.
Knoepflmacher, U.C. "Thoughts on the Aggression of Daughters." Levine and Knoepflmacher 88-119.
Kranzler, Laura. "Frankenstein and the Technological Future." Foundation 44 (Winter 1988-89).
Kroll, Richard W.F. The Maternal Word: Literate Culture in the Restoration and Early Eighteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Lancan, Jacques. Ecrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Norton, 1977.
________. Feminine Sexuality: Lacan and the ecole Freudienne. Ed. Juliet Mitchell and Jacqueline Rose. Trans. Rose. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1982.________. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Penguin, 1980.
Levine, George, and U. C. Knoepflmacher, eds. The Endurance of Frankenstein (Berkeley and Love of Mankind, 4 Vols. trans. Henry Hunter, London, 1789-98.
Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Ed. Peter H. Nidditch. Oxford University Press, 1989.
London, Bette. "Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, and the Spectacle of Masculinity." PMLA 108.2, March 1993: 253-267.
Lovell, Terry. Consuming Fiction. London: Verso, 1987.
Marshall, David. The Surprising Effects of Sympathy: Marivaus, Diderot, Rousseau, and Mary Shelley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
McWhir, Anne. "Teaching the Monster to Read: Mary Shelley, Education and Frankenstein." Educational Legacy to Romanticism. Ed. John Willinsky. Waterloo, Ontario: Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1990: 73-92.
Mellor, Anne K. "Possessing Nature: The Female in Frankenstein." Romanticism and Feminism. Ed. Mellor. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.
________. Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. New York: Routledge, 1988.
Mitchell, Juliet, and Jacqueline Rose. "Introduction Ⅱ." Feminine Sexuality: Lacan and the ecole Freudienne. Ed. Mitchell and Rose. New York: Norton, 1982.
Moers, Ellen. Literary Women. Garden City: Doubleday, 1977.
________. "Female Gothic." Levine and Knoepflmacher 77-87.
Muller, John P., and William J. Richardson, eds. The Purloined Poe" Lacan, Derrida, and Psychoanalytic Reading. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1988. Includes Lacan's seminar on Poe's "The Purloined Letter."
O'Rourke, James. "'Nothing More Unnatural': Mary Shelley's Revision of Rousseau." ELH 56.3, Fall 1989: 543-69.
Rank, Otto. The Myth of the Birth of the Hero: A Psychological Exploration of Myth. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004
Paulson, Ronald. "Gothic Fiction and the French Revolution." ELH 48.3, Fall 1981: 532-54.
Pollin, Burton. "Philosophical and Literary Sources of Frankenstein," Comparative Literature 17,??1965: 97-108.
Rogers, Robert. A Psychoanalytic Study of the Double in Literature. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970.
Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The First and Second Discourses Together with Replies to Critics and Essay on the origin of Languages. Trans. Victor Gourevitch. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1986.
Rubenstein, Marc. "'My Accursed Origin': The Search for the Mother in Frankenstein." Studies in Romanticism 15, 1976.
Scott, Peter Dale. "Vital Artifice: Mary, Percy, and the Psychopolitical Integrity of Frankenstein." Levine and Knoepflmacher 172-202.
Shelley, Mary. The Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. ed. Betty T. Bennett. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.
________. Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1831). London: Penguin Books, 1994.
________. Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996.
Shelley, Percy Bysshe. "On Frankenstein." In The Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley in Verse and Prose. 8 vols. Ed. Harry Buxton Forman. London" Reeves and Turner, 1880. 7: 11-14.
Small, Christopher. Ariel like a Harpy: Shelley, Mary and Frankenstein. London: Gollancz, 1972.
Spector, Judith A. "Science Fiction and the Sex War: A Womb of One's Own." Literature and Psychology 31.1 (1981): 21-32.
Tropp, Martin. Mary Shelley's Monster. Boston: Houghton, 1976.
Wittig, Monique. "On the Social Contract." Feminist Issues 9.1, Spring 1989: 3-12.
Yaeger, Patricia. Honey-Mad Women: Emancipatory Strategies in Women's Writing. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.
Botting, Fred. "Frankenstein and the Language of Monstrosity." Reviewing Romanticism. eds. Philip W. Martin and Robin Jarvis. London: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd., 1992.
Brooks, Peter. "'Godlike Science/Unhallowed Arts': Language, and Monstrosity in Frankenstein." New Literary History 9, 1978.
Cohn, Carol. "Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals." Feminist Theory in Practice and Process. Eds. Micheline Maison, Jean O'Barr, Sarah Westphal-Wihl, and Mary Wyer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989: 107-138.
Davis, Robert Con, ed. The Fictional Father: Lacanian Readings of the Text. Amherst: U of Massachusetts P, 1981.
________.ed. "Lancan and Narration." Modern Language Notes 5, 1983: 843-1063.
Dussinger, John A. "Kinship and Guilt in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein." Studies in the Novel 8, 1976.
Edgeworth, Maria. Lessons for Literary Ladies. New York: Garland Publishing, 1974.
Ellis, Kate. "Monsters in the Garden: Mary Shelley and the Bourgeois Family," in The Endurance of Frankenstein: Essays on Mary Shelley's Novel. eds. George Levine and U. C. Knoepflmacher. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.
________. The Contested Castle. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989.
Felman, Shoshana, ed. Literature and Psychoanalysis: The question of Reading: otherwise. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.
Freud, Sigmund. Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. Trans. Joan Riviere. London: Allen, 1922.
Froula, Christine. "When Eve Reads Milton: Undoing the Canonical Economy." Canons. Ed. Robert yon Hallberg. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1984. 149-75.
Gillbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. "Horror's Twin: Mary Shelley's Monstrous Eve." Ch. 7 of The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979.
Hill, J. M. "Frankenstein and the Physiognomy of Desire," American Imago 32, 1975: 335-58.Hodges, Devon. "Frankenstein and the Feminine Subversion of the Novel." Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature 2.2, Fall 1983: 155-164.
Homans, Margaret. "Beating Demons: Frankenstein's Circumvention of the Maternal." Bearing the Word: Language and Female Experience in Nineteenth-Century Women's Writing. Ed. Homans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
Horne, Richard. The Spirit of the Age. 2 vols. London: Smith and Elder, 1844.
Irigaray, Luce. "The Blind Spot of an Old Dream of Symmetry." In The Speculum of the Other Woman. Trans. Gillian C. Gill. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985.
Jacobus, Mary. "Is There a Woman in This Text?" New Literary History: A Journal of Theory and Interpretation 14.1, Autumn 1982.
Johnson, Barbara. "My Monster / My Self." Diacritics 12,1982.
Jones, Ann Rosalind. "Writhing the Body: Toward an Understanding of L'Ecriture Feminine." Showalter, New Feminist Criticism. 1985.
Jung, Carl Gustav. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Trans. R.F.C Hull. New York: Knopf Publishing Group, 1965
________, ed. Man and his Symbols. New York: Dell, 1977
Kaplan, Morton. "Fantasy of Paternity and the Doppelganger: Mary Shelley's Frankenstein." In The Unspoken Motive: A Guide to Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism. By Kaplan and Robert Kloss. New York: Freedom Press, 1973.
Keach, William. Shelley's Style. New York: Methuen, 1984.
Kiely, Robert. The Romantic Novel in England. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972.
Knoepflmacher, U.C. "Thoughts on the Aggression of Daughters." Levine and Knoepflmacher 88-119.
Kranzler, Laura. "Frankenstein and the Technological Future." Foundation 44 (Winter 1988-89).
Kroll, Richard W.F. The Maternal Word: Literate Culture in the Restoration and Early Eighteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
Lancan, Jacques. Ecrits: A Selection. Trans. Alan Sheridan. New York: Norton, 1977.
________. Feminine Sexuality: Lacan and the ecole Freudienne. Ed. Juliet Mitchell and Jacqueline Rose. Trans. Rose. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1982.________. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis. Trans. Alan Sheridan. London: Penguin, 1980.
Levine, George, and U. C. Knoepflmacher, eds. The Endurance of Frankenstein (Berkeley and Love of Mankind, 4 Vols. trans. Henry Hunter, London, 1789-98.
Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Ed. Peter H. Nidditch. Oxford University Press, 1989.
London, Bette. "Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, and the Spectacle of Masculinity." PMLA 108.2, March 1993: 253-267.
Lovell, Terry. Consuming Fiction. London: Verso, 1987.
Marshall, David. The Surprising Effects of Sympathy: Marivaus, Diderot, Rousseau, and Mary Shelley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
McWhir, Anne. "Teaching the Monster to Read: Mary Shelley, Education and Frankenstein." Educational Legacy to Romanticism. Ed. John Willinsky. Waterloo, Ontario: Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1990: 73-92.
Mellor, Anne K. "Possessing Nature: The Female in Frankenstein." Romanticism and Feminism. Ed. Mellor. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988.
________. Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters. New York: Routledge, 1988.
Mitchell, Juliet, and Jacqueline Rose. "Introduction Ⅱ." Feminine Sexuality: Lacan and the ecole Freudienne. Ed. Mitchell and Rose. New York: Norton, 1982.
Moers, Ellen. Literary Women. Garden City: Doubleday, 1977.
________. "Female Gothic." Levine and Knoepflmacher 77-87.
Muller, John P., and William J. Richardson, eds. The Purloined Poe" Lacan, Derrida, and Psychoanalytic Reading. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1988. Includes Lacan's seminar on Poe's "The Purloined Letter."
O'Rourke, James. "'Nothing More Unnatural': Mary Shelley's Revision of Rousseau." ELH 56.3, Fall 1989: 543-69.
Rank, Otto. The Myth of the Birth of the Hero: A Psychological Exploration of Myth. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004
Paulson, Ronald. "Gothic Fiction and the French Revolution." ELH 48.3, Fall 1981: 532-54.
Pollin, Burton. "Philosophical and Literary Sources of Frankenstein," Comparative Literature 17,??1965: 97-108.
Rogers, Robert. A Psychoanalytic Study of the Double in Literature. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1970.
Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The First and Second Discourses Together with Replies to Critics and Essay on the origin of Languages. Trans. Victor Gourevitch. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1986.
Rubenstein, Marc. "'My Accursed Origin': The Search for the Mother in Frankenstein." Studies in Romanticism 15, 1976.
Scott, Peter Dale. "Vital Artifice: Mary, Percy, and the Psychopolitical Integrity of Frankenstein." Levine and Knoepflmacher 172-202.
Shelley, Mary. The Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley. ed. Betty T. Bennett. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980.
________. Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1831). London: Penguin Books, 1994.
________. Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus (1818). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1996.
Shelley, Percy Bysshe. "On Frankenstein." In The Works of Percy Bysshe Shelley in Verse and Prose. 8 vols. Ed. Harry Buxton Forman. London" Reeves and Turner, 1880. 7: 11-14.
Small, Christopher. Ariel like a Harpy: Shelley, Mary and Frankenstein. London: Gollancz, 1972.
Spector, Judith A. "Science Fiction and the Sex War: A Womb of One's Own." Literature and Psychology 31.1 (1981): 21-32.
Tropp, Martin. Mary Shelley's Monster. Boston: Houghton, 1976.
Wittig, Monique. "On the Social Contract." Feminist Issues 9.1, Spring 1989: 3-12.
Yaeger, Patricia. Honey-Mad Women: Emancipatory Strategies in Women's Writing. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.