摘要
辐射传输研究是贯穿森林生态系统的纽带,太阳辐射为植物的生长发育提供光合能量、适宜的环境温度以及发育信息。一方面,气候变化使到达地面辐射能的质和量发生变化,影响到植被的生长发育,改变森林的结构,而森林结构的变化又会影响林冠内辐射能的分配和质量,这些变化会进一步影响到林下土壤温度,改变森林根系活性以及土壤营养转化的效率;连锁反应的结果有可能会使森林生态系统的生产力发生变化,改变碳素和氮素源库的调节方向,从而反馈影响地球气候系统。另一方面,人类作为生态系统的成员,必然需要森林生态系统为其提供更多的原材料和更好的生态服务功能,如何实现这些目标,就需要人类适度调整干预方式和频度,达到预期的目的。本文在建立适合于川西亚高山森林的叶面积测量技术、光照辐射模型和土壤温度变化模型的基础上,对川西亚高山地带森林生态系统的辐射传输特征进行了分析,并从森林结构的角度探讨了林分内的辐射分布以及对土壤温度的影响。主要成果如下:
1.提出了一种照相法测量叶面积的方法。通过对摆放在平面上的叶片照相,利用投影变化,把非正射图像转化为正射图像,然后经过计算机图像处理得到每一片叶片的面积、周长、长度、宽度等信息。这种方法可使用户以任意方向和距离拍摄处于平面上的叶片,能同时处理大量的叶片,适于野外离体或活体叶片测量。叶片面积分辨率可调,分辨率可以与常用的激光叶面积仪相近甚至更高,而且叶片图像可以存档查询。
Radiative transfer plays a key role in forest ecosystems. Solar radiation provides energy for photosynthesis, appropriate ambient temperature and development information for plants. However, quality and quantity of radiation reaching land surface are affected by weather and subsequently influence the growth and development of plants, which in turn changes the budget of radiation in forest. Soil temperature changes with the variation of radiation under forest canopy and influences the activity of roots and rate of nutrient turnover. Thus, any changes of radiation will induce chain reactions in the entire ecosystem and display in the value of net primary productivity which will possibly shift the relationship between carbon source and sink at local or regional scale and feed back to the global climate system. On the other hand, as a component of ecosystems, human beings of course need to demand more materials and better service from ecosystems. For these purpose, man must adapt their pattern and frequency of interference to ecosystems. This paper aims to research on the canopy structure, the radiation distribution and their influence on soil temperature from the process of radiative transfer in subalpine forest ecosystem of western Sichuan. The main results are:
1 Present a new photogrammetric method for leaf area. The main idea is to convert non-vertically taken images of planar leaves to orthoimages through projective transformation. The resultant images are used to get leaf morphological parameters through image processing. This method enables users to take photos at almost any orientation and distance if only the leaves are placed on same plane, and to process
引文
1. Abdel-Aziz, Y.I., Karara, H.M. Direct linear transformation from comparator co-ordinates into object-space coordinates. ASP Symposium on Close-Range Photogrammetry, 1971:1-18.
2. Albertz J., and A. Wiedemann. Acquisition of CAD Data from Existing Buildings by Photogrammetry. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Computing in Civil and Building Engineering, Berlin: A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam & Brookfield. 1995:859-866.
3. Anderson M.C. Interpreting the fraction of solar radiation available in forest. Agric. Meteorol., 1970(7):19-28.
4. Anderson, M.C. Studies of the woodland light climate. I. The photographic computation of light conditions. J. Ecol., 1964(52): 27-41.
5. Anderson, M.C. Stand structure and light penetration. II. A theoretical analysis. J. Appl. Ecol.,1964(3): 41-54.
6. Antos J. A. & R. Parish. Structure and dynamics of a nearly steady-state subalpine forest in south-central British Columbia, Canada. Oecologia, 2002(130): 126—135
7. Aphalo, P.J., and Ballare, C.L. On the importance of information-acquiring systems in plant-plant interactions. Funct. Ecol.,1995(9): 5-14.
8. Baldocchi, D. & S. Collineau. The physical nature of solar radiation in heterogeneous canopies: spatial and temporal attributes. In: Caldwell M.M. & R.W. Pearcy eds. Exploitation of environmental heterogeneity by plants. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press. 1994: 21-72.
9. Ballare C.L., A. Scopel, J.J. Casal and R.A. Sanchez. 2002. Know Thy Neighbor through Phytochrome. http://www.plantphys.net/article.php?ch=e&id=236
10. Bazzaz, F.A., and Wayne, P.M. Coping with environmental heterogeneity: the physiological ecology of tree seedling regeneration across the gap-understory continuum. In Exploitation of environmental heterogeneity by plants; ecophysiological processes above and below ground. Edited by M.M Caldwell and R.W. Pearcy. Academic Press, New York. 1994: 349-390.
11. Black, P.E. Watershed hydrology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 1991.
12. Black, T.A., Chen, J.-M., Lee, X., and Sagar, R.M. Characteristics of shortwave and longwave irradiance under a Douglasfir forest stand. Can. J. For. Res., 1991(21): 1020-1028.
13. Bondeau, A., Kicklighter, D.W., & Kaduk, J. Comparing global models of terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP): importance of vegetation structure on seasonal NPP estimates. Global Change Biology, 1999(5): 35-45.
14. Borel C. C, S. A.W. Gerstl, and B. J. Powers. The radiosity method in optical remote sensing of structured 3-D surfaces. Remote Sens. Environ. 1991(36): 13-44.
15. Bouguet, J.-Y. Citing online sources: camera calibration toolbox for matlab [online]. Available from http:// www. vision, caltech. Edu / bouguetj / calib_doc / index . html # links [cited 15 November 2004].
16. Brandstatter,G. Fundamentals of Algebro-Projective Photogrammetry. Sitzungsber. Abt. II, 1996 (205): 57-109.
17. Brown M.J. & G.G. Parker. 1994. Canopy light transmittance in a chronosequence of mixed-species deciduous forests. Can. J. For. Res. ,1994(24): 1694-1703.
18. Brown, D.C. 1971. Lens Distortion for Close-Range Photogrammetry. Photometric Engineering, 1971(37): 855-866.
19. Brown, S., A.J.R. Gillespie, A.E. Lugo. Biomass estimation methods for tropical forests with application to forest inventory data. For. Sci., 1989(35): 881-902.
20. Brown, S.L., P. Schroeder, J.S. Kern. Spatial distribution of biomass in forests of the eastern USA. For. Ecol. Manag., 1999(123): 81-90.
21. Browns and A.E. Lugo. Biomass of tropical forests: A new estimate based on forest volumes. Science, 1984(223): 1290-1293.
22. Brunner A. A light model for spatially explicit forest stand models. Forest Ecology and Management, 1998(107):19-46.
23. Brunner, A. & G. Nigh. Light absorption and bole volume growth of individual Douglas-fir trees. Tree Physiology. 2000(20):323-332.
24. Bunnell, F.L., and Vales, D.J. Comparison of methods for estimating forest overstory cover: differences among techniques. Can. J. For. Res. 1990(20): 101-107.
25. Campbell G. S. Extinction coefficients for radiation in plant canopies calculated using ellipsoidal inclination angle distribution. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 1986(36): 317-321.
26. Campbell, G.S., & J. M. Norman. The description and measurement of plant canopy structure. In: Russell G., B. Marshall & P.G. Jarvis eds. Plant canopies: their growth, form, and function. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1989:1-19.
27. Canham, C.D. GLI/C: Software for Calculation of Light Transmission through Forest Canopies Using Color Fisheye Photography. Institute of EcosystemStudies, Millbrook,NY, USA. 1995.
28. Canham, C. D. 1988. An index for understory light level in and around canopy gaps. Ecology, 1988(69): 1634-1638.
29. Canham, C.D., A.C. Finzi, S.W. Pacala & D.H. Burbank. Causes and consequences of resource heterogeneity in forests: interspecific variation in light transmission by canopy trees. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 1994(24):337-349.
30. Canham, C.D., Denslow, J.S., Platt, W.J., Runkle, J.R., Spies, T.A., and White, P.S. Light regimes beneath closed canopies and tree-fall gaps in temperate and tropical forests. Can. J. For. Res.,1990(20): 620-631.
31. Canham, C.D., Finzi, A.C, Pacala, S.W., and Burbank, D.H. Causes and consequences of resource heterogeneity in forests: interspecific variation in light transmission by canopy trees. Can. J. For. Res., 1994(24): 337-349.
32. Cannell, M.G.R., and Grace, J. Competition for light: detection measurement, and quantification. Can. J. For. Res., 1993(23): 1969-1979.
33. Cao, M. & F. I. Woodward. Net primary and ecosys tempro-duction and carbon stocks of terrestrial ecosystems and their response to climate change. Global Change Biology, 1998(4): 185-198
34. Cescatti, A. Effects of needle clumping in shoots and crowns on the radiative regime of a Norway spruce canopy. Annales des Sciences Forestieres (Paris), 1998 (55): 89-102.
35. Chazdon R.L. & C.B. Field. Photographic estimation of photosynthetically active radiation: evaluation of a computerized technique. Oecologia, 1987(73): 525-564.
36. Chazdon R.L. & N. Fetcher. Photosynthetic light environments in a lowland tropical rainforest in Costa Rica. J. Ecol., 1984(72): 553-564.
37. Chazdon, R. L., and R.W. Pearcy. The importance of sunflecks for forest understroy plants: Photosynthetic machinery appears adapted to brief, unpredictable periods of radiation. Bioscience, 1991(41): 760-766.
38. Chazdon, R.L. Sunflecks and their importance to understory plants. Adv. Ecol. Res., 1988(18): 1-63.
39. Chazdon, R.L., and C.B. Field. Photographic estimation of photosynthetically active radiation: evaluation of a computerized technique. Oecologia (Berl.), 1987(73): 525-532.
40. Chen J.M. & J. Cihlar. Plant canopy gap-size analysis theory for improving optical measurements of leaf-area index. Applied Optics, 1995(34): 6211-6222.
41. Chen J.M., and T.A. Black. Defining leaf area index for non-flat leaves. Agric. For. Meteorol., 1992(57): 1-12
42. Chen J.Q., & G. A. Bradshaw. Forest structure in space: a case study of an old growth spruce-fir forest in Changbaishan Natural Reserve, PR China. Forest Ecology and Management, 1999(120): 219-233.
43. Chen Q. Z.(陈起忠), C. B. Li(李承彪) & S. C. Wang(王少昌). Preliminary studies on the growth characteristics of main dominant forest species of Sichuan Province. Scientia Silvae Sinicae(林业科学), 1984 (20): 242-251. (in Chinese)
44. Chen, H.Y.H., and K. Klinka. Light availability and photosynthesis of Pseudotsuga menziesii seedlings grown in the open and in the forest understory. Tree Physiol. 1997(17): 23-29.
45. Chen, J.M. & J. Cihlar. Quantifying the effect of canopy architecture on optical measurements of leaf area index using two gap size analysis methods. IEEE Transactions of Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 1995(33): 777-787.
46. Chen, J.M. Optically-based methods for measuring seasonal variation of leaf area index in boreal conifer stands. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 1996(80):135-163.
47. Chen, J.M., & S.G. Leblanc. A four-scale bidirectional reflectance model based on canopy architecture. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 1997(35): 1316-1337.
48. Chen, J.M., & T.A. Black. Defining leaf area index for non-flat leaves. Plant, Cell and Environment, 1992(15): 421-429.
49. Chen, J.M., Black, T.A., Adams, R. Evaluation of hemispherical photography for determining plant area index and geometry of a forest stand. Agric. For. Meteorol., 1991(56): 129-143.
50. Chen, J.M., P.D Blanken, T.A. Black, M. Guilbeault & S. Chen. Radiation regime and canopy architecture in a boreal aspen forest. Agricultural Forest Meteorology, 1997a(86): 107-125.
51. Chen, J.M., P.M. Rich, S.T. Gower, J.M. Norman, & S. Plummer. Leaf area index of boreal forests: theory, techniques and measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1997b(102):29 429-29 433.
52. CIE Technical Committee 4.2: Standardization of Luminance Distribution on Clear Skies. Comission International de l' Eclairaze, Paris. 1973.
53. Clark, D.A., S. Brown, D.W. Kicklighter, J.Q. Chambers, J.R. Thomlinson, and J. Ni. Measuring net primary production in forests: concepts and field methods. Ecol. Appl., 2001(11): 356-370.
54. Cohen M. F. and D. P. Greenberg. The hemi-cube: A radiosity solution for complex environments. In Proceedings of the 12th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques, San Francisco, California, USA, pp 31-40. ACM Press.1985.
55. Constabel, A.J. & V.J. Lieffers. Seasonal patterns of light transmission through boreal mixedwood canopies. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 1996(26): 1008-1014.
56. Constabel, A.J. Light transmission through boreal mixedwood stands. M.Sc. thesis, Edmonton, Alta. :University of Alberta. 1995.
57. Constabel, A.J., and Lieffers, V.J. Seasonal patterns of light transmission through boreal mixedwood canopies. Can. J. For. Res. 1996(26): 1008-1014.
58. Cramer W., A. Bondeau, F.I. Woodward, I.C. Prentice, R.A. Betts, V. Brovkin, P.M. Cox, V. Fisher, J.A. Foley, A.D. Friend, C. Kucharik, M.R. Lomas, N. Ramankutty, S. Sitch, B. Smith, A. White and C. Young-Moiling. Global response of terrestrial ecosystem structure and function to CO2 and climate change: results from six dynamic global vegetation models. Glob. Change Biol., 2001(7):357-373
59. Cramer W., D.W. Kicklighter, A. Bondeau, B. Moore III, G. Churkina, B. Nemry, A. Ruimy, A.L. Schloss. The participants of the Potsdam NPP model intercomparison. Comparing global models of terrestrial net primary productivity (NPP): overview and key results. Glob. Change Biol., 1999(5 (Suppl. 1)): 1-15.
60. Dai, X. Influence of light condition in canopy gaps on forest regeneration: a new gap light index and its application in a boreal forest in east central Sweden. For. Ecol. Manage., 1996(84): 187-197.
61. de Wit C.T. Photosynthesis of leaf canopies. Agricultural Research Report 663. Wageningen: Centre for Agriculture Publication and Documentation. 1965.
62. DeGranpre, L., Gagnon, D., and Bergeron, Y. Changes in the understory of Canadian southern boreal forest after fire. J. Veg. Sci., 1993(4): 803-810.
63. Diggle P.J. Statistical analysis of spatial point patterns. London: Academic Press. 1983.
64. Drouet, J.-L., Bonhomme, R. Do variations in local irradiance explain changes to leaf nitrogen within row maize canopies. Annals of Botany, 1999(84): 61-69.
65. Duffie, J.A., and Beckman, W.A. Solar energy thermal processes. Wiley, New York. 1974.
66. Dufrene, E., and Breda, N. Estimation of deciduous forest leaf area index using direct and indirect methods. Oecologia (Berl.), 1995(104): 156-162.
67. Easter, M.J., and Spies, T.A. Using hemispherical photography for estimating photosynthetic photon flux density under canopies and in gaps in Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific Northwest. Can. J. For. Res., 1994(24): 2050-2058.
68. Ehleringer, J.R. & K.S. Werk. Modifications of solar radiation absorption patterns, and implications for carbon gain at the leaf level. In: Givnish T.J. eds. On the Ecology of Plant Form and Function. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986: 57-82
69. Elvidge, D.E. Visible and near infrared reflectance characteristics of dry plant materials. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1990(11): 1775-1795.
70. Emmingham, W.H., and Waring, R.H. An index of photosynthesis for comparing forest sites in Western Oregon. Can. J. For. Res., 1977(7): 165-174.
71. Endler, J.A. The color of light in forests and it implications. Ecol. Monogr., 1993(63): 1-27.
72. Evans, G.C., Coombe, D.E. Hemispherical and woodland canopy photography and the light climate. J. Ecol., 1959(47): 103-113.
73. Ezcurra E, C. Montana & S. Arizaga. Architecture light interception and distribution of Larrea-spp in the Monte Desert Argentina. Ecology, 1991(72): 23-34.
74. Falster D. S. & M. Westoby. Leaf size and angle vary widely across species: what consequences for light interception? New Phytologist, 2003(158): 509-525
75. Fang J.Y., A.P. Chen, C.H. Peng, S.Q. Zhao and L.J. Ci. Changes in forest biomass carbon storage in China between 1949 and 1998. Science, 2001(292): 2320-2322.
76. Fang J.Y., S.L. Piao, Z.Y. Tang, C.H. Peng, W. Ji. Interannual variability in net primary production and precipitation. Science, 2001(293): 1723.
77. Fassnacht, K.S., S.T. Gower, J.M. Norman & R.E. McMurtrie. A comparison of optical and direct methods for estimating foliage surface area index in forests. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 1994(71): 183-207.
78. Fisher J. B. Branching patterns and angles in trees. In: Givnish T. J. eds. On the Economy of Plant Form and Function. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1986.
79. Fontenla, J., O. R. White, P. A. Fox, E. H. Avertt, R. L. Kurucz, Calculation of solar irradiances. I. Systhesis of the solar spectrum, Astrophys. J., 1999(518): 480-500.
80. Ford E.D. Competition and stand structure in some evenaged plant monocultures. Journal of Ecology, 1975(63): 311-333.
81. Fournier R.A., D. Mailly, J.-M.N. Walter & K. Soudani. Indirect measurement of forest canopy structure from in situ optical sensors. In: Wulder M. & S. Franklin eds. Methods and applications for remote sensing of forests: Concepts and case studies. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2003:77-114.
82. Gao, W, R.H. Grant and G.M. Heisler. A geometric UV-B radiation transfer model applied to agricultural vegetation canopies. Agron. J., 2002(94):475-482.
83. Gastellu-Etchegorry J. P., V. Demarez, V. Pinel, and F. Zagolski. Modeling radiative transfer in heteorogeneous 3-D vegetation canopies. Remote Sens. Environ., 1996(58):131-156.
84. Gastellu-Etchegorry, J.P., Guillevic, P., Zagolski, F., Demarez, V., Trichon, V, Deering, D., Leroy, M., 1999. Modeling BRF and radiation regime of boreal and tropical forests: I. BRF. Remote Sens. Environ. 1999(68): 281-316.
85. Gates, D.M., H.J. Keegen, J.C. Schleter and V.R. Weidner. Spectral properties of plants. Applied Optics., 1965(4): 11-20.
86. Gay A.N., K.R. Knoerr & M.O. Braaten. Solar radiation variability on the floor of a pine plantation. Agricultural Meteorology, 1971(8): 39-50
87. Gendron, F., Messier, C, Comeau, P.G. Comparison of various methods for estimating the mean growing season percent photosynthetic photon flux density in forests. Agric. For. Meteorol. 1998(92): 55-70.
88. Gersonde R. and K. O'Hara. Calibrating a spatially explicit light model for Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forests, http://www.cnr.berkeley.edu/-gersonde/ light_poster. Html. 2001.
89. Gholz, H.L. Environmental limits on aboveground net primary production, leaf area, and biomass in vegetation zones of the Pacific Northwest. Ecology, 1982(63): 469-481.
90. Gilmore, D.W. & R.S. Seymour. Alternative measures of stem growth efficiency applied to Abies balsamea from four canopy positions in central Maine. USA. Forest Ecology and Management, 1996(84): 209-218.
91. Gilmore, D.W., R.S. Seymour & D.A. Maguire. Foliage-sapwood area relationships for Abies balsamea in central Maine. USA. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 1996(26): 2071-2079.
92. Givnish, T.J. Adaptation to sun and shade: a whole plant perspective. Aust. J. Plant Physiol., 1988(15): 63-92.
93. Goel N. S. & D. E. Strebel. Simple beta distribution representation of leaf orientation in vegetation canopies. Agronomy Journal, 1984(76): 800-802.
94. Goel N. S., I. Rozehnal, and R. I. Thompson. A computer graphics based model for scattering from objects of arbitrary shapes in the optical region," Remote Sens. Environ., 1991(36):73-104.
95. Goel N.S. Models of vegetation canopy reflectance and their use in estimation of biophysical parameters from reflectance data. Remote Sensing Reviews, 1988(4): 1-212.
96. Goetz, S.J., and Prince, S.D. Remote sensing of net primary productivity in boreal forest stands. Agric. For. Meteorol., 1996(78): 149-179.
97. Goward, S.N., and D.G Dye. Evaluating North American net primary productivity with satellite observations. Adv. Space Res., 1987(7): 165-174.
98. Goward S.N., K.F. Huemmrich, R.H. Waring. Visible-near-infrared spectral reflectance of landscape components in western Oregon. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1994(47(2)): 190-203
99. Govaerts, Yves and Michel M. Verstraete. Raytran: A Monte Carlo Ray Tracing Model to Compute Light Scattering in Three-Dimensional Heterogeneous Media. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 1998(36):493-505.
100. Goward, S.N., C.J. Tucker, and D.G. Dye. North American vegetation patterns observed with the NOAA-7 advanced very high resolution radiometer. Vegetation, 1985(64): 3-14
101. Gower S.T., C.J. Kucharik, and J.L. Norman. Direct and indirect estimation of leaf area index, fAPAR, and net primary production of terrestrial ecosystems. Remote Sens. Environ., 1999(70): 29-51
102. Gower, S. T., O. Krankina, R. J. Olson, M. Apps, S. Linder, and C. Wang. Net primary production and carbon allocation patterns of boreal forest ecosystems. Ecological Applications, 2001(11): 1395-1411.
103. Gower, S.T. & J.M. Norman. Rapid estimation of leaf area index in conifer and broadleaf plantations. Ecology, 1991(72): 1896-1900.
104. Grant R. H. Partitioning of biologically active radiation in plant canopies. Int. J. Biometeorol., 1997(40):26-40.
105. Grant, R.H. The influence of the sky radiance distribution on the flux density in the shadow of a tree crown. Agric. For. Meteorol., 1985(35): 59-70.
106. Grant, R.H. and G.M. Heisler. Obscured overcast sky radiance distributions for the ultraviolet and photosynthetically-active radiation wavebands. J. Appl. Meteorol., 1997(36): 1336-1345.
107. Grant, R.H., G.M. Heisler, and W. Gao. Clear sky radiance distributions in ultraviolet wavelength bands. Theor, and Appl. Climatol., 1997(56): 123-135.
108. Grant, R.H., W. Gao, and G.M. Heisler. Ultraviolet sky radiance distributions of translucent overcast skies. Theor, and Appl. Climatol., 1997(58): 129-139.
109. Greenberg D.P., M. F. Cohen & K. E. Torrance. Radiosity: A method for computing global illumination. The Visual Computer, 1986(2): 291-297.
110. Groot, A., and Carlson, D.W. Influence of shelter on night temperatures, frost damage, and bud break of white spruce seedlings. Can. J. For. Res., 1996(26): 1531-1538.
111. Hadley, J. L. Understory microclimate and photosynthetic response of saplings in an old-growth eastern hemlock (Tsuiga canadensis L.) forest. Ecoscience, 2000(7): 66-72.
112. Hale S.E. Light regime beneath Sitka spruce plantations in northern Britain: preliminary results. Forest Ecology and Management, 2001(151):61 -66.
113. Hall R.J., D.P. Davidson & D.R. Peddle. Ground and remote estimation of leaf area index in Rocky Mountain forest stands, Kananaskis, Alberta. Canadian. Journal of Remote Sensing, 2003(29):411-427.
114. Hanan, N.P. and A. Begue. A method to estimate instantaneous and daily intercepted photosynthetically active radiation using a hemispherical sensor. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 1995(74): 155-168
115. Hannerz, M., and Hanell, B. Changes in vascular plant vegetation after different cutting regimes on a productive peatland site in central Sweden. Scand. J. For. Res., 1993(8): 193-203.
116. Haralick, R.M. and Shapiro, L.G. Computer and Robot Vision, vol I, Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc. Boston, MA, USA. 1992.
117. Hardy J.P., R. Melloh, G. Koenig, D. Marks, A. Winstral, J.W. Pomeroy, T. Link. Solar radiation transmission through conifer canopies.Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 2004 (126): 257-270.
118. Heikkila, J. & Silven, O. A Four-step Camera Calibration Procedure with Implicit Image Correction. IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR'97), San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1997: 1106-1112.
119. Hellstrom, R. Forest cover algorithms for estimating meteorological forcing in a numerical snow model. Hydrol. Process., 2000(14): 3239-3256
120. Herbert D.A. & J.H. Fownes. Effects of leaf aggregation in a broadleaf canopy on estimates of leaf area index by the gap fraction method. Forest Ecology and Management, 1997(3): 277-282.
121. Hibbs, D.E. Gap dynamics in a hemlock-hardwood forest. Can. J. For. Res., 1982(12): 522-527.
122. Holbo, H.R., Childs, S.W., and McNabb, D.H. Solar radiation at seedlings sites below partial canopies. For. Ecol. Manage., 1985(10): 115-124.
123. Horn, H.S. The adaptive geometry of trees. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. 1971.
124. Hunt Jr., E.R., Piper, S.C., Nemani, R., Keeling, C.D., Otto, R.D., Running, S.W. Global net carbon exchange and intra-annual atmospheric CO2 concentrations predicted by an ecosystem process model and three-dimensional atmospheric transport model. Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 1996(10):431-456
125. Hutchison, B.A., and Matt, D.R. The distribution of solar radiation with a deciduous forest. Ecol. Monogr., 1977(47): 185-207.
126. Jarvis, P.G, and Leverenz, J.W. Productivity of temperate, deciduous and evergreen forests. In Physiological plant ecology. IV. Ecosystem processes: mineral cycling, productivity and man's influence. Edited by O.L. Lang, P.S. Nobel, C.B. Osmond, and H. Zielgler. Encyclopedia of plant physiology. New Series. Vol. 12D. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 1983:243-280.
127. Jennings S.B., N.D. Brown, & D. Sheil. 1999. Assessing forest canopies and understorey illumination: canopy closure, canopy cover and other measures. Forestry, 1999(72): 59-73
128. Jensen H. W. Rendering Caustics on Non-Lambertian Surfaces. Computer Graphics Forum, 1997(16):57-64.
129. Jiang H., Zhu J.J. and M.D. Ma. The relation between the natural spruce forest productivity and the ecological environment. In: Yang Yupo and Zhang Jiangling Edited. Protection and management of mountain forests. Beijing: Science Press, 1992: 97-102
130. Jiang Youxu. Characteristics and management strategies of subalpine coniferous forests in southwestern China. 13-17. In: Yang Yupo and Zhang Jiangling Edited. Protection and management of mountain forests. Science Press, Beijing. 1992
131. Johansson T. Estimation of canopy density and irradiance in 20- to 40-year-old birch stands (Betula pubescens Ehrh. and Betula pendula Roth). Trees, 1996(10): 223-230
132. Jones, C.A., Kiniry, J.R. (Eds.), CERES-Maize, a Simulation Model of Maize Growth and Development. Texas A & M University Press, College Station. 1986:194.
133. Jurik, T.W., Briggs, G.M., and Gates, D.M. Springtime recovery of photosynthetic activity of white pine in Michigan. Can. J. Bot., 1988(66): 138-141.
134. Kato S., and A. Komiyama. Spatial and seasonal heterogeneity in understory light conditions caused by differential leaf flushing of deciduous overstory trees. Ecological Research, 2002(17): 687-693.
135. Kikuzawa, K. A method to transform values of relative photon flux density in forest understorey. Funct. Ecol., 1992(6): 113-114.
136. Kimes D. S. & J. A. Kirchner. Radiative transfer model for heterogeneous 3D scenes. Applied Optics, 1982(21): 4119-4129.
137. Kitajima, K. Relative importance of photosynthetic traits and allocation patterns as correlates of seedling shade tolerance of 13 tropical trees. Oecologia (Berl.), 1994(98): 419-428.
138. Knapp, A.K., and Smith, W.K. Stomatal and photosynthetic responses to variable sunlight. Physiol. Plant., 1990(78): 160-165.
139. Knapp A.K. and M.D. Smith. Variation among biomes in temporal dynamics of aboveground primary production .Science ,2001(291 ):481-484.
140. Knyazikhin, Y., Kranigk, J., Myneni, R. B., Panferov, O., & Gravenhorst, G. Influence of small-scale structure on radiative transfer and photosynthesis in vegetation cover. Journal of Geophysica Research, D: Atmospheres, 1998a(103): 6133- 6144.
141. Knyazikhin, Y., Martonchik, J. V., Myneni, R. B., Diner, D. J., & Running, S. W. (1998b). Synergistic algorithm for estimating vegetation canopy leaf area index and fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation from MOD1S and MISR data. Journal of Geophysica Research, D: Atmospheres, 1998b(103): 32257-32276
142. Kokaly R. F., R. N. Clark, and K. E. Livo. Mapping the Biology and Mineralogy of Yellowstone National Park using Imaging Spectroscopy. In R.O. Green (ed.) Summaries of the 7th Annual JPL Airborne Earth Science Workshop, JPL Publication 97-21. Vol. 1, AVIRIS Workshop, conducted Jan 12-16, 1998, pp. 245-254, Dec. 1998.
143. Korzukhin, M.D., and Ter-Mikaelian, M.T. An individual tree-based model of competition for light. Ecol. Model, 1995(79): 221-229.
144. Kuppers, M., Timm, H., Orth, F, Stegemann, J., Stober, R., Schneider, H., Paliwal, K., Karunaichamy, K.S.T.K., and Ortiz, R. Effects of light environment and successional status on lightfleck use by understory trees of temperate and tropical forests. Tree Physiol., 1996(16): 69-80.
145. Kurth, W. Growth Grammer Interpreter GROGRA 2.4. A software tool for the 3-dimensional interpretation of stochastic, sensitive growth grammers in the context of plant modelling. Introduction and Reference Manual. Berichte des Forschungszentrums Waldokosysteme der Universitat Gottingen, Reihe B, 38. 1994.
146. Kurucz, T.L., Synthetic infrared spectra, Infrared Solar Physics, IAU Symp. 154, edited by D.M. Rabin and J.T. Jefferies, Kluwer, Acad., Norwell Massachusetts, 1992.
147. Kurz W.A., S.J. Beukema, and M.J. Apps. Estimation of root biomass and dynamics for the carbon budget model of the Canadian forest sector. Can. J. For. Res., 1996(26): 1973-1979.
148. Kuuluvainen T. & T. Pukkala. Effect of crown shape and tree distribution on the spatial distribution of shade. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 1987(40): 215-231.
149. Kuuluvainen, T., and Pukkala, T. Simulation of within-tree and between-tree shading of direct radiation in a forest canopy: effect of crown shape and sun elevation. Ecol. Model., 1989(49): 89-100.
150. Kuusipalo J. On the use of tree stand parameters in estimating light conditions below the canopy. Silva Fennica, 1985(19): 185-196
151. Lambers H., F.S. Chapin & T.L. Pons. Plant physiological ecology. New York: Springer. 1998.
152. Landhausser, S.M., Stadt, K.J., and Lieffers, V.J. Seasonal changes in photosynthetic rates of understory deciduous and evergreen herbs. Oecologia (Berl.), 1997(112): 173-178.
153. Landsberg J.J., S.D. Prince, P.G. Jarvis, R.E. McMurtrie, R. Luxmoore, B.E. Medlyn. Energy conversion and use in forests: an analysis of forest production in terms of radiation utilisation efficiency e . In: Gholz H.L., K. Nakane, H. Skimoda. Eds. The Use of Remote Sensing in the Modelling of Forest Productivity. Kluwer: Dordrecht, 1997:273-298.
154. Lane, S.N., James, T.D. and Crowell, M.D. Application of digital photogrammetry to complex topography for geomorphological research. Photogrammetric Record, 2000(16): 793-821.
155. Lang, A.R.G. Simplified estimate of leaf area index from transmittance of the sun's beam. Agric. For. Meteorol, 1987(41): 179-186.
156. Larcher, W. Physiological plant ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. 1980.
157. Larsen, D.R., and J.A., Jr. Kershaw. Influence of canopy structure assumptions from Beer's law. A comparison of deterministic and stochastic simulations. Agric. For. Meteorol., 1996(81): 66-77.
158. Leblon B., L. Gallant & H. Granberg. Effects of shadowing types on ground-measured visible and near-infrared shadow reflectances. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1996(58): 322-328.
159. Lee, D.W., Baskaran, K., Mansor, M., Mohamad, H., and Yap, S.K. Irradiance and spectral quality affect Asian tropical rain forest tree seedling development. Ecology, 1996(77): 568-580.
160. Lei, T.T., Tabuchi, R., Kitao, M., Takahashi, K., and Koibe, T. Effects of season, weather and vertical position on the variation in light quantity and quality in a Japanese deciduous broadleaf forest. J. Sust. For., 1998(6): 35-55.
161. Lemeur R. & B. L. Blad. A critical review of light models for estimating the shortwave radiation regime of plant canopies. Agricultural Meteorology, 1974(14): 255-286.
162. Li C-B (李承彪). Ecological research on Sichuan Forest. Chengdu: Sichuan Sci-Tech Publishing House, (in Chinese). 1990.
163. Li J.X. (李景侠)& W.H. Zhang(张文辉).2001. Study on spatial pattern and population structure of Abies fargesii. Journal of Northwest Sci-Tech University of Agriculture and Forestry (Natural Science Edition)(西北农林科技大学学报(自然科学版), 2001(29(5)): 115-118
164. Li X. W. and A. H. Strahler. Modeling the gap probability of a discontinuous vegetation canopy. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sensing. 1988(26): 161-170.
165. Li, X.-Y, Teng, S.-H. and Ungor, A. Biting Ellipsoid to Generate Anisotropic Mesh. 8th International Meshing Roundtable. Lake Tahoe, CA, October 1999. pp. 97-108
166. Liang H. 1987. Several points to the exploitation of forests in western Sichuan. For. Sci. and Tech. Of Sichuan 1987(8(3)):69-70.
167. Liang, S., and A. H. Strahler. Calculation of the angular radiance distribution for a coupled atmosphere and canopy. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens., 1993(31 ):491-502.
168. LI-COR. LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer. Instruction manual. LI-COR, Inc., Lincoln, Nebr. 1992.
169. Liebowitz D., & A. Zisserman. Metric Rectification for Perspective Images of Planes. CVPR 1998: 482-488
170. Lieffers, V.J., and Stadt, K.J. Growth of understory Picea glauca, Calamagrostis canadensis, and Epilobium angustifolium in relation to overstory light. Can. J. For. Res., 1994(24): 1193-1198.
171. Lieffers, V.J., C. Messier, K.J. Stadt, F. Gendron, and P.G Comeau. Predicting and managing light in the understory of boreal forests. Can. J. For. Res., 1999(29): 796-811.
172. Lindenmayer A. Models for multicellular development: characterization, inference and complexity in L-systems. In: Kelmenova A. & J. Kelmer eds. Trends, Techniques and Problems in Theoretical Computer Science. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 281. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. 1987.
173. Linder S. Potential and actual production in Australian forest stands. In: Landsberg J. J. & W. Parsons eds. Research for Forest Management. Melbourne: CSIRO. 1986.
174. Liu J., Chen J.M., Cihlar J. and Park B. A Process-Based Boreal Ecosystem Productivity Simulator Using Remote Sensing Inputs. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1997(62): 158-175.
175. Liu, J., J.M. Chen, J. Cihlar, and W. Chen. Net primary productivity distribution in the BOREAS region from a process model using satellite and surface data. J. Geophys. Res., 1999(104(D22)): 27735-27754
176. Loveland T. R., and A. S. Belward. The IGBP-D1S global 1 km land cover data set, DISCover first results. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1997(18):3289-3295
177. Lowman, M.D. & N.M. Nadkarni. (Eds.). Forest canopies. San Diego: Academic Press. 1995.
178. Luo T.X., R. P. Neilson, H.Q. Tian, C. J. Vorosmarty, H.Z. Zhu, and S.R. Liu. A model for seasonality and distribution of leaf area index of forests and its application to China. Journal of Vegetation Science, 2002(13): 817-830.
179. Luo T.X., W.H. Li, and H.Z. Zhu. Estimated biomass and productivity of natural vegetation on the Tibetan plateau. Ecological Applications, 2002(12(4)): 980-997.
180. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics: Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1975.
181. Mailly, D., and Kimmins, J.P. Growth of Pseudotsuga menziesii and Tsuga heterophylla seedlings along a light gradient: resource allocation and morphological acclimation. Can. J. Bot., 1997(75): 1424-1435.
182. Malcolm D.C., G.C. Clarke & W.L. Mason. Ecological aspects of transformation - establishment and early growth on conifer natural regeneration in a British perspective. Forest Ecology and Management, 2001(151): 25-35.
183. Man, R.Z., and Lieffers, V.J. Seasonal photosynthetic responses to light and temperature in white spruce seedlings planted under an aspen (Populus tremuloides) canopy and in open conditions. Tree Physiol, 1997(17): 437-444.
184. Man, R.Z., and Lieffers, V.J. Photosynthesis of Picea glauca and Pinus banksiana saplings in relation to season and temperature. Can. J. Bot., 1998(75): 1766-1771.
185. Mandelbrot B. B. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. New York: Freeman. 1982.
186. Martin, J.G., B.D. Kloeppel, T.L. Schaefer, D.L. Kimbler, and S.G. McNulty. Aboveground biomass and nitrogen allocation of ten deciduous southern Appalachian tree species. Can. J. For. Res., 1998(28): 1648-1659.
187. McCree, K.J. Photosynthetically active radiation. In: O.L. Lange, P,S. Nobel, C.B. Osmond and H. Ziegler (Editors), Physiological Plant Ecology, Vol. 1. Springer, Berlin. 1981.
188. McMurtrie, R., Wolf, L. Above- and below-ground growth of forest stands: a carbon budget model. Ann. Bot., 1983(62): 389-396.
189. Melillo J.M., A.D. McGuire, D.W. Kicklighter, B. Moore III, C.J. Vorosmarty and A.L. Scholss. Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature, 1993(363): 234-240
190. Messier, C. Managing light and understory vegetation in boreal and temperate broadleaf-conifer forests. In Silviculture of temperate and boreal broadleaf-conifer mixtures. Edited by P.G. Comeau and K.D. Thomas. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C. 1996. pp. 59-81.
191. Messier, C, and Bellefleur, P. Light quantity and quality on the forest floor of pioneer and climax stages in a birch - beech -sugar maples stand. Can. J. For. Res., 1988(18): 615-622.
192. Messier, C, and Puttonen, P. Spatial and temporal variation in the light environment of developing Scots pine stands: the basis for a quick and efficient method of characterizing light. Can. J. For. Res., 1995(25): 343-354.
193. Messier, C, Honer, T.W., and Kimmins, J.P. Photosynthetic photon flux density, red:far-red ratio, and minimum light requirement for survival of Gaultheria shallon in western red cedar - western hemlock stands in coastal British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res., 1989(19): 1470-1477.
194. Messier, C, Parent, S., and Bergeron, Y. Characterization of understory light environment in closed mixed boreal forests: effects of overstory and understory vegetation. J. Veg. Sci., 1998(9): 511-520.
195. Miller E.E. & J.M. Norman. 1971. Sunfleck theory for plant canopies. II. Penumbra effect: Intensity distributions along sunfleck segments. Agronomy Journal, 1971(63): 738-743.
196. Mohammed, G. H., T. L. Noland, D. Irving, P. H. Sampson, P. J. Zarco-Tejada, and J. R. Miller. Natural and stress-induced effects on leaf spectral reflectance in Ontario species. Forest research report, no. 156. ISSN 0381-3924. 2000.
197. Monsi M. & Saeki T. Uber den lichtfaktor in den Pflanzengesellschaften und seine Bedeutung fur die Stoffproduktion. Japanese Journal of Botany, 1953(14):22-52.
198. Monteith J.L. Does light limit crop production? In: Johnson C.B. eds. Physiological Processes Limiting Plant Productivity. London: Butterworths. 1981.
199. Monteith, J.L. Climate and efficiency of crop production in Britain. Phil. T. Soc, 1977(107): 749-774.
200. Monteith, J.L. Solar radiation and productivity in tropical ecosystems. J. Appl. Ecol., 1972(9):747-766.
201. Mou, P. & T. J. Fahey. REGROW: a computer model simulating the early successional process of a disturbed northern hardwood ecosystem. Journal of Applied Ecology, 1993(30): 676-688.
202. Myneni R. B., G. Asrar & E. T. Kanemasu. Light scattering in plant canopies: the method of successive orders of scattering approximations (SOSA). Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 1987(39): 1-12.
203. Myneni R. B., G. Asrar, and S. A. W. Gerstl. Radiative transfer in three dimensional leaf canopies. Transp. Theory Stat. Phys., 1990(19):205-250.
204. Myneni, R.B., J. Ross, G Asrar. A review on the theory of photon transport in leaf canopies. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 1989(45): 1-153.
205. Myneni, R.B., Asrar, G, Kanemasu, ET. The theory of photon transport in leaf canopies. In: Theory and Application of Optical Remote Sensing. Ed. Asrar. John Wiley. 1989.
206. Myneni, R.B., Hoffman, S., Knyazikhin, Y., Privette, J.L., Glassy, J., Tian, Y., Wang, Y, Song, Y, Smith, G.R., Lotsch, A., Friedl, M., Morisette, J.T., Votava, P., Nemani, R.R., Running, S.W. Global products of vegetation leaf area and fraction absorbed PAR from year one of MODIS data. Remote Sens. Environ., 2002(83):214-231.
207. Myneni, R.B., Nemani, R.R., Running, S.W. Estimation of global leaf area index and absorbed PAR using radiative transfer models. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 1997(35): 1380—1393
208. Nakabayashi, H., Ishikawa, N., Kodama, Y. Radiative characteristics in a Japanese forested drainage basin during snowmelt. Hydrol. Process., 1999(13): 157—167
209. Neilson, R.P. A model for predicting continental-scale vegetation distribution and water balance. Ecol. Appl, 1995(5): 362-385.
210. Nemani, R., Running, S.W. Implementation of a hierarchical global vegetation classification in ecosystem function models. J. Veg. Sci., 1996(7):337-346.
211. Ni J. Net primary productivity in forests of China: scaling-up of national inventory data and comparison with model predictions. Forest Ecology and Management, 2003(176): 485-495
212. Nilson T. A theoretical analysis of the frequency of gaps in plant stands. Agricultural Meteorology, 1971(8): 25-38.
213. Norman J. M. & P. G. Jarvis. Photosynthesis in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.). V: Radiation penetration theory and a test case. Journal of Applied Ecology, 1975(12): 839-878.
214. Norman J. M. Radiative transfer in vegetation. In: deVries D. A. & N. H. Afgan eds. Heat and Mass Transfer in the Biosphere. Washington, D.C.: Scripta. 1975.
215. Norman J.M., E.E. Miller & C.B. Tanner. Light intensity and sunfleck-size distributions in plant canopies. Agronomy Journal, 1971(63): 743-748.
216. Norman, J. M. and G.S. Campbell. Canopy structure. In: Pearcy R. W, J. Ehleringer, H. A. Mooney & P. W. Rundel eds. Plant Physiological Ecology: Field methods and instrumentation. London and New York: Chapman and Hall. 1989: 301-325.
217. Norman, J.M., and J.M. Welles. Radiative transfer in an array of canopies. Agron. J., 1983(75): 481-488.
218. North, Peter R. J. Three-Dimensional Forest Light Interaction Model Using a Monte Carlo Method, IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 1996(34): 946-956.
219. Nygren M., S. Kellomaki. Effect of shading on leaf structure and photosynthesis in young birches, Betula pendula Roth and Betula pubescens Ehrh. Forest Ecology and Management, 1983(7): 119-132
220. Nyland, R.D. Silviculture: concepts and applications. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. 1996.
221. Oker-Blom P. & S. Kellomaki. Theoretical computations of the role of crown shape in the absorption of light by forest trees. Mathematical Biosciences, 1982(59): 291-311.
222. Oker-Blom P. & S. Kellomaki. Effect of grouping of foliage on the within-stand and within-crown light regime: comparison of random and grouping canopy models. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 1983(28): 143-155.
223. Oker-Blom, P. Photosynthetic radiation regime and canopy structure in modeled forest stands. Acta For. Fenn., 1986(197): 1-44.
224. Oker-Blom, P., J. Lappi, H. Smolander. Radiation regime and photosynthesis of coniferous stands. In: Myneni R.B., J. Ross. Eds. , Photon-Vegetation Interactions. Applications in Optical Remote Sensing and Plant Ecology. Springer, Berlin, 1991. pp. 469-499.
225. Oker-Blom, P., Kaufmann, M.R., and Ryan, M.G. Performance of canopy light interception model for conifer shoots, trees and stands. Tree Physiol, 1991(9): 227-243.
226. Oliver C.D. & B.C. Larson. Forest stand dynamics. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1990.
227. Panferov, O., Knyazikhin, Y., Myneni, R. B., Szarzynski, J. Engwald, Schnitzler, K. G., & Gravenhorst, G. The role of canopy structure in the spectral variation of transmission and absorption of solar radiation in vegetation canopies. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 2001(39): 241-253.
228. Parker G. G. in Forest Canopies (eds. Lowman, M. D. and Nadkarni, N. M.) pp. 73-106. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 1995.
229. Parker, G.G. Canopy structure and light environment in an old-growth Douglas-fir/western hemlock forest. Northwest Science., 1997(71):261-270.
230. Parton, W.J., Haxeltine, A., Thornton, P., Hartman, M. Ecosystem sensitivity to land-surface models and leaf area index. Global Planetary Change 1996(13): 89-98.
231. Peddle, D.R., F.G. Hall & E. LeDrew. Spectral mixture analysis and geometric-optical reflectance modeling of boreal forest biophysical structure: Superior National Forest, Minnesota. In: Proceedings of the 17th Canadian Symposium on Remote Sensing, Saskatoon, SK, Canada. Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute, 1995(2): 617-622.
232. Peterson, D.L. and S.W. Running. Applications in forest science and management. In G. Asrar. ed. Theory and Application of Optical Remote Sensing. New York: Wiley, 1989: 429-473
233. Pierce L.L. & S.W. Running. Rapid estimation of coniferous forest leaf area index using portable integrating radiometer. Ecology, 1988(69): 1762-1767.
234. Prentice, I.C., W. Cramer, S.P. Harrison, R. Leemans, R.A. Monserud, and A.M. Solomon. A global biome model based on plant physiology and dominance, soil properties and climate. J. Biogeogr., 1992(19): 117-134.
235. Price, J.C. and W.C. Bausch. Leaf area index estimation from visible and near-infrared reflectance data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1995(52):55-75.
236. Prokop, R.J. and Reeves, A.P. A survey of moment-based techniques for unoccluded object representation and recognition, Graphical Models and Image Processing, 1992(54): 438-460.
237. Prusinkiewicz P., and A. Lindenmayer. The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants. New York: Springer-Verlag. 1990.
238. Prusinkiewicz P., L. Muendermann, R. Karwowski, and B. Lane. The use of positional information in the modeling of plants. ACM SIGGRAPH, 2001: 289-300
239. Pukkala, T, Kuuluvainen, T, and Stenberg, P. Below-canopy distribution of photosynthetically active radiation and its relation to seedling growth in a boreal Pinus sylvestris stand. Scand. J. For. Res., 1993(8): 313-325.
240. Qi, L., Cabot, F., Moran, M.S., Dedieu, G. Biophysical parameter estimations using multidirectional spectral measurements. Remote Sens. Environ. 1995(54): 71-83.
241. Qian B.L. A study of the stand structure of primitive faxon fir forest. 93-96. In: Yang Yupo and Zhang Jiangling Edited. Protection and management of mountain forests. Science Press, Beijing. 1992
242. Reed D.D. & H.E. Burkhart. Spatial autocorrelation of individual tree characteristics in loblolly pine stands. Forest Science, 1985(31): 575-587.
243. Reifsnyder W.E., G.M. Fumival & J.L. Horowitz. Spatial and temporal distribution of solar radiation beneath forest canopies. Agricultural Meteorology, 1971(9): 21-37.
244. Ricard, J.-P., and Messier, C. Abundance, growth and allometry of red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) along a natural light gradient in a northern hardwood forest. For. Ecol. Manage., 1996(81): 153-160.
245. Rich P.M. A manual for analysis of hemispherical canopy photography. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, N.M. Tech. Rep. LA-11733-M. 1989.
246. Rich, P. Characterizing plant canopies with hemispherical photographs. Remote Sensing Rev., 1990(5):13-29.
247. Rich, P.M., Clark, D.B., Clark, D.A., and Oberbauer, S.F. Long-term study of solar radiation regimes in a tropical wet forest using quantum sensors and hemispherical photography. Agric. For. Meteorol., 1993(65): 107-127.
248. Ripley B.C. Modelling spatial patterns (with discussion). Journal of the Royal Statistical Society (series B), 1977(39): 172-212.
249. Ritchie, G.A. Evidence for red:far red signaling and photomorphogenic growth response in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) seedlings. Tree Physiol., 1997(17): 161-168.
250. Rosema A., W. Verhoef, H. Noorbergen & J. Borgesius. A new forest light interaction model in support of forest monitoring. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1992(42): 23-41.
251. Ross J. & A. L. Marshak. A Monte Carlo procedure for calculating the scattering of solar radiation by plant canopies. Soviet Journal of Remote Sensing (English translation), 1985(4): 783-801.
252. Ross J. & A. L. Marshak. Calculation of the canopy bidirectional reflectance using the Monte Carlo method. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1988(24): 213-225.
253. Ross, J. Radiative transfer in plant communities. Pp. 13-55. In Monteith, J.L. (ed.). Vegetation and the atmosphere. Academic Press, London, New York and San Francisco. 1975.
254. Ross, J. The Radiation Regime and Architecture of Plant Stands. Dr. Junk, The Hague. 1981.
255. Rothwell, C.A., Zisserman, A., Marinos, C.I., Forsyth, D., & Mundy, J.L. Relative motion and pose from arbitrary plane curves. Image and Vision Computing, 1992(10(4)): 251-262.
256. Rowe, J.S. Uses of undergrowth plants in forestry. Ecology, 1955(37): 461-473.
257. Rudnicki M. Relations of climate and radial increment of western hemlock in an old-growth Douglas-fir forest in southernWashington. Masters' Thesis, Houghton, MI: Michigan Technological University. 1997.
258. Ruimy, A., B. Saugier, et al. Methodology for the estimation of terrestrial net primary production from remotely sensed data. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1994(99):5263-5283
259. Runkle, J.R. Gap regeneration in some old-growth forests in the eastern United States. Ecology, 1981(62): 1041-1051.
260. Runkle, J.R., and Yetter, T.C. Treefalls revisited: gap dynamics in the southern Appalachians. Ecology, 1987(68): 417-424.
261. Running, S.W., Coughlan, J.C. A general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications: I. Hydrologic balance, canopy gas exchange and primary production process. Ecol. Model., 1988(42): 125-154.
262. Running S.W., R.R. Nemani, D.L. Peterson, L.E. Band, D.F. Potts, L.L. Pierce, and M.A. Spanner. Mapping regional forest evapotranspiration and photosynthesis by coupling satellite data with ecosystem simulation. Ecology, 1989(70): 1090-1101.
263. Running, S.W. and R.E. Hunt. Generalization of a forest ecosystem process model for other biomes, BIOME-BGC, and an application for global-scale models. In Scaling Physiologic Processes: Leaf to Globe. Eds. J.R. Ehleringer and C.B. Field. San Diego: Academic Press, 1993:141-158.
264. Russell G, P.G. Jarvis & J. L. Monteith. Absorption of radiation by canopies and stand growth. In: Russell G, B. Marshall & P. G. Jarvis eds. Plant Canopies: Their Growth,Form and Function. New York: Cambridge University Press, Society for Experimental Biology, Series 31. 1989.
265. Ryel R.J., W. Beyschlag & M.M. Caldwell. Foliage orientation and carbon gain in two tussock grasses as assessed with a new whole-plant gas-exchange model. Functional Ecology, 1993(7): 115-124.
266. Sampson, D.A., and Smith, F.W. Influence of canopy architecture on light penetration in lodgepole pine forests. Agric. For. Meteorol., 1993(64): 63-79.
267. Schroeder, P., S. Brown, J. Mo, R. Birdsey, and C. Cieszewski. Biomass estimation for temperate broadleaf forests of the United States using inventory data. For. Sci., 1997(43): 424-434.
268. Sellers P. J. Canopy reflectance, photosynthesis and transpiration. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1985(6): 1335-1372.
269. Sellers P. J. Canopy reflectance, photosynthesis and transpiration. II. The role of biophysics in the linearity of their interdependence. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1987(21): 143-183.
270. Sellers P.J., F.G. Hall, G. Asrar, D.E. Strebel & R.E. Murphy. The first ISLSCP field experiment (FIFE). Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 1988(69): 22-27.
271. Sellers, P.J., Randall, D.A., Collatz, G.J., Berry, J.A., Field, C.B., Dazlich, D.A., Zhang, C, Collelo, G.D., Bounoua, L. A revised land surface parametrization (SIB2) for atmospheric GCMs: Part I. Model formulation. J. Climate 1996(9): 676-705.
272. Sellers, P.J., Los, S.O., Tucker, C.J., Justice, CO., Dazlich, D.A., Collatz, G.J., Randall, D.A. A revised land surface parameterization (SiB2) for atmospheric GCMs. Part II: The generation of global fields of terrestrial biophysical parameters from satellite data. J. Clim., 1996(9):709-737.
273. Sellers, P.J. BOREAS in 1997: Experiment overview, scientific results and future directions. Journal of Geophysical Research, 1997(102): 28731-28770.
274. Semple J. & G. Kneebone. Algebraic Projective Geometry. Oxford University Press, 1979.
275. Shabanov, N.V., Y. Wang, W. Buermann, J. Dong, S. Hoffman, G.R. Smith, Y. Tian, Y. Knyazikhin, and R.B. Myneni, Effect of foliage spatial heterogeneity in the MODIS LAI and FPAR algorithm over broadleaf forests.Remote Sens. Environ., 2003(85):410-423.
276. Shultis, J. K. and R. B. Myneni. Radiative transfer in vegetation canopies with an isotropic scattering. J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 1988(39): 15-129.
277. Silver, D., Zabusky, N. J., Fernandez, V., Gao, M. and Samtaney, R. Ellipsoidal Quantification of Evolving Phenomena. In Visualization of Physical Phenomena. Proceedings of Computer Graphics International '91 Symposium. Edited by N. M. Patrikalakis, Springer-Verlag. New York, USA. 1991. pp. 573-588.
278. Sims, D.A., and Pearcy, R.W. Sunfleck frequency and duration affects growth rate of the understory plant, Alocasia macrorrhiza. Funct. Ecol., 1993(7): 683-689.
279. Sinclair, T.R., and Knoerr, K.R. Distribution of photosynthetically active radiation in the canopy of a loblolly pine plantation. J.Appl. Ecol., 1982(19): 183-191.
280. Smith N.J. Estimating leaf area index and light extinction coefficients in stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Can. J. For. Res., 1993(23): 317-321.
281. Smith, D.M., Larson, B.C., Kelty, M.J., and Ashton, P.M.S. The practice of silviculture: applied forest ecology. Wiley, New York. 1997.
282. Smith, H. Light quality, photoreception, and plant strategy. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol., 1982(33): 481-518.
283. Smith, W.K., Knapp, A.K., and Reiners, W.A. Penumbral effects on sunlight penetration in plant communities. Ecology, 1989(70): 1603-1609.
284. Smolander S. and P. Stenberg. Simple parameterizations of the radiation budget of uniform broadleaved and coniferous canopies. Remote Sensing of Environment 2005(94): 355-363
285. Stathers R.J., Black T.A., Novak M.D. Modelling soil temperature in forest clearcuts using climate station data. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 1985(36):153-164.
286. Stenberg, P.S., S. Linder, H. Smolander & J. Flower-Ellis. Performance of the LAI-2000 plant canopy analyzer in estimating leaf area index of some Scots Pine stands. Tree Physiology, 1994a(14): 981-995.
287. Stenberg, P., T. Kuuluvainen, S. Kellomaki, J.C. Grace, E.J. Jokela & H.L. Gholz. Crown structure, light interception and productivity of pine trees and stands. Ecological Bulletins, 1994b(43): 20-34.
288. Sun B.(孙冰), G.T. Yang(杨国亭), H. Li(李弘)& R.P. Ma(马瑞萍). Study on the age structure of Betula platyphylla population and the succession of its community. Journal of Northeast Forestry University(东北林业大学学报), 1994a(22(3)): 43-48. (in Chinese)
289. Sun B. (孙冰), G.T. Yang (杨国亭), F.C. Chi(迟福昌)& F.R. Guan(关发瑞). Study on the spatial pattern of Betula platyphylla population. Bulletin of Botanical Reserarch( 植物研究), 1994b(14(2)): 201-207. (in Chinese)
290. Szwagrzyk J. Small-scale spatial patterns of trees in a mixed Pinus sylvestris-Fagus sylvatica forest. Forest Ecology and Management, 1990(51): 301-315.
291. Tang, Y. Light. In: Plant Ecophysiology. Ed MNV Prasad. John Wiley. New York. Pp 3-40.
292. Teague, M. R. Image Analysis via the General Theory of Moments. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 1980(70): 920-930.
293. ter Steege H. WINPHOT 5.0: a programme to analyze vegetation indices, light and light quality from hemispherical photographs. Tropenbos Guyana Programme, Tropenbos, Guyana. Rep. 95-2. 1996.
294. Ter-Mikaelian, M.T., Wagner, R.G., Shropshire, C, Bell, F.W., and Swanton, C.J. Using a mechanistic model to evaluate sampling designs for light transmission through forest plant canopies. Can. J. For. Res., 1997(27): 117-126.
295. The Editorial Board of "Forests in Sichuan"( 《四川森林》编辑委员会). Forests in Sichuan. Beijing: China Forestry Publishing House(中国林业出版社). 1992. (in Chinese)
296. Thormann, J.J. Erfahrungen mit einfachen Methoden zur Strahlungserfassung im Wald: z.B. das Horizontoskop und der LAI-2000 Plant Canopy Analyser. [In German with English abstract.]Tagungsbericht der Jahrestagung 1996, Verband Deutscher Forschungsanstalten, Sektion Waldbau. Freiburg i. Brg., Germany. 1997.
297. Tieszen L.L., B.C.Reed, N.B.Bliss, B.K.Wylie, D.D. DeJong. NDVI, C-3 and C-4 production, and distributions in great plains grassland land cover classes. Ecoligical Applications, 1997(7(1)):59-78.
298. Turnbull, M.H., and Yates, D J. Seasonal variation in the red/far-red ratio and photon flux density in an Australian subtropical rainforest. Agric. For. Meteorol., 1993(64): 111-127.
299. Uemura, S. Patterns of leaf phenology in forest understory. Can. J. Bot., 1994(72): 409-414.
300. Valladares F & F. I. Pugnaire. Tradeoffs between irradiance capture and avoidance in semi-arid environments assessed with a crown architecture model. Annals of Botany, 1999(83): 459-469.
301. Valverde, T., and Silvertown, J. Canopy closure rate and forest structure. Ecology, 1997(78): 1555-1562.
302. Van Pelt R. Understory tree response to canopy gaps in old growth Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific Northwest. Ph.D. Diss., Seattle: Univ. of Washington. 232. 1995.
303. Verhoef W. Light scattering by leaf layers with application to canopy reflectance modeling: The SAIL model. Remote Sensing of Environment, 1984(16): 125-141.
304. Vezina P.E. & G. Pech. Solar radiation beneath conifer canopies in relation to crown closure. For. Sci., 1964(10):443-451.
305. Wang, Y., W. Buermann, P. Stenberg, H. Smolander, T. Hame, Y. Tian, J. Hu, Y. Knyazikhin, and R.B. Myneni, A new parameterization of canopy spectral response to incident solar radiation: case study with hyperspectral data from pine dominant forest. Remote Sens. Environ., 2003(85):304-315.
306. Wang Y.P. Crown structure, radiation absorption, photosynthesis and transpiration. Ph.D. dissertation University of Edinburgh. 1988.
307. Wang, Y.P., and Jarvis, P.G. Influence of crown structural properties and transpiration in Sitka spruce: application of a model (MAESTRO). Tree Physiol., 1990(7): 297-316.
308. Wang, Y.P., P.G. Jarvis, C.M.A. Taylor. PAR absorption and its relation to above-ground dry matter production of sitka spruce. J. Appl. Ecol., 1991(28): 547-560.
309. Waring R.H. & S.W. Running. Forest ecosystem: analysis at multiple scales. San Diego: Academic Press. 370. 1998.
310. Waring, R.H., and Schlesinger, W.H. Forest ecosystems: concepts and management. Academic Press, New York. 1985.
311. Warren-Wilson J. Inclined point quadrats. New Phytol., 1960(59): 1-8.
312. Wayne, P.M., and Bazzaz, F.A. Birch seedling responses to daily time courses of light experimental forest gaps and shadehouses. Ecology, 1993(74): 1500-1515.
313. Welles J.M. & S. Cohen. Canopy structure measurement by gap fraction analysis using commercial instrumentation. Journal of Experimental Botany, 1996(47): 1135-1342.
314. Welles J.M. Some indirect methods of estimating canopy structure. Remote Sensing Reviews, 1990(5): 31-43.
315. Wernecke P., G. Buck-Sorlin and W. Diepenbrock. Combing process with architectural models: the simulation tool VICA. SAMS, 2000(39): 235-277.
316. Werner C, R.J. Ryel, O. Correia & W. Beyschlag. Structural and functional variability within the canopy and its relevance for carbon gain and stress avoidance. Acta Oecologica, 2001(22): 129-138.
317. White M.A., G.P. Asner, R.R. Nemani, J.L. Privette & S.W. Running. Monitoring fractional cover and leaf area index in arid ecosystems: digital camera, radiation transmittance, and laser altimetry results. Remote Sensing of Environment, 2000(74): 45-57.
318. Whitted T. An improved illumination model for shaded display. Communications of the ACM, 1980(23(6)):343-349.
319. Williams, M., Rastetter, E.B., Fernandes, D.N., Goulden, M.L., Wofsy, S.C., Shaver, G.R., Melillo, J.M., Munger, J.W., Fan, S.M., Nadelhoffer, K.J. Modelling the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum in a Quercus-Acer stand at Harvard Forest: the regulation of stomatal conductance by light, nitrogen and soil/plant hydraulic properties. Plant Cell Environ. 1996(19): 911-927.
320. Woodward F.I. Climate and plant distribution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1987.
321. Wu N.(吴宁). Spatial pattern and relationship of dominant species in a Picea brachytyla community on Gongga Mountain. Acta Phytoecologica Sinica(植物生态学报), 1995(19(3)): 270-279. (in Chinese)
322. Wunsche, J.N., Lakso, A.N., and Robinson, T.L. Comparison of four methods for estimating total light interception by apple trees of varying forms. HortScience, 1995(30): 272-276.
323. Wykoff, W.R. Measuring and modeling surface area of ponderosa pine needles. Can. J. For. Res., 2002(32): 1~8.
324. Ye D.Z. Some characteristics of the summer circulation over the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibet) Plateau and its neighborhood. Bull. Amer. Meteorol.Soc., 1981 (62): 14~19.
325. Zavitkovski, J. Ground vegetation biomass production, and efficiency of energy utilization in some northern Wisconsin forest ecosystems. Ecology, 1976(57): 694~706.
326. Zheng Q. and K. N. Liou. Dynamic and thermodynamic inferences of the Tibetan Plateau on the atmosphere in a general circulation model. J. Atmos. Sci., 1986(43): 1340~1354, 1986
327.陈利军,刘高焕,冯险峰.运用遥感估算中国陆地植被净第一性生产力.植物学报,2001(43(1)):1191~1198
328.陈起忠,李承彪,于少昌.四川省主要森林建群种生长规律的初步研究.林业科学,1984(20(3)):242~251.
329.陈起忠,李承彪.四川森林生长动态的研究.见:要承彪防编,四川森林生态研究.成都:四川科学技术出版社,427~447.1990.
330.方精云,刘国华,徐嵩龄.我国森林植被的生物量和净生产量.生态学报,1996(16(5)):497~508
331.方精云.中国森林生产力及其对全球气候变化的影响.植物生态学报,2000(24(5)):513~517.
332.贺家仁.青藏高原东南缘——甘孜州森林植物资源.资源节约和综合利用 1997(3):52~54
333.江洪,朱家骏.云杉天然林分生物量和生产力的研究.四川林业科技,1986(7(2)):6~13
334.江洪.紫果云杉天然中龄林分生物最和生产力的研究.植物生态学与地植物学学报,1986(10(2)):146~152
335.江洪.川西北甘南云冷杉林的数景分类.植物生态学报,1994(18(4)):297~305
336.江洪著.云杉种群生态学.北京:中国林业出版社,1992.120~142
337.姜恕.四川省西部山地的草甸和森林.植物学报,1960(9(2)):125~136.
338.蒋有绪.川西亚高山冷杉林枯枝落叶层的群落学作用,植物生态学与地植物学丛刊,1981(5(2)):89~98
339.柯金虎,朴世龙。方精云.长江流域植被净第一性生产力及其时空格局研究.植物生态学报,2003(27):764~770.
340.李承彪,刘兴良,邹伯才.四川暗针叶林的特点及其经营的研究.In:李承彪主编,“四川森林生态研究”.四川科学技术出版社,成都.pP:3~48.1990.
341.李文华,罗天祥.中国云冷杉林生物生产力格局及其数学模型.生态学报,1997(17(5)):511~518.
342.李文华,周兴民主编.青藏高原生态系统及优化利用模式.广东科技出版社.广州.183~268.1998.
343.刘庆主编.亚高山针叶林生态学研究.四川大学出版社.2002.
344.刘劭成.西南地区云杉冷杉有数形率的研究.林业科学,1962(1):28~34.
345.刘新,吴国雄,李伟平,刘屹岷.夏季青藏高原加热和大尺度流场的热力适应.自然科学进展,2001(11(1)):33~39.
346.刘增力,方精云,扑世龙.中国冷杉、动杉和落叶松属植物的地理分布.地埋学报,2002(57(5)):577~586.
347.刘照光.贡嘎山植被.四川科学技术出版社.成都.1985.
348.罗辑,杨忠,杨清伟.贡嘎山森林生物量和生产力的研究.植物生态学报,2000(24(2)):191~196.
349.罗天祥,李文华,罗辑,王启基.青藏高原主要植被类型生物生产量的比较研究.生态学报,1999(19(6)):823~831.
350.马明东,刘跃建.云杉(Picea asperata Mast)天然中幼林地位指数表的编制与应用.四川林业科技,1986(7(3)):10~16.
351.彭少麟,郭志华,王伯荪.利用GIS和RS估算广东植被光利用率.生态学报,2000(20(6)):903~909.
352.朴世龙,方精云,郭庆华.1982~1999年我国植被净第一性生产力及其时空变化.北京大学学报(自然科学版),2001(37(4)):563~569.
353.朴世龙,方精云.最近18年来中国植被覆盖的动态变化.第四纪研究,2001(21(4)):294~302
354.朴世龙,方精云.1982~1999年青藏高原植被净第一性生产力及其时空变化.自然资源学报,2002(17(3)):373~380.
355.沈隽,刘一星,田站礼,冈野健,和田昌久.云杉属木材密度与声学特征参数之间关系的研究.华中农业大学学报,2001(20(2)):181~184.
356.四川植被协作组.四川植被.四川人民出版社.1980
357.王乾,王开运.川西亚高山针叶林生产力和光能利用效率研究现状.世界科技研究与发展,2003(25(5)):25~32.
358.鄢武先,宿以明,刘兴良,梁罕超.云杉人工林生物量和生产力的研究.四川林业科技,1991(12(4)):17~22.
359.杨玉坡,李承彪,徐润青,钟荣松.四川大小金川冷、云杉林木结实规律性的初步研究.林业科学,1960:193~199.
360.杨玉坡.论川西高山林区森林的防护作用.In:李承彪主编,“四川森林生态研究”.四川科学技术出版社,成都.1990:49~54.
361.叶笃正,高由禧.青藏高原气象学.北京:科学出版社,1979:1~279.
362.张万儒,黄雨霖,刘醒华,吴静如.四川西部米亚罗林区冷杉林下森林土壤动态的研究.林业科学,1979(3):178~193.
363.钟祥浩,吴宁,罗辑,印开蒲,唐亚,潘翥峰.贡嘎山森林生态系统研究.成都科技大学出版社.1997.
364.周广胜,张新时.自然植被净第一性生产力模型初探.植物生态学报,1995(19):193~200