越界水污染规制
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摘要
跨行政区流域污染是我国当前水资源危机中的严重问题之一,长期的流域污染治理并没有改善流域整体的水质,跨行政区的水污染冲突日益激化。跨行政区流域污染是一种越界外部性,这种外部性的解决不能单纯依靠环境的末端治理技术,必须从社会经济因素出发,就流域污染的内在原因及越界外部性的规制方案进行考察,从而建立具有持续效果的环境管理制度。空间维度的环境经济学研究虽然注意到了流域污染的越界现象和环境规制的政府层级问题,但这一新兴的研究领域对越界水污染的规制制度问题的考察依然有待深入。处在制度转型时期的中国为考察财政分权背景下流域越界污染的规制问题提供了一个极有特色的研究案例,对中国越界水污染规制问题的研究不仅能够弥补现有理论研究的不足,还能够为我国水污染规制制度的发展变革提供借鉴。
     本文以我国跨行政区流域污染为研究对象,通过对我国流域污染及其规制效果的经验考察和理论分析来研究越界水污染规制制度的治理效率和变革趋势。本文首先对中国流域污染的规制现状进行了实证研究,对我国越界水污染的影响因素进行了探讨。在此基础上,本文构建了一个“均衡污染”模型,以1994.2002年中国各省的面板数据为样本,对中国省级水污染规制加以考察。研究表明,以污染定价为主要特征的省级政府规制对控制本区域污染具有显著影响,但省级规制存在明显的地区差异。越界外部性是影响地区规制差异的重要因素之一。上游地区存在放松环境规制,搭便车将水污染转移到下游的倾向。
     基于上述经验研究成果,本文以新制度经济学的产权理论为基础,结合国际流域治理实践,对越界水污染的环境规制制度、环境规制结构和环境规制工具进行了理论探讨。本文的研究表明:用水顺序权和水环境属性的公共物品性质是国家拥有流域水资源所有权的经济原因,对水污染的规制可以视为国家对水资源环境属性拥有所有权的体现,环境规制的政府层级反映了水资源环境属性所有权的具体管理方式。
     结合越界水污染的单向外部性特点,本文的理论研究部分首先改进了以往文献对越界污染的建模方式,对单向越界污染下的集中规制结构和分权规制结构下的规制效率进行了比较分析,得出了在要素流动下分权规制有效性的结论。
     其次,在上述理论研究基础上,本文探讨了越界水污染的地区合作规制制度和流域补偿机制的问题,讨论流域补偿原则与成本分摊方案、合作规制的稳定性等问题。随后展开了对越界污染的环境规制工具研究,讨论跨越行政区边界的水权、水定价、水权交易以及环境责任问题,突破了以往在单一政府下讨论环境规制工具的局限。
     最后,本文对越界污染的非政府规制进行了分析,探讨对越界水污染的自愿规制动因、方式及其效果,提出了越界水污染的多中心治理方案。以往的污染规制研究没有考虑政府之外的规制主体,在实践过程中所出现的水用户、消费者团体以及非政府组织的污染规制行为在环境经济学理论中缺乏系统探讨,本文力求在此问题上有所突破。研究表明,自愿规制并不一定与经济理性相冲突,自愿规制在一定程度上能够补充政府环境规制的不足,实现对越界污染的有效治理。对流域越界污染的规制需要从控制走向合作,逐步实现真正意义上的广泛参与。
     本文共分八章。第一章导论就研究缘起、研究意义和本文的结构安排进行说明。第二章对越界污染的性质及其规制特点进行分析,并对有关越界污染的经济学研究文献进行了梳理,对相关文献已有的成果和不足之处进行了总结,进而确定了本文的研究方向。第三章就中国跨行政区流域污染问题进行考察,就越界水污染的外部性特点、财政分权下的政府规制取向和水污染环境规制绩效进行案例分析和理论研究。第四章展开了对越界水污染规制制度的详细研究,从环境产权的角度对环境规制制度的选择加以解释,并给出了单向流域越界污染条件下集中规制与分权规制的分析框架,讨论具有外溢效应的地方性公共物品的供给问题。第五章则是在第四章研究成果的基础上,就地区合作与流域补偿问题进行探讨。第六章进而对越界水污染的规制工具进行考察。第四章到第六章的研究在探讨有效的政府规制制度的同时,也揭示了政府规制在我国越界水污染治理问题上的局限性。第七章结合市场经济转轨条件下公共管理的发展趋势,对越界水污染的自愿规制问题加以探讨。本章主要考察水用户、利益团体或者非政府机构(NGO)作为第三方参与越界污染控制的可能性。通过政府单边规制、政府多边规制和自愿规制的比较研究对“以志愿提供公益”的组织形式进行越界污染治理的效果进行讨论。第八章为结论,对全文进行总结,分析研究结论所包含的政策意义,并对论文不足之处和未来的研究方向加以说明。
Interjurisdictionary river-basin pollution is one of the most serious problems of the water crisis in China. Long-term efforts on pollution control have not brought about the improvement of water quality on the whole and the interjurisdictionary water disputes are getting more and more intensified. Interjurisdictionary river-basin pollution, as a kind of transboundary externality, cannot be simply solved by the end-of-pipe technical treatment. Instead it should be settled down under the sustainable institutional system of environmental regulation, which calls for a insightful and deep study on the social and economic factors behind this kind of externality so as to find the efficient regulation schemes. One new branch of environmental economics which concentrates on the space-dimension has noticed the transboundary character of river-basin pollution and also mentioned the problem of governmental hierarchy in environmental regulation, but the theme of environmental regulation institutions need to be explored more profoundly. China, a society experiencing profound institutional transition and market reform, offers a specific research case for us to examine the regulation of transboundary river-basin pollution under the background of fiscal decentralization. The study on the interjurisdictionary river-basin pollution in China not only offsets the existing literature but also can be used for the reform of China's environmental regulation institutions as reference. The thesis aims to investigate the determinant factors and to explore the efficiency of transboundary water pollution regulation in China so as to identify the reform trend of the regulation system. First of all, the thesis makes an empirical study on the status quo of river-basin pollution regulation system in China and identifies the factors that influence the transboundary water pollution. Then based on a constructed "equilibrium pollution" model and a sample of a 1994-2002 panel data on provincial regulation, the thesis analyzes the characters and performance of the provincial water pollution regulation which is presented mainly by the indicator of pollution pricing. This empirical study indicates that the provincial regulation does play a significant role of controlling the pollution and there exists great regional regulation difference
    between jurisdictions. The difference reflects the self-interests of those provinces and transboundary externality is an important determinant factor for this difference. The upstream provinces tend to ease environmental regulation, adopting the free-rider behavior to transfer water pollution to the downstream ones.
    Based on the research results above and the worldwide river-basin management practices, the thesis examines the regulation institutions, regulation structure and regulation instruments of transboundary water pollution from the perspective of property rights theory in the new institutional economics. The analysis shows that water priority and the public good character of water quality are the economic factors that explain the state ownership of the river-basin water resource. The water pollution regulation embodies the state ownership and the multiple governmental levels of environmental regulation reflect the substantial management regime of the state ownership.
    Combined with the characteristic unidirectional externality of transboundary water pollution, the theoretical part of the thesis first of all modifies the approach of model construction on transboundary pollution, making it more explicit to compare the regulation efficiency under centralized and decentralized regimes. It finds that the decentralized regulation regime can be socially efficient in the presence of worker/consumer mobility. Secondly the regional regulation cooperation and river-basin transfer mechanism are examined, such as the principles and approaches of regional transfer and cost sharing, the stability of the cooperation. It is followed by the discussion on the choices of regulation instruments on transboundary pollution, which focuses on the efficiency and limitation of water rights, water pricing, water trading and environmental liability under interjurisdictionary context, breaking through the traditional analytical assumption that there is only one government holds the regulation authority.
    Last but not least, the thesis probes into the social regulation of transboundary pollution, examining the incentives, approaches and efficiency of volunteer regulation. The results support a regulation framework of multi-centered governance on transboundary water pollution. The current literature on environmental regulation generally ignores the non-government regulation agents, failing to explain the regulation behavior of water users, consumer groups and NGOs. The thesis attempts to make up the theoretical deficiency. It shows that non-governmental regulation is economically rational to some extend and contributes to the abatement of
    transboundary pollution. Regulation on the interjurisdictionary river-basin pollution needs a transformation from control to cooperation so as to achieve the object of widely participated regulation.
    The thesis consists of eight chapters. The introduction briefly discusses the research background and motivation for subsequent chapters, along with the structure arrangement of the thesis. Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive review of the economic literature on transboundary pollution, identifying some dark and gray spots in the literature so as to justify our study. Chapter 3 presents an empirical study on the interjurisdictionary river-basin pollution in China with case study and theoretical analysis, which examines the externality properties of transboundary water pollution, the behavior of environmental regulators and the performance of environmental regulation. Chapter 4 develops the research on the regulation institutions on transboundary water pollution. It explains the choices of regulation regimes from the perspective of environmental property rights. This chapter analytically depicts and mathematically models the centralized and decentralized regulation regimes of the unidirectional river-basin transboundary pollution, discussing the provision of local public goods with a spillover effect. With the research results above, Chapter 5 explores the theme of regional cooperation on environmental regulation and river-basin transfer. Chapter 6 concentrates on the question of how to design the regulation instruments on transboundary pollution. The results from Chapter 4 to Chapter 6 show the efficiency and limitation of governmental regulation. Chapter 7, combining the trend of public management in transitional economies, evaluates social volunteer regulation on transboundary pollution. It mainly examines the possibilities of regulation participation for water users, interest groups and NGOs, and discusses the efficiency of "providing the public goods with voluntarism". Chapter 8 concludes by identifying the major implications of this study for environmental regulation theories and river-basin management policy.
引文
1 潘岳,“环境保护与社会公平”主题演讲,第五届绿色中国论坛,2004年10月27日。
    2 参见余源培.理性看待人均GDP破1000美元口[N].文汇报,2004-5-25(4).
    3 吴舜泽,夏青,刘鸿亮,2000,89(2):2.
    4 张世秋.环境政策边缘化现实与改革方向辨析.载于中国环境与发展评论[M].2004:500.
    5 参见黄仁宇.赫逊河畔谈中国历史[M].北京:三联书店,1992:8。
    6 英文中的regulation一词所对应的中文翻译有两种:管制和规制,学界对此颇有争议。管制和规制的主要区别在于,管制是源于产业组织理论的一个概念,强调的是政府运用法律和行政的手段对微观经济主体行为的管理,而规制则强调规范和指引,其主体不限于政府,还包括社会公众与利益团体,甚至被规制者自身,包含有管理和激励两方面的意义。管制具有强制性,规制则更重视经济个体对法律法规和社会规范的自愿遵守和自发参与,其行为具有一定的主动性。
    7 王红玲,2003:147.
    8 相对于公共物品(public goods)而言,具有负外部性的公共品被称为公共“害”品(public bads)。
    9 最低安全标准法认为,对一些资源而言,如果超过某一开发限度,将带来无法弥补的损失,该限度就是“最小安全标准”,超过该标准,社会成本将是无穷大。
    10 参见“善待自然是人类文明延续的基础—访全国人大环资委原主任委员、中华环境保护基金会董事长曲格平”,源自刘树铎、王宁,中国经济时报,2005-3-9(20).
    11 据世界银行测算,1995年中国空气和水污染造成的损失占当年GDP的8%(当时估算约为540亿美金)。中科院专家测算,2003年环境污染和生态破坏造成的损失占GDP的15%。国家环保总局2001年对全国的生态状况做了一个调查表明,西部9个省区生态破坏造成的直接经济损失占当地GDP的13%,相当于当年甘肃和青海两省的GDP之和。参见中国社会科学院环境与发展研究中心,2004:55-57.
    12 例如,对长江流域的调查表明,由于各城市市区大量企业向郊区及农村地区的迁移和农村集镇化程度的提高,流域内地表水体呈现出由市区向郊区蔓延的趋势,同时,由于城乡环境规制的地区差异,大中城市水环境质量有所改善,而农村地区污染依然严重且有加剧的趋势。参见虞孝感,姜加虎,贾绍风,2001:468。
    13 中国城乡人均收入差距达到3倍以上,一些农村或不发达地区主动要求输入一些污染性生产项目以增加经济收入。参见周国梅.强化制度建设,严防污染转移[N].中国经济时报,2005-6-16(5).
    14 赵永平.南水北调不会成“污水北调”[N].人民日报,2005-8-29(15).南水北调的东线方案是从长江扬州江都段经京杭大运河调水,目前大运河的水质已经严重污染,不能将污水调到北方,只有解决了水污染的问题才能保证调水的质量。中线方案计划调汉江丹江口水库的水,目前丹江口水库的水质虽好,但是汉江已经出现过水量较小而导致的“水华”问题。
    1 d'Arge, R. C. On the Economics of Transnational Externalities. In Mills, E. (ed). Economic Analysis of Environmental Problems[M]. New York: Columbia University Press,1975: 397-434.OECD. Economics of Transfrontier Pollution.Paris:OECD, 1976.
    2 Revesz, Richard L. 1992.
    3 Stone, Christopher D. 1993.
    4 (1)和(2)社会福利函数是静态的,并且考虑的是排放流。但是许多污染损害源于累积存量而不是流量。气候变化的国际环境问题是存量外部性的典型例子,不是温室气体直接导致环境变化,而是温室气体在大气中的累积导致环境变化。为了将存量外部性概念纳入模型,需要考虑时间维度,福利函数采用积分的形式表达。
    5 合作与非合作博弈理论的区别参见Bloch,1997;Finus,2003。国际环境协议的合作博弈方法参见Chander and Tulkens(1995;1997);Eyckmans and Tulkens(1999);Funaki and Yamato (1999)。
    6 非均匀混合污染指的是一个国家的污染水平不仅仅取决于总的排放量,也取决于排污国家与受污染国家之间的空间位置。最典型的例子是下游污染问题,例如莱茵河的污染,法国和德国的排污量影响荷兰而荷兰的排污量则无法上溯影响到法国和德国。再例如下风向问题,因为西风的盛行,英国造成的酸雨多沉积在斯堪地纳维亚半岛,与之类似的是美国所产生的有害气体常影响到加拿大。
    7 非均匀损害指的是不同国家遭受的污染程度不同。这可能由于物理因素,如酸雨在酸性土壤所造成的危害比非酸性土壤要高:也可能由于经济因素,如环境质量的评估和经济活动的结构在各个国家都是不同的。
    8 金融转移的替代方案是将环境问题与贸易或技术问题捆绑起来的“事务关联”方案。参见Whalley, 1991; Folmer et al. 1993; Barrett,1994; Carraro and Siniscalco,1994; Botteon and Carraro,1996.
    9 Robert V. Percival, Environmental Federalism: Historical Roots and Contemporary Models[J].Maryland Law Review, 1995,54:1141.
    10 参见Wallace E. Oates and Paul R.Portney, 2001.
    11 参见Portney Paul R.空气污染政策.载于Portney and Stavins,2004:156。
    12 Tiebout C.,1956.
    13 “联邦主义”在经济学中的用法与政治学中的标准用法是不同的。政治学中的联邦主义指的是一种政治体系,通过宪法保证中央和各级分权化政府在一定范围内享有自主权利。在经济学的视野中,几乎所有的公共部门或多或少是联邦制的,因为不同层级的政府都提供了公共服务并且拥有一定程度的(实际)决策权.财政联邦主义表示对政府收支与责任配置的关注。经济学家承认,“财政联邦主义”似乎是个选择并不恰当的术语(Oates,1999)。
    14 尼斯坎南式(Niskanen)官僚源自尼斯坎南模型,这是一种公共选择理论。该理论假定官僚制组织中的行政人员都是自我利益的理性追求者.
    15 参见周玮.十大措施应对中国严峻环境形势[N].中国经济时报,2005-6-7(1).该报道源自记者在世界环境日对国家环保局局长解振华的采访.
    16 在2005年6月召开的中国循环经济高峰论坛上,国家统计局局长李德水质疑计算绿色GDP的重要性,其理由之一就是环境污染的“开放性”:对资源和环境损失的估算很难像产值统计那样严格按照属地原则进行,例如,淮河的污染是给上游河南省的GDP上“扣分”还是给中游的安徽省“扣分”,并没有一个合理的核算体系。参见中国经济时报,2005-6-21(3).
    17 Laffont and Tirole, 2004: 28.
    18 Laffont and Tirole, 2004: 1-5.
    1 见国家环保局环境公报。本文数据凡未注明出处的,均来自国家环保局官方网站、历年环境公报和环境年鉴。
    2 根据全国乡镇企业污染源调查结果,乡镇企业废水排放量占全国工业废水排放量的比重从1994年的16.6%上升到1997年的17.2%,参见1994和1997年环境统计年鉴。目前工业废水排放量的统计范围通常不包括乡镇企业,因而我们只能根据通过困家环保局、农业部、财政部和国家统计局联合组织的1991年、1994年和1996-1997年度的“全国乡镇企业工业污染源调查”获得有限数据。
    3 我国七大水系按2003年河流水质从好到差依次排序为:长江、珠江、松花江、黄河、海河、淮河和辽河,参见2003年中国水资源质量年报。地表水评价采用国家《地表水环境质量标准》(GB3838-2002),按照水域环境功能高低将地表水划分为:Ⅰ类水,源头水和国家自然保护区;Ⅱ类水,集中式生活饮用水地表水源地和水生生物栖息地,鱼虾类产卵场等;Ⅲ类水,集中式生活饮用水地表水源地二级保护区、水产养殖区等渔业水域和游泳区;Ⅳ类水,一般工业用水及人体非直接接触的娱乐用水区;Ⅴ类水,农业用水及一般景观要求水域;劣Ⅴ类水,为不能达到上述功能的水域。
    4 参见朱敏.安全问题挑战食品业发展模式[N].中国经济时报,2005-9-9(8).
    5 以太湖流域为例,自20世纪60年代以来,太湖水质的污染明显加重,表现为每10年左右下降一个级别。目前全流域的70%的河湖受到污染,80%河流的水质达不到国家规定的三类水标准,全湖水质达到富营养化,局部重富营养化,流域出现水质性资源危机。参见刘兆德,虞孝感,王志宪.2003:467.
    6 刘兆德,虞孝感,王志宪.2003:467—473.
    7 本节实证资料源于中国经济时报记者对淮河支流的污染调查,记者调查参见中国经济时报2005年3月9日第19版“人与环境”中国报告。
    8 1988年《水法》第35条规定,“(地区之间)水事纠纷解决之前,未经各方达成协议或者上一级人民政府批准,在国家规定的交接线两侧一定范围内,任何一方不得修建排水、阻水、引水和蓄水工程,不得单方面改变现状”。
    9 Daniel P. Loucks, John S. Gladwell. 2003: 194.
    10 参见《中华人民共和国水法》第12条。
    11 徐家良.制度安排、制度变迁与政府管制限度——以水污染物排放许可证制度为例.北京天则经济研究所资助的“政府体制改革”研究项目。参见http://www.wiapp/acnews/ac52.html.
    12 2000年《水污染防治法实施细则》:县级以上地方政府环保部门根据总量控制实施方案,审核本行政区内向该水体排污的单位的重点污染物排放量,对不超过排放总量控制指标的,发给排放许可证:对超过排放总量控制指标的,限期治理,限期治理期间,发给临时排放许可证。
    13 强制性管制是指对排污单位的进入加以严格限制;诱导性规制的方式是要求企业进行污水处理,缴纳排污费。
    14 排放总量的确定方法是:各省市申报,在此基础上核定各省市排放量基数。环境保护部 门设定比上年递减的排放量目标。经过全国综合平衡,制定全国污染物排放总量控制计划。
    15 1988年《水污染物排放许可证管理暂行办法》提出在浓度控制管理的基础上逐步实施污染物总量控制为基础的环境保护制度;1991年在总量控制的基础上相继推出了行业总量控制、目标总量控制和容量总量控制为基础的排放许可证制度。具体分布特点是:城市、大型排污单位和重点污染源以总量控制为主;农村、小型排污单位、非重点污染源以浓度控制为主。
    16 中国目前COD排放总量达到1400—1500万吨,超过排放最大允许量的两倍。
    17 参见徐家良对浙江金华、嘉兴等县市的调查。见尾注9。
    18 Wang和Wheeler(2005)给出了一个实例,有兴趣的读者可以计算一下。
    19 参见沈红心,林海滨.2002:67-69.
    20 马中,吴健.2004:340.
    21 2003年,世界银行在“东亚城市的转型”研究报告中指出,中国是世界上地方分权最大的国家之一,接近70%的公共开支发生在地方政府,其中55%以上的公共支出发生在省级以下政府,县乡两级政府提供了大部分重要的公共服务,包括70%的教育预算支出和55-60%的医疗卫生支出。
    22 Hehui Jin and Yingyi Qian. Regional Decentralization and Fiscal Incentives: Federalism,Chinese Style. Working Paper. Hoover Institution, Stanford University, March 1999.
    23 该研究通过乡镇企业和非国有企业的就业增长率指标测度非国有部门的发展。
    24 洪银兴.经济体制转轨时期的地方政府功能[J].经济研究,1996,5:22-28.
    25 参见尾注9。
    26 陈耀.新时期中国区域竞争态势及其转型[N].中国经济时报,2005-6-17(8).
    27 Wang and Wheeler,1996.
    28 有读者可能会提出,流域下游地区也具有搭便车将污染转移到公海的激励。本文并没有否认这种可能性,下游地区的环境规制水平并一定不是将其污染完全内部化的水平,也可能产生越界污染。但是下游地区面对的水资源禀赋比上中游地区要差,在加上国际环境协议对公海污染的监控日益严格(东北亚地区于上世纪八十年代就开始了国家之间的环境谈判与合作)以及近海污染往往回溯到下游地区自身,因而下游地区放松环境规制和转移污染的空间相对而言比较有限。
    29 一共包括29个省级样本,由于经济和地理的原因,没有计算西藏的PLW值,为便于各年份之间的数值比较,1997年成为直辖市的重庆的相关数据纳入四川省的相关数据合并计算。
    30 这种划分是根据地理位置以及2004年中国环境年鉴关于各省在七大流域的工业企业数和工业废水规模作为标准的。对属于一个流域区的省市,根据其在该流域区的工业企业数和废水排放量确定其所属的主要流域,再根据其在主要流域的具体地理位置确定该省市的上下游属性,如果某省属于在两个或两个以上流域区,则视该省在流域区内的工业企业数和废水排放总量两大指标决定。如果在其中一个流域区内,该省的工业企业数占其工业企业总数的三分之一或废水排放量占其废水排放总量的三分之一以上,则根据该省在这个流域的具体地理位置决定其上下游属性;如果在数个流域都满足上述指标要求,则根据该省在这几个流域的具体地理位置确定其上下游属性。由于本文的研究认为,各省市都有利用流域特性进行越界污染的搭便车激励,因此,将上中游地理分界线所在省划分为上游,将中下游地理分界线所在省划分为中游,将中游省市与上游省市合并在一组,将属于某流域上游但属于另一流域下游的省市也合并入该组。例如,青海省既是长江的上游又是黄河的上游,但是95%以上的统计汇总的企业位于黄河流域,因此将青海划分为黄河的上游省份。安徽省在淮河和长江流域的企业数目和废水排放规模都很大,从地理上属于淮河的中下游和长江的下游,因此将其划分为“上游组”。
    31 图3—5和图3—6的横坐标、纵坐标的单位与图3—4相同。
    32 按照定义,有μ_j=P_j/W_j,把ω_j和η_j的表达式代入式(3.8)即可得式(3.9)。
    33 笔者采用工业增加值作为工业总产出的测量指标,这主要是因为工业增加值指标反映企 业生产活动的最终成果,体现了工业产出的效率,而工业总产值指标则反映工业生产的规模,《中国环境年鉴》2004年起已改用工业增加值测量各地区主要工业污染物排放强度。计量分析表明,用工业总产值指标所得到的统计结果与用工业增加值指标所得到的统计结果是较为一致的。
    34 See Hua Wang and Yanhong Jin. Industrial Ownership and Environmental Performance:Evidence from China. Woridbank Working Paper No. 2936, 2002. From www.worldbank.org/nipr/newappr.htm.
    35 2003年,在我国消耗的各类国内和进口资源约为50亿吨,原油、原煤、铁矿石、钢材、氧化铝和水泥的消耗量分别占世界总量的7.4%,31%,30%,27%,25%和40%,但创造的GDP相当于世界的4%。我国主要产品单位产量的能耗、水耗和矿产资源消耗大大高于国际先进水平。
    36 PLW为污染定价,工业废水中COD排放量为污染数量。CODI和CODD为根据理论模型设计的变量指标,实际上都是以COD排放量为基础的因变量。
    37 参见Jeffrey M.Wooldridge.Introductory Econometries:A Modern Approach[M].中国人民大学中译本2003年版:450。
    1 本节部分内容已发表在《中国人口·资源与环境》2005年第2期。
    2 参见R.科斯、A.阿尔钦等,1991:205.
    3 Barzel,1997:2.
    4 参见R.科斯、A.阿尔钦等,1991:98.
    5 Daniel H.Cole,2002.对产权更进一步的分类参见Hanna,Folke and Maler,1996;McCay, 1996.
    6 Bromley, 1991: 25-26.
    7 Daniel H.Cole, 2002: 128-129.
    8 参见科斯.社会成本问题.中文版,载于盛洪,2003:15.
    9 John S. Mill. Principles of Political Economy[M]. London: Longmans, Green & Co,1880[1848].
    10 See Yandle B. 1999.
    11 1908年5月美国自然资源保护大会《自然资源保护州长宣言》。
    12 Todd J. Zywicki, 1999.
    13 参见姚志勇,2002:71。
    14 Anderson, Terry L. and Leal, Danald R. Free Market Environmentalism. Boulder, Co. Westview Press,1991.
    15 Peter Huber, 2000:250-251.
    16 Richard A. Posner. 1997: Chapter 3.
    17 参见Brown and Jackson. Public Sector Economics[M]. Basil Blackwell,1990,转引自刘宇飞,2002: 105.
    18 在萨缪尔森条件提出之后,公共品的最优供给理论不断得到完善,从特定的帕累托最优解发展到一般的帕累托最优解,再发展到考虑社会福利函数的最优解,但萨缪尔森条件这一基本结论是一致的。
    19 Anderson,Terry L.and Leal,Donald R,1991:158-159.
    20 Borcherding,Ehomas E. Natural Resources and Transgeneral Equity.In Block,Water E.1990:95-115.
    21 E.菲吕博腾、S.配杰威齐.产权与经济理论:近期文献的一个综述.参见 R.科斯、A.阿尔钦等.1991:204-232.
    22 Barzel,1997: 10-13.
    23 Barzel,1997: 87-88.
    24 Daniel H. Cole. 2002.
    25 Barzel,1997: 120.
    26 赵红梅,黄真.水权塑造与水权属性的法学分析[C].中国社会科学院环境与发展研究中心,2004:531-532。
    27 参见吕忠梅,2003。
    28 经济学所使用的“土地”一般是指各种自然资源,是广义土地的概念(参见伊利和莫尔豪斯所著《土地经济学原理》,商务印书馆1982年中文版)。水资源可以视为是广义土地的 一部分。马克思指出,“只要水流等等有一个所有者,是土地的附属物,我们也可以把它作为土地来理解”(《马克思恩格斯全集》第25卷:695)。我们可以采用地租理论来分析优质水资源的价值。级差地租Ⅰ是指投到优质土地上的资本相对于投到最劣土地上的等量资本具有的较高生产力所导致的超额利润,土地所有权又把级差的超额利润转化为级差地租。如果水用户拥有水资源的环境属性,水用户可以通过支付对价的方法获得优质水资源所带来的超额利润。但是由于水资源环境属性的公共物品特性和不易衡量和监控的特点,水资源环境属性通常为国家所有,国家则通过用水顺序权配置和水污染规制的形式来保护和实现优质水资源的价值。
    29 参见2001年12月24日水利部部长汪恕诚在第九届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第二十五次会议上关于《中华人民共和国水法<修订草案>的说明》,并参见中华人民共和国水法第3条:“水资源属于国家所有。水资源的所有权由国务院代表国家行使”;第7条:“国家对水资源依法实行取水许可制度和有偿使用制度。……国务院水行政主管部门负责全国取水许可制度和水资源有偿使用制度的组织实施。”
    30 由于假定人口同质,在任何地方的效用函数是一致的,因此u没有下标。
    31 于秀波.中国河流,警笛长鸣[J].中国国家地理,2004,11:46。
    32 陈韶君,郑易生.2004:375。
    33 何大伟,陈静生,颜廷真.2001:45。
    34 各级水利部门为同级人民政府的水行政主管部门,但是由于计划经济体制的后遗症,部分与水相关的管理职能仍然散落在相关部门。比较突出的是城建部门对部分城市地下水、城市排水、城市污水集中处理设施建设的管理和指导,环境保护部门对城市污水排放行为和排放标准、水污染防治的治理,国土资源管理部门对地下水、矿泉水的开发和经营权的管理。另外还存在如湿地保护、航道管理、农业开发等大量的直接或者间接对水资源开发利用和管理产生影响的管理职能。
    35 马中,吴健.2004:333。
    36 法国环境部内设水总署,主管全国水利事务:(1)部际协调;(2)提出开发规划和水保、环保目标;(3)监督协调流域机构工作;(4)授权服务机构执法;(5)防洪调度管理;(6)参与有关科研、培训和国际合作管理。参见陈建明.法国水价制度研究[J].水利经济,2001,1:61.
    37 参见潘岳.中国要不惜代价地提前解决环境问题[N].21世纪经济报道,2005-6-27(33).
    38 参见1997年世界银行发展报告。现代政府最基本的五项责任为:建立国家的法制基础;保持国家宏观经济稳定;向人民提供社会和基础设施服务;保护社会中的弱势群体;保护环境和自然资源。 通过转移支付的方式支持州和地方政府在清洁水领域方面的工作,美国环境署、卫生部、农业部、联邦海洋与大气管理局等部门也提供援助资金用于清洁水领域。此外,联邦政府还建立了各种滚动基金,例如美国环境署协助建立的“清洁水州立滚动基金”。美墨边境地区也属于清洁水领域的关注范围。
    12 本节部分内容已发表在《城市问题》2005年第1期。
    13 参见www.hwcc.com.cn/newsdisplay/newsdisplay.
    14 World Bank. Regulation of Infrastructure. World Development Report, 2003.
    15 Eduardo Engel, Ronald Fisher and Alexander Galetovic. The Chilean Infrastructure Concessions Program: Evalution, Lessons and Prospects for the Future. From www.nber.org.
    16 Demsetz,H. 1968.
    17 参见《江苏省长江水污染防治条例》第6、8、10、11、18条。
    18 参见《江苏省长江水污染防治条例》第21条。
    19 马中,吴健.2004:332。
    20 欧盟各成员国在区位环境、经济发展水平和环境保护意识等方面存在诸多差异,欧盟更为重视成员国之间的协调,环境规制制度体现出以分权规制为主的特点。欧盟主要通过环境指令来实施环境政策,环境指令通常设定一个期限(一般为5年),在这一期限内成员国可以参照执行或者将其纳入环境立法逐步实行,这一过程为形式执行。如果成果国超过规定期限仍然未将指令转化为国内立法,环境指令将直接在成员国内强制执行。在环境指令和成员国环境立法并存时,欧盟主要通过辅助性原则、直接适用原则、优先适用原则和例外原则来协调联盟环境指令与各国国内环境立法的关系。参见蔡守秋,2002。
    21 IWRM也被译成“系统水管理制度”。
    22 参见“改善水供给和卫生的途径:根据千年发展目标重新思考前进的道路”,国际环境与发展研究所,收录于李小云、左听、靳勒山,2003:205。
    23 这是世界银行关于水资源政策的基本原则,参见世界银行,1993。
    24 傅涛,“城市水业政策与市场座谈会”,中国经济时报,2005-3-24(3).
    1 参见Roger Perman.2002:148。
    2 马歇尔在分析个别厂商和行业经济运行时运用了“外部经济”和“内部经济”的概念,外部经济指的是行业发展所带来的经济效率提高的现象。1928年A.Young在其著名的《收益递增与技术进步》中发展了这一思想,系统阐述了动态外部性问题。
    3 参见Roger Perman.2002:324-330.
    4 “有效”指净效益最大化的污染水平。只有通过资源的适当利用使社会福利函数达到最大化时,“最优”的表达才是适当的。因为经济学中的污染问题总是与经济的其他部分分割开来分析,经济学家并不对当前资源配置方式或财富分配方式是否最优加以判断,因而无法保证由社会净效益最大化的污染水平一定与社会总体福利最优相一致。所以,将净效益最大化的污染水平定义为“有效的”比定义为“最优的”更为适合。参见Rover Perman:312-315.
    5 Tom Tietenberg and David Wheeler, 1998.
    6 See Wallace E. Oates and Paul R.Portney, 2001.
    7 以黄河流域为例,由于各地区在黄河两岸竞相建设各种水设施,导致黄河耗水量大幅上升,黄河在上世纪九十年代出现年年断流的情况。虽然国务院制定了各省市的分水方案,但是根据黄委会公布的数据计算,从1992-1995年期间,内蒙古和山东平均年超标分别为13%和11.3%,而陕西和山西则没有用到分水标准,四年间平均每年的不足量为52%和75.8%。参见胡鞍钢.转型期水资源配置的公共政策.
    8 北京市人口接近1500万,人均水资源量不足300立方米,为全国的1/8,世界的1/30,低于联合国规定的人均水资源占有量1000立方米的缺水下限。2003年北京市总用水量35.8亿立方米,工业、生活、农业、河道环境用水分别为8.4、13.0、13.8、0.6亿立方米,分别占全市总用量的23%,36%,39%,2%。北京城市供水缺口在2005年达7.94-16.5亿立方米,2010年缺水量达到11.82亿-19.96亿立方米。资料来源见尾注9。
    9 徐谷朋.遭遇资源匮乏性污染,北京河道承受双重压力[N].中国经济时报,2005-8-24(4).
    10 Barzel,1997:126.
    11 参见V. Ostrom.,et al.大城市地区的政府组织.载于麦金尼斯(M.Mcginnis),2000:61.
    12 Young,M.,Hatton,D.et al.2000.
    13 Tietenberg,1974:464.转引自姚志勇等.2002:88.
    14 多重委托人与多重任务的委托—代理模型参见Dixit,Avinash K.2004:115-127.
    15 许书军,魏世强,谢德体.2004:389.
    16 1998年,造纸,食品加工、化工、纺织、皮革、采矿等六大工业部门占有87%的总工业 COD,但占工业产出值的比重只有27%.在20世纪80年代至90年代,我国乡镇工业造成的环境损失相当于其同期利税总额的79.79%.参见王松霈,1997。
    17 两图均为笔者根据中国环境年鉴相关数据整理而得。图中COD排放总量包括城镇生活COD排放量和(点源)工业COD排放量,并不包括广大的农村地区,后者的环境资料相当缺乏。
    18 Govindsamy(1994)提出了一个替代性的解决方案。管理者对整个地区的农场按照削污努力和投入情况排序,如果整个地区的水环境浓度超出理想值,那么就惩罚一个或多个排名靠后的农场:反之,如果环境浓度低于理想值,就奖励排名靠前的农场。这种方案也被称为“锦标赛排序法”。参见曹丽萍,王晓燕和广新菊,2004。但是这一方案在我国农村小农经济的情况下很难实行,政府往往只能通过命令控制、技术规范或二次治理来削减农村的非点源污染,成效不佳。农村环境规制效率与农村和农业的宏观政策和改革趋势是密切相关的。
    19 在农业非点源污染问题中,即使农民不能够将其排污量定量化,也可以通过其产出投入和生产方法揭示排污信息,规制者可以据此推断对环境污染的强度。
    20 1985年,美国国会通过了《食品安全法案》。该法案有两个计划旨在减少农业活动带来的污染。其中“水土保持计划”授权水土保护部门为农场主设置一个每年一次、为期10年的租金支付,这期间,农场主不再耕种极易受侵蚀的及靠近水体的土地,而代以种植常年覆盖植物,在河流附近30米范围内设置河流缓冲带。“保护承诺计划”要求在极易受侵蚀的土地上种植农作物的农民要么成立一个“土地保护部门”执行水保计划,要么失去政府财政支持的资格。
    21 Kraemer R. A., Kampa E. and Interwies E. The Role of Tradable Permits in Water Pollution Control. Working Paper. Institute for International and European Enviromental Policy, 2004.
    22 例如1994年12月上海市人大通过的《上海市环境保护》第31条规定:“……排污单位污染物排放必须达到规定的排放标准和总量控制指标……有关单位可以有偿转让部分排污指标。”
    23 参见戴星翼,1998:103。
    24 2004年,南通泰尔特染整有限公司与如皋亚点毛巾织染有限公司签订合同,由泰尔特公司将排污指标余量出售给亚点毛巾。双方在合同规定,排污指标余量转让期限为3年,每吨COD交易价格为1000元.这是我国首例跨行政辖区的水污染物排放权交易案例,目前省级行政辖区之间的排污权交易还没有开展。
    25 郭守前,2004:113-114。
    26 在这方面我们可以借鉴其他国家的宝贵经验。以美国为例,美国政府从1970年代起逐步建立了一系列环境资源数据库,其中包括联邦政府和州政府投资收集全国范围内的流域边界、水流、水质、土壤、土地利用等数据信息。并将数据全部储存在计算机内,在网上公开发布,用户只需交纳少许数据加工费或免费即可进行查询和使用,这样大大促进了科学数据在水质管理决策上的应用。
    27 侵权责任的分配规则在英美法系可以分为三类:(1)无责任规则,加害人不对受害人的损失承担赔偿责任;(2)严格责任规则,加害人对受害人的损失承担完全赔偿责任:(3)过失责任,加害人在没有达到法律规定的预防标准时,承担赔偿责任。依大陆法系分为,(1)过错责任,有过错的一方承担责任,双方若都有过错则通过过错比较承担责任;(2)严格责任,由加害方或法律规定的一方承担举证责任,但判决的基础是过失;(3)无过错责任,即无论有无过失均承担责任:(4)公平责任,考虑双方的支付补偿能力等因素来分担损失。参见张维迎,2003:93。
    1 参见Hal R.Varian,2000:105。
    2 参见单之蔷.休闲的莱茵,疲惫的黄河[J].中国国家地理,2004(11):58.
    3 K.威廉·伊斯特等.流域资源管理:方法与实例[M].北京:中国环境科学出版社,1990:246.转引自何大伟,陈静生,2001:45.
    4 吴舜泽,夏青,刘鸿亮.2000:3.
    5 我国30万亩以上的大型灌区有402处,实际灌溉面积为2.37亿亩,占全国有效灌溉面积的29%,占全国耕地面积的11%,灌溉用水量1520亿立方米,占农业灌溉用水总量的42%,农业用水的39%。
    6 案例实证资料源于Ostrom,2000:163-209.
    7 该补水区实际只留下了最精干的工作人员:一个执行主任和一个秘书,将实际补水工作外包给市场上能够提供补水服务的机构。参见Ostrom,2000:207。
    8 重庆大溪河流域污染事件是协作式环保的典型例子。大溪河是流经重庆九龙坡区下辖镇陶家镇的唯一河流,全长120公里,注入长江。2000年开始,流经镇内的水开始变黑,承包大溪河河段养鱼业务的张宗荣发现他的鱼全部死光。张宗荣最早进行了调查,发现上游江津市六家酒厂的废水直接排放到大溪河内,个人找企业交涉未果,最后张找到镇政府。2002年,张与部分村民对上游污染进行正式调查,镇政府则提供相关的技术人员和监测设备,之 后镇政府向重庆市和九龙坡区环保局通报了相关调查证据。但是由于污染企业不在本辖区之内,区环保局只能“建议”,上游并没有制止酒厂排放污染,只是排污从白天转到了夜间,镇政府决定依靠社会公众制止上游污染。2004年,镇政府鼓励民众采取措施保护水质,居民选举了数位热心公益的监督员负责收集相关的污染证据并向相关环境管理部门递交材料反映民意,其中三人监控水质变化,另外两人负责调查污染企业的排污情况,由镇政府提供照相机和摄像机。居民还邀请媒体到污染严重的区段进行采访,通过舆论向污染企业施加压力,所需费用由镇政府承担。上下游环保部门最终在2005年3月组成联合调查组,要求企业限期整改,实现达标排放。但是监督员发现,有的酒厂在夜间继续排放污水,因此监督员代表下游居民继续投诉,7月18日,江津市环保局执法检查结果表明,所有酒厂已经全部停产治理。历时5年的大溪河污染事件告一段落。参见吴红缨,刘玮.流域污染催生“协作式环保”[N].21世纪经济报道,2005.9.8(7).
    9 参见L.B.Parks et al.消费者作为公共服务协作生产者.载于麦金尼斯(M.Mcginnis),2000:503—517。
    10 近年来,由于水质恶化严重,下游水用户对上游大污染源的诉讼案件不断出现。例如,在2002年江苏石梁河水库污染事件中,上游的山东省金沂蒙公司和临沂化工总产因向下游排污而被告上法庭,法院判决山东公司向谢印立等97位江苏农民补偿损失费560.4万元和事故调查费4.8万元。
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    12 Lester M.Salamon,转引自康晓光,1999:14。
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    15 本节部分内容已发表在《人口与经济》2005年.“世界管理论坛”特刊。
    16 波特(M.Porter).绿化与竞争力.原文发表于《哈佛商业评论》1995年9/10月号。参见Lovins,A.et al.,2004.
    17 Peter F. Druker. 1946:137.
    18 K.Davis.et al.1975.
    19 戴维·罗根(David Logan).企业公民:定义及其关键特征.载于马伊里、杨团,2002:12。
    20 例如欧盟颁布的《关于报废电气电子设备指令》和《关于在电气电子设备中限制使用某些有害物质指令》将于2005年8月和2006年7月实施。根据中国机电出口商会的估算,中国受到直接影响的机电产品达到317亿美元,占对欧盟机电产品总额的70%以上。
    21 1997年以来,我国沿海地区至少有8000多家企业接受过跨国公司的社会责任审核,很多企业因为不合要求而被取消供应商资格。参见潘岳.中国要不惜代价地提前解决环境问题[N].21世纪经济报道,2005-6-27(33).
    22 Cohen and Konar,1995:2-3.
    23 参见V.Ostrom.多中心.载于麦金尼斯(M.Mcginnis),2000:95。
    24 胡鞍钢,王亚华,过勇.2002:43.
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