异质性对知识工作团队效率的影响研究
|
摘要
在知识经济时代,知识工作团队正日益成为组织中最重要的工作方式之一。团队制的大量应用,增加了多元化的劳动力一起共事的概率,引发了团队异质性问题。成员异质性对团队效率具有“双刃剑”的作用,异质性的存在可以促使团队提出高质量的解决方案,但同时会降低团队凝聚力,增加冲突,从而降低团队绩效。因此,如何有效管理团队成员的异质性,趋利避害,在理论和现实上都具有重要意义。
论文在探索性实验和相关理论研究及分析的基础上,考察了异质性和知识工作团队效率之间的复杂影响关系;分析了团队冲突在异质性和知识工作团队效率之间的中介作用;另外,研究了例行性任务在异质性和团队冲突之间所起的调节作用。
为了全面探索异质性对知识工作团队效率的影响作用,文章首先根据理论分析和研究目的将异质性和团队冲突分成了两个维度,并且构建出了异质性-团队冲突-知识工作团队效率关系模型,并提出了本研究需要证实的九个假设。其次利用问卷调查的实证分析方法获得了样本数据,借助SPSS13.0,利用相关分析和回归分析法对样本数据进行处理。
研究结果表明,由于不同的异质性所具有的特性不同,所以,它们对知识工作团队效率的影响途径也不尽相同。高工作相关的异质性通过任务冲突来影响知识工作团队的效率,而低工作相关的异质性则通过关系冲突来影响知识工作团队的效率。任务冲突和关系冲突对知识工作团队效率的影响作用相反,任务冲突和知识工作团队效率正相关,而关系冲突则和知识工作团队效率负相关。研究更进一步表明,任务冲突在高工作相关的异质性和知识工作团队效率之间起部分中介作用,类似的是,关系冲突在低工作相关的异质性和知识工作团队效率之间也起部分中介作用。另外,例行性任务在高工作相关的异质性和任务冲突之间起调节作用。
In the times of knowledge economy, knowledge work team is increasingly becoming one of the foremost work approaches in organizations. Team requires more employees of different demographic attributes to work together, which makes diversity be in the spotlight. Diversity is a double-edged sword for team efficiency. Diversity can enhance team efficiency by inspiring members to give high quality solutions, but at the same time which can decrease cohesion and increase conflict, finally decrease team efficiency. So, it’s significant for both theory and practice to regulate team diversity availably.
Based on an exploratory experiment and interrelated theory research, the dissertation investigates the complicated relationships between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency; mediating effect of conflict has been analyzed between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency; in addition, moderating effect of routineness task has also been tested between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency.
Team diversity and conflict has been divided into two dimensions in order to explore the effect relationship between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency clearly. The relation model of diversity-team conflict-knowledge work efficiency has been built. Nine hypothesizes has been set up in the dissertation. An empirical study has been carried out to gather survey data from enterprises. Survey data has been processed by correlation analysis and regression analysis with the aid of software SPSS13.0.
The research results show different diversity has different avenue to affect knowledge work team efficiency. High job-related diversity affects knowledge work team efficiency via task conflict, but low job-related diversity affects knowledge work team efficiency via relationship conflict. Task conflict has a positive effect on knowledge work team efficiency. In the other round, relationship conflict has a negative effect on knowledge work team efficiency. Further researches show task conflict has an incomplete mediating effect between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency. Relationship conflict also has an incomplete mediating effect between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency. As a moderator, routineness task has a moderating effect on the relationship between high job-related diversity and task conflict.
论文在探索性实验和相关理论研究及分析的基础上,考察了异质性和知识工作团队效率之间的复杂影响关系;分析了团队冲突在异质性和知识工作团队效率之间的中介作用;另外,研究了例行性任务在异质性和团队冲突之间所起的调节作用。
为了全面探索异质性对知识工作团队效率的影响作用,文章首先根据理论分析和研究目的将异质性和团队冲突分成了两个维度,并且构建出了异质性-团队冲突-知识工作团队效率关系模型,并提出了本研究需要证实的九个假设。其次利用问卷调查的实证分析方法获得了样本数据,借助SPSS13.0,利用相关分析和回归分析法对样本数据进行处理。
研究结果表明,由于不同的异质性所具有的特性不同,所以,它们对知识工作团队效率的影响途径也不尽相同。高工作相关的异质性通过任务冲突来影响知识工作团队的效率,而低工作相关的异质性则通过关系冲突来影响知识工作团队的效率。任务冲突和关系冲突对知识工作团队效率的影响作用相反,任务冲突和知识工作团队效率正相关,而关系冲突则和知识工作团队效率负相关。研究更进一步表明,任务冲突在高工作相关的异质性和知识工作团队效率之间起部分中介作用,类似的是,关系冲突在低工作相关的异质性和知识工作团队效率之间也起部分中介作用。另外,例行性任务在高工作相关的异质性和任务冲突之间起调节作用。
In the times of knowledge economy, knowledge work team is increasingly becoming one of the foremost work approaches in organizations. Team requires more employees of different demographic attributes to work together, which makes diversity be in the spotlight. Diversity is a double-edged sword for team efficiency. Diversity can enhance team efficiency by inspiring members to give high quality solutions, but at the same time which can decrease cohesion and increase conflict, finally decrease team efficiency. So, it’s significant for both theory and practice to regulate team diversity availably.
Based on an exploratory experiment and interrelated theory research, the dissertation investigates the complicated relationships between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency; mediating effect of conflict has been analyzed between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency; in addition, moderating effect of routineness task has also been tested between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency.
Team diversity and conflict has been divided into two dimensions in order to explore the effect relationship between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency clearly. The relation model of diversity-team conflict-knowledge work efficiency has been built. Nine hypothesizes has been set up in the dissertation. An empirical study has been carried out to gather survey data from enterprises. Survey data has been processed by correlation analysis and regression analysis with the aid of software SPSS13.0.
The research results show different diversity has different avenue to affect knowledge work team efficiency. High job-related diversity affects knowledge work team efficiency via task conflict, but low job-related diversity affects knowledge work team efficiency via relationship conflict. Task conflict has a positive effect on knowledge work team efficiency. In the other round, relationship conflict has a negative effect on knowledge work team efficiency. Further researches show task conflict has an incomplete mediating effect between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency. Relationship conflict also has an incomplete mediating effect between diversity and knowledge work team efficiency. As a moderator, routineness task has a moderating effect on the relationship between high job-related diversity and task conflict.
引文
[1] Drucker, P. Knowledge-worker productivity: the biggest challenge. California Management Review, 1999, Vol.41,No.2:79-85.
[2] Helton, R. The‘best work’method of knowledge worker assessment. Industrial Management, 1988, Vol. 30,No. 5:19-22.
[3] Davenport, T. Can you boost knowledge work’s impact on the bottom line, Management Update, 2002, Vol. 7,No. 11:3-5.
[4] Naisbitt, J. Megatrends. Warner Books: New York, NY, 1982.
[5] Thomas, B.E. and Baron, J.P. Evaluating knowledge worker productivity: literature review, Interim Report, 1994, No. FF-94/27: 1-27.
[6] Drucker, P. The coming of the new organization. Harvard Business Review, 1988, Vol. 66 No.1:45-53.
[7] Patricia Booth. Embracing the team concept. Canadian Business Review, 1994, Autumn, :10-13.
[8] Hoffman, L. R., & Maier, N. R. F. Quallity and acceptance of problem solutions by members of homogeneous and heterogeneous groups. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1961, 62, 401-407.
[9] Watson, W., Kumar, K., & Michaelson, L. Cultural diversity’s impact on interaction process and performance: comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 1993, 36:590-602.
[10] Cox, T., Lobel, S., & Mcleod, P. Effects of ethnic group cultural differences on cooperative and competitive behavior on a group task. Academy of Management Journal, 1991, 34:827-847.
[11] Jackson et al. Some differences make a difference: Individual dissimilarity and group heterogeneity as correlates of recruitment, promotions, and turnover. Journal of Applied of Psychology, 1991, 76: 675-689.
[12] Wagner, G. W., Pfeffer, J., & O’Reilly, C. A. Organizational demography and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1984, 29, 74-92.
[13] Lawrence, Barbara S. The black box of organizational demography. Organization Science, 1997, 8: 1-22.
[14] Drucker, P. The landmarks of tomorrow. Harper & Row: New York, NY, 1959.
[15] Drucker, P. Adventures of a bystander. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ, 1994.
[16] Nickols, F. What is in the world of work and working: some implications of the shift to knowledge work. Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management, 2000, pp. 1-7.
[17]杨文彩,易树平,张晓冬,杨沅钊.知识工作者工作效率影响因素及其作用机理分析.重庆大学学报(自然科学版)[J], 2006, Vol. 29. No.7:10-14.
[18]王文波,王文通.如何提高知识工作者的生产率.商场现代化. 2006,(8):32~33
[19]屠海群.从人性立场和知识资本理论透视知识工作者内涵及其二重性特征.经济师. 2000,(12):14~16
[20]艾娟.知识工作的界定及其生产率问题的实证研究.东华大学硕士学位论文,2004.
[21]郭朝晖,刘文波.知识工作的岗位特征及设计方法[J].科技管理研究, 2003, No. 1:79-81.
[22] Offerman, L. R. & M. K. Gowing. Organization of the future: change and challenges. American Psychologist, 1990, 45:95-108.
[23] Loden, M. & J. B. Rosener. Workforce America! Managing employee diversity as a vital resource. Homewood, IL: Business One Irwin, 1991.
[24] Dean, J. W. & A. Snell. Integrated manufacturing and job design. Academy of Management Journal, 1991, 34, 4:776-804.
[25] Jehn K. A., Northcraft G. B., Neale M. A. Why differences make a difference: a field study in diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative science quarterly, 1999, 44(4): 741-763.
[26] O’ReillyⅢ, C. A., Caldwell, D. F., & Barrnett W. P. Work group demography, social integration and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1989, 34(1): 21-37.
[27] Williams, K. Y., & O’ReillyⅢ, C. A. Demography and diversity in organizations: a review of 40 years of research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 1998, 20, 77-140.
[28] Early, P. C., & Mosakowski, E. Creating hybrid team cultures: an empirical test of transnational team functioning. Academy of Management Journal, 2000, 43, 26-49.
[29] Pelled, L. H. Demographic diversity, conflict, and work group outcomes: a intervening process theory. Organizational Science, 1996, Vol. 7, No. 6:615-631.
[30] King, N., & Anderson, N. Innovation and creativity in working groups, 1990.
[31] Shaw, M. E. Group dynamics: the psychology of small group behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
[32] Bales, R. F., & Strodtbeck, F. L. Phases in group problem-solving. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1951, 46, 485-495.
[33] Tuckman, B. W. Developmental sequences in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 1965, 63(6), 384-399.
[34] Watson, W. E., Johnson, L., Kumar, K., & Critelli, J. Process gain and process loss: comparing interpersonal processes and performance of culturally diverse and non-diverse teams across time. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 1998, 16, 53-65.
[35]刘树林,唐均.成员差异性对群体绩效影响的国外研究综述[J].科研管理, 2005, 26(5), Vol. 26, No. 5, 141-146.
[36] Charles A., O’ReillyⅢ, David F. Caldwell, William P. Barnett. Work group demography, social integration, and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1989, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 21-37.
[37] Teachman, Jay D. Analysis of population diversity. Sociological Methods and Research, 1980, 8: 3341-362.
[38] Lim B C. Do the leader and members make the team? The role of personality and cognitive ability. Dissertation Abstracts International, 2003, 64~11.
[39] Allison, Paul D. Measures of inequality. American Sociological Review, 1978, 43: 865-880.
[40] Blau, Peter M. Inequality and Heterogeneity. New York: Free Press, 1977.
[41] Pruitt, D. G. & Carnerale, P. J. Negotiation in social conflict. Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1993.
[42] De Dreu, C. K. W. & Van de Vliert, E. Using conflict in organizations. Sage, London, 1997.
[43] Pondy, L. Organizational conflict: concepts and models. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1967, Vol. 17:296-320.
[44] Hackman, J. R. & Morris, C. G. Group task, group interaction process, and group performance effectiveness: a review and proposed integration, in Berkowitz, L. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1975, Vol. 8, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 45-99.
[45] Wall, J. A. & Callister, R. P. Conflict and its management. Journal of Management, 1995, Vol. 21:58-515.
[46] Stone, R. A. Workplace homicide: a time for action. Business Horizon, 1995, Vol. 34, pp. 17-20.
[47] Jehn, K. A. A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1995, Vol. 40:256-282.
[48] Amoson, A. C. Distinguishing the effect of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 1996, Vol. 39:123-148.
[49] De Dreu, C. K. W. & Weingart, L. R. Task versus relationship conflict: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2003, Vol. 88:741-749.
[50] Cosier, R. A. & Schwenck, C. R. Agreement and thinking alike: intredients for poor decisions.Academy of Management Executive, 1990, Vol. 4:69-74.
[51] Van de Vliert, E. & De Dreu, C. Optimizing performance by conflict stimulation. The International Journal of Conflict Management, 1994, Vol. 5:211-222.
[52] De Dreu, C. K. W. & Van Vianen, A. E. M. Managing relationship conflict and effectiveness of organizational teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2001, Vol. 22, pp. 309-328.
[53] Jehn, K. A. A qualitative analysis of conflict types and dimensions in organizational groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1997, Vol. 42:530-557.
[54] West, M. A. & Anderson, N. R. Innovation in top management teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1996, Vol. 81:680-693.
[55] Turner, M. E. & Prakanis, A. Social identity maintenance prescriptions for preventing groupthink: reducing identity protection and enhancing intellectual conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 1994, Vol. 5:254-270.
[56] Friedman, R. A., Tidd, S. T., Currall, S. C. & Tsai, J. C. What goes around comes around: the impact of personal conflict styles on work conflict and stress. International Journal of Conflict Management, 2000, Vol. 11:32-55.
[57] Janssen, O., Van de Vliert, E. & Veenstra, Ch. How task and person conflict shape the role of positive interdependence in management teams. Journal of Management, 1999, Vol. 25:117-141.
[58] Baron, R. A. Countering the effects of destructive criticism: the relative efficacy of four interventions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1990, Vol. 75:235-245.
[59] Ross, R. S. Small groups in organizational settings, Engle-wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.
[60]杨小凯著,张定胜,张永生,李利明译.经济学:新兴古典与新古典框架[M].社会科学文献出版社, 2003.
[61] Paul A.Samuelson & William D.Nordhaus.经济学.(第十八版)[M].肖琛译.人民邮电出版社.北京.
[62] Borman, W. C., Motowidlo, S. J. Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. In N. Schmitt, W. C. Borman, Associates (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1993, 71-98.
[63] Guzzo, R. A. & Shea, G. P. Group performance and intergroup relations in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1992, 3: 269-313.
[64] Hackman, J. R. A normative model of work team effectiveness. CT: Yale University, 1983.
[65] Gladstein, D. L. Groups in context: A model of task group effectiveness. AdministrativeScience Quarterly, 1984, 29, 499-517.
[66] Barrack, M. R., Stewart, G. L., Neubert, M. J., & Mount, M. K. Relating Member Ability and Personality to Work-team Processes and Team Effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1998, 83(3), 377-391.
[67] Hackman, J. R. The design of work teams. In J. W. Lorsh(Ed.), Handbook of Organizational Behavior, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987, 315-342.
[68] McGrath, J. E. Social psychology: A brief introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1964.
[69]李明岩.高层管理团队共享战略认知与团队绩效的关系研究[D].浙江大学硕士学位论文, 2005.
[70] Mathieu, J. E., Heffner, T. S., Goodwin, G. F., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. The influence of shared mental models on team process and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, 85: 273-283.
[71] Ilgen, D. R., Hollenbeck, J. R., Johnson, M., & Jundt, D. Teams in organizations: From input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 2005, 56: 517-543.
[72] Cohen, S. G., & Bailey, D. E. What makes teams work: Group effectiveness research from the shop floor to the executive suite? Journal of Management, 1997, 23: 239-290.
[73] Salas, E., Dickinson, T. L., Converse, S. A., & Tannenbaum, S. I. Toward an understanding of team performance and training. In Swezey R. W. & Salas E. (Eds.), Teams: their training and performance, NJ: Ablex, 1992:3-29.
[74] Guzzo, R. A., & Dickson, M. W. Teams in organizations: recent research on performance and effectiveness. Annual Review of Psychology, 1996, 47: 307-338.
[75]常涛,廖建桥.国外团队有效性研究新进展述评.科学学与科学技术管理[J]. 2007, 9: 163-169.
[76] Hambrick, Donald C. & Phyllis A. Mason. Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 1984, 9: 193-206.
[77] Pruitt, Dean G. Social conflict. In The Handbook of Social Psychology. 4th ed. (Eds. D. T. Gillert, S. T. Fiske and G. Lindzey), 1998, vol. II pp. 470-503. New York: McGrawn.
[78]李兴琨.团队异质性、团队冲突对团队合作学习的影响[M].河南大学研究生硕士学位论文. 2008, pp. 8-9.
[79] Murray, A. I. Top management group heterogeneity and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 1989, 10, 125-141.
[80] Coser, L. The functions of social conflict. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1956.
[81] Haiman, F. S. Group leadership and democratic action. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1951.
[82] Wall, V. D. and L. L. Nolan. Perceptions of inequity, satisfaction, and conflict in task-oriented group. Human Relations, 1986, 39, 1033-1052.
[83] Ross, Raymond S. Small groups in organizational setting. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989.
[84] Amason, A., & Sapienza, H. The effects of top management team size and interaction norms on cognitive and affective conflict. Journal of Management, 1997, 23: 496-516.
[85] Jehn, K. The impact of intragroup conflict on effectiveness: a multimethod examination of the benefits and determents of conflict. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University Graduate School of Management, Evanston, IL, 1992.
[86] Cosier, R., & Rose, G. Cognitive conflict and goal conflict effects on task performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1977, 19: 378-391.
[87] Pinkly, R. Dimensions of the conflict frame: disputant interpretations of conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1990, 75: 117-128.
[88] Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., and Claudia B. Schoonhoven. Organizational growth: linking founding team strategy, environment, and growth among U.S. semiconductor ventures, 1978-1988. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1997, 35: 504-529.
[89] Donnellon, Anne. Crossfunctional teams in product development: accommodating the structure to the process. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 1993, 10: 377-392.
[90] Dearborn, DeWitt C., and Herbert A. Simon. Selective perception: a note on the department identifications of executive. Sociometry, 1958, 21: 140-144.
[91] Walsh, James P. Selectivity and selective perception: an investigation of managers’belief structures and information processing. Academy of Management Journal, 1988, 31: 873-896.
[92] Wickens, Christopher D. Attention and skilled performance. In D. Holding(Eds.), Human Skills: 71-105. New York: Wiley, 1989.
[93] Waller, Mary J., George P. Huber, and William H. Glick. Functional of executives’selective perception. Academy of Management Journal, 1995, 38: 943-974.
[94] Ancona, Deborah G., and David F. Caldwell. Demography and design: Predictors of new product team performance. Organization Science, 1992, 3: 321-341.
[95] Sessa, Valerie I., and Susan E. Jackson. Diversity in decision-making teams: all differences are not created equal. In Martin M. Chemers, Stuart Oskamp, and Mark A. Costanzo (Eds.), Diversity in organizations: new perspectives for a changing workplace, 1995:.133-156.
[96] Tajfel, Henri, M. G. Billig, R. P. Bundy, and C. Flament. Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1971, 1: 149-177.
[97] Turner, John C. Social comparison and social identity: some comparisons for intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 5: 5-34.
[98] Reardon, Kathleen K. They don’t get it, do they? Communication in the workplace–closing the gap between men and women. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995.
[99] Tjosvold, Dean. Team organization: an enduring competitive advantage. New York: Wiley, 1991.
[100] Milberg, Sandra, and Margaret S. Clark. Moods and compliance. British Journal of Psychology, 27: 79-90.
[101] Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., and L. J. Bourgeois. Politics of strategic decision making in high-velocity environments. Academy of Management Journal, 1988, 32: 543-576.
[102] Simons, T., & Peterson, R. Task conflict and relationship conflict in top management teams: the pivotal role of intragroup trust. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, 85, 102-111.
[103] Tjosvold, Dean. Constructive controversy: a key strategy for groups. Personnel, 1986, 63: 39-44.
[104] Janis, Irving L. Victims of groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982.
[105] Jehn, K. A. Enhancing effectiveness: an investigation of advantages and disadvantages of value-based intragroup conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 1994, 5: 223-238.
[106] Evan, William. Conflict and performance in R&D organizations. Industrial Management Review, 1965, 7: 37-46.
[107] Zuckerman, Marvin. Sensation seeking: A comparative approach to a human trait. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1984, 7: 413-471.
[108] Storms, Phillip L., and Paul E. Spector. Relationships of organizational frustration with reported behavioural reactions: the moderating effect of locus of control. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 1987, 60: 227-234.
[109] Chen, Peter Y., and Paul E. Spector. Relationships of work stressors with aggression, withdrawal, theft, and substance use: an exploratory study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 1992, 65: 177-184.
[110] Goodman, P. S., Ravlin, E. C., & Argote, L. Current thinking about group: Setting the stage for new ideas. Designing Effective Work Group, 1986:1-34.
[111] Kjell Brynjulf Hjertφ. The relationship between intragroup conflict, group size and work effectiveness. Dissertation submitted to BI Norwegian School of Management for the degree of Doctor, 2006.
[112] Baron, Reuben M., and David A. Kenny. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in socialpsychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical consideration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1986, 51: 1173-1182.
[113]温忠麟等.中介效应检验程序及其应用.心理学报,,2004, 36(5): 614-620.
[114]温忠麟,侯杰泰,张雷.调节效应与中介效应的比较和应用[J].心理学报, 2005, 37(2): 268-274.
[115]卢谢峰,韩立敏.中介变量、调节变量与协变量—概念、统计检验及其比较[J].心理科学, 2007, 30(4): 934-936.
[116] Juddy L. R., Kenny D. A. Process analysis: estimating mediation in treatment evaluations. Evaluation Review, 1981, 5(5): 602-619.
[117] Sobel M. E. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In: S Leinhardt (Ed.). Sociological methodology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1982, 290-312.
[118] Marks, M. A., Sabella, M. J., Burke C. S., & Zaccaro S. J. The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2002, 87(1), 3.
[119] Rousseau D. M. ssues of level in organizational research: multi-level and cross-level perspectives. Research in Organizational Behavior, (eds L. Cummings and B. Staw), 1985, I Vol. 7:1-37.
[120] James L. R., Demaree R. G., Wolf G. Rwg: an assessment of within-group interrater agreement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1993, 78: 306-309.
[121] McGrath J. E. Groups: interaction and performance Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1984.
[122]李超平.用SPSS来计算Rwg的程序, [EB/OL]http://www.lichaoping.com/.
[123] Straub, D. 1989.Validating instruments in MIS research. MIS Quarterly, 6: 147-169.
[124] Nunnally J. Psychometric theory. Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1978.
[125] Baron, James N., and Jeffrey Preffer. The social psychology of organizations and inequality. Working paper, Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, 1990.
[2] Helton, R. The‘best work’method of knowledge worker assessment. Industrial Management, 1988, Vol. 30,No. 5:19-22.
[3] Davenport, T. Can you boost knowledge work’s impact on the bottom line, Management Update, 2002, Vol. 7,No. 11:3-5.
[4] Naisbitt, J. Megatrends. Warner Books: New York, NY, 1982.
[5] Thomas, B.E. and Baron, J.P. Evaluating knowledge worker productivity: literature review, Interim Report, 1994, No. FF-94/27: 1-27.
[6] Drucker, P. The coming of the new organization. Harvard Business Review, 1988, Vol. 66 No.1:45-53.
[7] Patricia Booth. Embracing the team concept. Canadian Business Review, 1994, Autumn, :10-13.
[8] Hoffman, L. R., & Maier, N. R. F. Quallity and acceptance of problem solutions by members of homogeneous and heterogeneous groups. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1961, 62, 401-407.
[9] Watson, W., Kumar, K., & Michaelson, L. Cultural diversity’s impact on interaction process and performance: comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 1993, 36:590-602.
[10] Cox, T., Lobel, S., & Mcleod, P. Effects of ethnic group cultural differences on cooperative and competitive behavior on a group task. Academy of Management Journal, 1991, 34:827-847.
[11] Jackson et al. Some differences make a difference: Individual dissimilarity and group heterogeneity as correlates of recruitment, promotions, and turnover. Journal of Applied of Psychology, 1991, 76: 675-689.
[12] Wagner, G. W., Pfeffer, J., & O’Reilly, C. A. Organizational demography and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1984, 29, 74-92.
[13] Lawrence, Barbara S. The black box of organizational demography. Organization Science, 1997, 8: 1-22.
[14] Drucker, P. The landmarks of tomorrow. Harper & Row: New York, NY, 1959.
[15] Drucker, P. Adventures of a bystander. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ, 1994.
[16] Nickols, F. What is in the world of work and working: some implications of the shift to knowledge work. Butterworth-Heinemann Yearbook of Knowledge Management, 2000, pp. 1-7.
[17]杨文彩,易树平,张晓冬,杨沅钊.知识工作者工作效率影响因素及其作用机理分析.重庆大学学报(自然科学版)[J], 2006, Vol. 29. No.7:10-14.
[18]王文波,王文通.如何提高知识工作者的生产率.商场现代化. 2006,(8):32~33
[19]屠海群.从人性立场和知识资本理论透视知识工作者内涵及其二重性特征.经济师. 2000,(12):14~16
[20]艾娟.知识工作的界定及其生产率问题的实证研究.东华大学硕士学位论文,2004.
[21]郭朝晖,刘文波.知识工作的岗位特征及设计方法[J].科技管理研究, 2003, No. 1:79-81.
[22] Offerman, L. R. & M. K. Gowing. Organization of the future: change and challenges. American Psychologist, 1990, 45:95-108.
[23] Loden, M. & J. B. Rosener. Workforce America! Managing employee diversity as a vital resource. Homewood, IL: Business One Irwin, 1991.
[24] Dean, J. W. & A. Snell. Integrated manufacturing and job design. Academy of Management Journal, 1991, 34, 4:776-804.
[25] Jehn K. A., Northcraft G. B., Neale M. A. Why differences make a difference: a field study in diversity, conflict, and performance in workgroups. Administrative science quarterly, 1999, 44(4): 741-763.
[26] O’ReillyⅢ, C. A., Caldwell, D. F., & Barrnett W. P. Work group demography, social integration and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1989, 34(1): 21-37.
[27] Williams, K. Y., & O’ReillyⅢ, C. A. Demography and diversity in organizations: a review of 40 years of research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 1998, 20, 77-140.
[28] Early, P. C., & Mosakowski, E. Creating hybrid team cultures: an empirical test of transnational team functioning. Academy of Management Journal, 2000, 43, 26-49.
[29] Pelled, L. H. Demographic diversity, conflict, and work group outcomes: a intervening process theory. Organizational Science, 1996, Vol. 7, No. 6:615-631.
[30] King, N., & Anderson, N. Innovation and creativity in working groups, 1990.
[31] Shaw, M. E. Group dynamics: the psychology of small group behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.
[32] Bales, R. F., & Strodtbeck, F. L. Phases in group problem-solving. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1951, 46, 485-495.
[33] Tuckman, B. W. Developmental sequences in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 1965, 63(6), 384-399.
[34] Watson, W. E., Johnson, L., Kumar, K., & Critelli, J. Process gain and process loss: comparing interpersonal processes and performance of culturally diverse and non-diverse teams across time. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 1998, 16, 53-65.
[35]刘树林,唐均.成员差异性对群体绩效影响的国外研究综述[J].科研管理, 2005, 26(5), Vol. 26, No. 5, 141-146.
[36] Charles A., O’ReillyⅢ, David F. Caldwell, William P. Barnett. Work group demography, social integration, and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1989, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 21-37.
[37] Teachman, Jay D. Analysis of population diversity. Sociological Methods and Research, 1980, 8: 3341-362.
[38] Lim B C. Do the leader and members make the team? The role of personality and cognitive ability. Dissertation Abstracts International, 2003, 64~11.
[39] Allison, Paul D. Measures of inequality. American Sociological Review, 1978, 43: 865-880.
[40] Blau, Peter M. Inequality and Heterogeneity. New York: Free Press, 1977.
[41] Pruitt, D. G. & Carnerale, P. J. Negotiation in social conflict. Open University Press, Milton Keynes, 1993.
[42] De Dreu, C. K. W. & Van de Vliert, E. Using conflict in organizations. Sage, London, 1997.
[43] Pondy, L. Organizational conflict: concepts and models. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1967, Vol. 17:296-320.
[44] Hackman, J. R. & Morris, C. G. Group task, group interaction process, and group performance effectiveness: a review and proposed integration, in Berkowitz, L. (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1975, Vol. 8, Academic Press, San Diego, CA, pp. 45-99.
[45] Wall, J. A. & Callister, R. P. Conflict and its management. Journal of Management, 1995, Vol. 21:58-515.
[46] Stone, R. A. Workplace homicide: a time for action. Business Horizon, 1995, Vol. 34, pp. 17-20.
[47] Jehn, K. A. A multimethod examination of the benefits and detriments of intragroup conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1995, Vol. 40:256-282.
[48] Amoson, A. C. Distinguishing the effect of functional and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision making: resolving a paradox for top management teams. Academy of Management Journal, 1996, Vol. 39:123-148.
[49] De Dreu, C. K. W. & Weingart, L. R. Task versus relationship conflict: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2003, Vol. 88:741-749.
[50] Cosier, R. A. & Schwenck, C. R. Agreement and thinking alike: intredients for poor decisions.Academy of Management Executive, 1990, Vol. 4:69-74.
[51] Van de Vliert, E. & De Dreu, C. Optimizing performance by conflict stimulation. The International Journal of Conflict Management, 1994, Vol. 5:211-222.
[52] De Dreu, C. K. W. & Van Vianen, A. E. M. Managing relationship conflict and effectiveness of organizational teams. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2001, Vol. 22, pp. 309-328.
[53] Jehn, K. A. A qualitative analysis of conflict types and dimensions in organizational groups. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1997, Vol. 42:530-557.
[54] West, M. A. & Anderson, N. R. Innovation in top management teams. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1996, Vol. 81:680-693.
[55] Turner, M. E. & Prakanis, A. Social identity maintenance prescriptions for preventing groupthink: reducing identity protection and enhancing intellectual conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 1994, Vol. 5:254-270.
[56] Friedman, R. A., Tidd, S. T., Currall, S. C. & Tsai, J. C. What goes around comes around: the impact of personal conflict styles on work conflict and stress. International Journal of Conflict Management, 2000, Vol. 11:32-55.
[57] Janssen, O., Van de Vliert, E. & Veenstra, Ch. How task and person conflict shape the role of positive interdependence in management teams. Journal of Management, 1999, Vol. 25:117-141.
[58] Baron, R. A. Countering the effects of destructive criticism: the relative efficacy of four interventions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1990, Vol. 75:235-245.
[59] Ross, R. S. Small groups in organizational settings, Engle-wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.
[60]杨小凯著,张定胜,张永生,李利明译.经济学:新兴古典与新古典框架[M].社会科学文献出版社, 2003.
[61] Paul A.Samuelson & William D.Nordhaus.经济学.(第十八版)[M].肖琛译.人民邮电出版社.北京.
[62] Borman, W. C., Motowidlo, S. J. Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. In N. Schmitt, W. C. Borman, Associates (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1993, 71-98.
[63] Guzzo, R. A. & Shea, G. P. Group performance and intergroup relations in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1992, 3: 269-313.
[64] Hackman, J. R. A normative model of work team effectiveness. CT: Yale University, 1983.
[65] Gladstein, D. L. Groups in context: A model of task group effectiveness. AdministrativeScience Quarterly, 1984, 29, 499-517.
[66] Barrack, M. R., Stewart, G. L., Neubert, M. J., & Mount, M. K. Relating Member Ability and Personality to Work-team Processes and Team Effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1998, 83(3), 377-391.
[67] Hackman, J. R. The design of work teams. In J. W. Lorsh(Ed.), Handbook of Organizational Behavior, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1987, 315-342.
[68] McGrath, J. E. Social psychology: A brief introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1964.
[69]李明岩.高层管理团队共享战略认知与团队绩效的关系研究[D].浙江大学硕士学位论文, 2005.
[70] Mathieu, J. E., Heffner, T. S., Goodwin, G. F., Salas, E., & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. The influence of shared mental models on team process and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, 85: 273-283.
[71] Ilgen, D. R., Hollenbeck, J. R., Johnson, M., & Jundt, D. Teams in organizations: From input-process-output models to IMOI models. Annual Review of Psychology, 2005, 56: 517-543.
[72] Cohen, S. G., & Bailey, D. E. What makes teams work: Group effectiveness research from the shop floor to the executive suite? Journal of Management, 1997, 23: 239-290.
[73] Salas, E., Dickinson, T. L., Converse, S. A., & Tannenbaum, S. I. Toward an understanding of team performance and training. In Swezey R. W. & Salas E. (Eds.), Teams: their training and performance, NJ: Ablex, 1992:3-29.
[74] Guzzo, R. A., & Dickson, M. W. Teams in organizations: recent research on performance and effectiveness. Annual Review of Psychology, 1996, 47: 307-338.
[75]常涛,廖建桥.国外团队有效性研究新进展述评.科学学与科学技术管理[J]. 2007, 9: 163-169.
[76] Hambrick, Donald C. & Phyllis A. Mason. Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 1984, 9: 193-206.
[77] Pruitt, Dean G. Social conflict. In The Handbook of Social Psychology. 4th ed. (Eds. D. T. Gillert, S. T. Fiske and G. Lindzey), 1998, vol. II pp. 470-503. New York: McGrawn.
[78]李兴琨.团队异质性、团队冲突对团队合作学习的影响[M].河南大学研究生硕士学位论文. 2008, pp. 8-9.
[79] Murray, A. I. Top management group heterogeneity and firm performance. Strategic Management Journal, 1989, 10, 125-141.
[80] Coser, L. The functions of social conflict. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1956.
[81] Haiman, F. S. Group leadership and democratic action. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1951.
[82] Wall, V. D. and L. L. Nolan. Perceptions of inequity, satisfaction, and conflict in task-oriented group. Human Relations, 1986, 39, 1033-1052.
[83] Ross, Raymond S. Small groups in organizational setting. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1989.
[84] Amason, A., & Sapienza, H. The effects of top management team size and interaction norms on cognitive and affective conflict. Journal of Management, 1997, 23: 496-516.
[85] Jehn, K. The impact of intragroup conflict on effectiveness: a multimethod examination of the benefits and determents of conflict. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University Graduate School of Management, Evanston, IL, 1992.
[86] Cosier, R., & Rose, G. Cognitive conflict and goal conflict effects on task performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 1977, 19: 378-391.
[87] Pinkly, R. Dimensions of the conflict frame: disputant interpretations of conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1990, 75: 117-128.
[88] Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., and Claudia B. Schoonhoven. Organizational growth: linking founding team strategy, environment, and growth among U.S. semiconductor ventures, 1978-1988. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1997, 35: 504-529.
[89] Donnellon, Anne. Crossfunctional teams in product development: accommodating the structure to the process. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 1993, 10: 377-392.
[90] Dearborn, DeWitt C., and Herbert A. Simon. Selective perception: a note on the department identifications of executive. Sociometry, 1958, 21: 140-144.
[91] Walsh, James P. Selectivity and selective perception: an investigation of managers’belief structures and information processing. Academy of Management Journal, 1988, 31: 873-896.
[92] Wickens, Christopher D. Attention and skilled performance. In D. Holding(Eds.), Human Skills: 71-105. New York: Wiley, 1989.
[93] Waller, Mary J., George P. Huber, and William H. Glick. Functional of executives’selective perception. Academy of Management Journal, 1995, 38: 943-974.
[94] Ancona, Deborah G., and David F. Caldwell. Demography and design: Predictors of new product team performance. Organization Science, 1992, 3: 321-341.
[95] Sessa, Valerie I., and Susan E. Jackson. Diversity in decision-making teams: all differences are not created equal. In Martin M. Chemers, Stuart Oskamp, and Mark A. Costanzo (Eds.), Diversity in organizations: new perspectives for a changing workplace, 1995:.133-156.
[96] Tajfel, Henri, M. G. Billig, R. P. Bundy, and C. Flament. Social categorization and intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1971, 1: 149-177.
[97] Turner, John C. Social comparison and social identity: some comparisons for intergroup behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1975, 5: 5-34.
[98] Reardon, Kathleen K. They don’t get it, do they? Communication in the workplace–closing the gap between men and women. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995.
[99] Tjosvold, Dean. Team organization: an enduring competitive advantage. New York: Wiley, 1991.
[100] Milberg, Sandra, and Margaret S. Clark. Moods and compliance. British Journal of Psychology, 27: 79-90.
[101] Eisenhardt, Kathleen M., and L. J. Bourgeois. Politics of strategic decision making in high-velocity environments. Academy of Management Journal, 1988, 32: 543-576.
[102] Simons, T., & Peterson, R. Task conflict and relationship conflict in top management teams: the pivotal role of intragroup trust. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2000, 85, 102-111.
[103] Tjosvold, Dean. Constructive controversy: a key strategy for groups. Personnel, 1986, 63: 39-44.
[104] Janis, Irving L. Victims of groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982.
[105] Jehn, K. A. Enhancing effectiveness: an investigation of advantages and disadvantages of value-based intragroup conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 1994, 5: 223-238.
[106] Evan, William. Conflict and performance in R&D organizations. Industrial Management Review, 1965, 7: 37-46.
[107] Zuckerman, Marvin. Sensation seeking: A comparative approach to a human trait. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 1984, 7: 413-471.
[108] Storms, Phillip L., and Paul E. Spector. Relationships of organizational frustration with reported behavioural reactions: the moderating effect of locus of control. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 1987, 60: 227-234.
[109] Chen, Peter Y., and Paul E. Spector. Relationships of work stressors with aggression, withdrawal, theft, and substance use: an exploratory study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 1992, 65: 177-184.
[110] Goodman, P. S., Ravlin, E. C., & Argote, L. Current thinking about group: Setting the stage for new ideas. Designing Effective Work Group, 1986:1-34.
[111] Kjell Brynjulf Hjertφ. The relationship between intragroup conflict, group size and work effectiveness. Dissertation submitted to BI Norwegian School of Management for the degree of Doctor, 2006.
[112] Baron, Reuben M., and David A. Kenny. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in socialpsychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical consideration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1986, 51: 1173-1182.
[113]温忠麟等.中介效应检验程序及其应用.心理学报,,2004, 36(5): 614-620.
[114]温忠麟,侯杰泰,张雷.调节效应与中介效应的比较和应用[J].心理学报, 2005, 37(2): 268-274.
[115]卢谢峰,韩立敏.中介变量、调节变量与协变量—概念、统计检验及其比较[J].心理科学, 2007, 30(4): 934-936.
[116] Juddy L. R., Kenny D. A. Process analysis: estimating mediation in treatment evaluations. Evaluation Review, 1981, 5(5): 602-619.
[117] Sobel M. E. Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In: S Leinhardt (Ed.). Sociological methodology. Washington, DC: American Sociological Association, 1982, 290-312.
[118] Marks, M. A., Sabella, M. J., Burke C. S., & Zaccaro S. J. The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2002, 87(1), 3.
[119] Rousseau D. M. ssues of level in organizational research: multi-level and cross-level perspectives. Research in Organizational Behavior, (eds L. Cummings and B. Staw), 1985, I Vol. 7:1-37.
[120] James L. R., Demaree R. G., Wolf G. Rwg: an assessment of within-group interrater agreement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1993, 78: 306-309.
[121] McGrath J. E. Groups: interaction and performance Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1984.
[122]李超平.用SPSS来计算Rwg的程序, [EB/OL]http://www.lichaoping.com/.
[123] Straub, D. 1989.Validating instruments in MIS research. MIS Quarterly, 6: 147-169.
[124] Nunnally J. Psychometric theory. Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1978.
[125] Baron, James N., and Jeffrey Preffer. The social psychology of organizations and inequality. Working paper, Graduate School of Business, Stanford University, 1990.