语言迁移对中国学生英语写作的影响
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摘要
从20世纪80年代开始,对二语写作的研究逐渐受到重视,相关的实证研究也日益增多。但其中大多数对于二语写作过程的研究仅停留在检验第二语言的写作过程是否与第一语言的写作过程结果相同(e.g., Raimes,1987; Zamel,1983)。真正讨论母语对外语写作影响的并不多,得出的结论也不一致。大多研究表明外语写作过程中母语对提高外语作文质量有积极作用。
语言迁移一直是应用语言学领域,特别是二语习得领域中颇有争议的重要课题。语言迁移经历了三个发展阶段,由最初的行为主义框架到认知心理学框架,人们对语言迁移的认识不断更新,提高。
本文结合思维模式和文化模式以实验中的520份作文为例,对中国学生英语习作中的词汇特别是句法和语篇进行了分析。结果表明,中国学生在其特定的文化背景中,在英语学习的过程中产生的某种特定的心理感受会对英语学习有所影响。在英语写作中,习惯用汉语思维并把汉语句子翻译成英语是造成本族文化习得的语言模式及写作规范迁移的一个重要原因。学生的英语水平和迁移的数量有一定的关系。表现在词汇和句法层面的迁移是学生采用直译的写作策略而造成用词不当和中国式英语。某些句子结构出现的频率很高,而另外一些则很少出现或基本不用。这在一定程度上证明了母语对外语学习的促进和干扰会造成对某些句法结构的过度使用或回避。而避免英汉差异较大的句法结构。这种回避虽然会使语法错误明显减少。但是也是造成中国学生英语作文单调乏味的主要原因。
通过对错误的分析及收集,发现学生在使用动词时态,名词的数,句子结构和冠词都存在有程度不同的问题。
本文研究讨论如何减少母语对中国学生英语写作的负面影响,以及如何培养学生的思维能力,帮助学生加强跨文化意识,是其认识英语和母语的相异之处,降低文化交际的可能性。在英语学习中能合理利用发挥母语的作用,使中国学生的英语写作更符合英语的语言特点。
From the beginning of 1980’s on, language teachers and researchers paid increasing attention to the research of L2 writing. Of all the researches so far, studies on the relationship between thinking/planning in L2 and its impact on L2 writing performance are sadly lacking and the problem with those studies is that they are small-scaled and exploratory. So the influences of L1 planning/thinking on L2 writing are still a controversial problem. The present research will also deal with it and explore influences of intended L1 planning on L2 writing performance.
Mother tongue transfer has been a controversial issue in foreign language learning, second language acquisition and language teaching for at least a century. After experiencing three periods, the perspective of language transfer study shifted from a behaviorist framework to a cognitive framework. Now linguistic researchers have a better and more comprehensive understanding of language transfer. The thesis explores language transfer in Chinese students’English writing and the analysis focuses on lexis especially on sentence and discourse level.
Based on the collection of the errors from 520 compositions of the students, the paper identifies some common errors and their frequency distributions show that the error frequency distribution. Chinese students intend to think in Chinese in the process of writing. It is the main factor that leads to the transfer of stylistic conventions that they have learned in their native language and culture into their English writing. On the other hand, the students’English proficiency and writing process are closely related to the amount of language transfer. The degree of markedness of words and syntactic structures in both NL and TL and the frequency of using them in TL will work together in language transfer. Both the overuse and avoidance may secure the number of errors and yet may also affect the variety and fluency of the students’writing.
Through the qualitative error analysis, the paper discovers that the students’uses of verb tenses, plural forms of nouns, sentence structures and articles prepositions are liable to the affected by their mother tongue.
The current research discusses some pedagogical implications for the EFL learning and teaching. EFL teachers should raise the consciousness of cross-cultural influence, make students get full aware of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English, and help them to think in English, which provides shortcuts for Chinese EFL learners on their way learning English.
语言迁移一直是应用语言学领域,特别是二语习得领域中颇有争议的重要课题。语言迁移经历了三个发展阶段,由最初的行为主义框架到认知心理学框架,人们对语言迁移的认识不断更新,提高。
本文结合思维模式和文化模式以实验中的520份作文为例,对中国学生英语习作中的词汇特别是句法和语篇进行了分析。结果表明,中国学生在其特定的文化背景中,在英语学习的过程中产生的某种特定的心理感受会对英语学习有所影响。在英语写作中,习惯用汉语思维并把汉语句子翻译成英语是造成本族文化习得的语言模式及写作规范迁移的一个重要原因。学生的英语水平和迁移的数量有一定的关系。表现在词汇和句法层面的迁移是学生采用直译的写作策略而造成用词不当和中国式英语。某些句子结构出现的频率很高,而另外一些则很少出现或基本不用。这在一定程度上证明了母语对外语学习的促进和干扰会造成对某些句法结构的过度使用或回避。而避免英汉差异较大的句法结构。这种回避虽然会使语法错误明显减少。但是也是造成中国学生英语作文单调乏味的主要原因。
通过对错误的分析及收集,发现学生在使用动词时态,名词的数,句子结构和冠词都存在有程度不同的问题。
本文研究讨论如何减少母语对中国学生英语写作的负面影响,以及如何培养学生的思维能力,帮助学生加强跨文化意识,是其认识英语和母语的相异之处,降低文化交际的可能性。在英语学习中能合理利用发挥母语的作用,使中国学生的英语写作更符合英语的语言特点。
From the beginning of 1980’s on, language teachers and researchers paid increasing attention to the research of L2 writing. Of all the researches so far, studies on the relationship between thinking/planning in L2 and its impact on L2 writing performance are sadly lacking and the problem with those studies is that they are small-scaled and exploratory. So the influences of L1 planning/thinking on L2 writing are still a controversial problem. The present research will also deal with it and explore influences of intended L1 planning on L2 writing performance.
Mother tongue transfer has been a controversial issue in foreign language learning, second language acquisition and language teaching for at least a century. After experiencing three periods, the perspective of language transfer study shifted from a behaviorist framework to a cognitive framework. Now linguistic researchers have a better and more comprehensive understanding of language transfer. The thesis explores language transfer in Chinese students’English writing and the analysis focuses on lexis especially on sentence and discourse level.
Based on the collection of the errors from 520 compositions of the students, the paper identifies some common errors and their frequency distributions show that the error frequency distribution. Chinese students intend to think in Chinese in the process of writing. It is the main factor that leads to the transfer of stylistic conventions that they have learned in their native language and culture into their English writing. On the other hand, the students’English proficiency and writing process are closely related to the amount of language transfer. The degree of markedness of words and syntactic structures in both NL and TL and the frequency of using them in TL will work together in language transfer. Both the overuse and avoidance may secure the number of errors and yet may also affect the variety and fluency of the students’writing.
Through the qualitative error analysis, the paper discovers that the students’uses of verb tenses, plural forms of nouns, sentence structures and articles prepositions are liable to the affected by their mother tongue.
The current research discusses some pedagogical implications for the EFL learning and teaching. EFL teachers should raise the consciousness of cross-cultural influence, make students get full aware of the similarities and differences between Chinese and English, and help them to think in English, which provides shortcuts for Chinese EFL learners on their way learning English.
引文
[1]Beidler, Bidirectional Transfer. Applied Linguistics, 2003.
[2]Berman, R. Learners’ transfer of writing skills between languages. TESL Canada Journal, 1994, 12,29-46.
[3] Chun, D.et al. Errors, interaction, and correction: a study of native-non-native conversaltions. TESOL Quartely. 1982, 16/4:
[4] Corder, S.P. The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics 1967, 5:161-9.
[5]Cumming, A. Writing expertise and second language proficiency. Language Learning 1989, 39:81-141.
[6]Dulay, H. and M. Burt. Natural sequences in child second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 1974, 24:37-53.
[7]Elaine Tarone, George Yule. Focus on the language Learner. [C] Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2000.,17-19
[8]Ellis, R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford University Press.1994.
[9]Emig, J. The Composing Processes of Twelfth Garders [C]. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English. 1971.
[10]Francis, N. Billingualism, writing, and metalinguistic awareness: oral-literate interactions between first and second language [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 1999, 20:533-561.
[11]Friedlander,A. Composing in English: effects of a first language on writing in English as a second language[M].In B.Kroll(ed.) Second Language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge Applied Linguistics. 1990.
[12] Gass, S.M. Second Language Acquisition. Newjerey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 1994.
[13]Granfors,T, and R.palmberg. LanguageUniversals: With Special reference to Feature Jierarchies[M]. The Hague:Mouton. 1976.
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[18]James, C. Errors in language learning and use: Exploring Error Analysis[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2001.
[19]Johnson,K.& H.Johnson.Encyclopedic Dictionary of applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language teaching.[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.2001.
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[21]Kaplan,R.B. Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. Language Learning 1966, 16:1-20.
[22]Kim,C. L1 and L2 educational levels, intelligence, and the second language writing performance of Korean ESL students[M].Unpublished M.A. dissertation. Department of ESL, University of Hawaii at manoa, Honolulu, USA. 1997.
[23]Krapels,A. An overview of second language writing process research[M]. In B. Kroll(Ed.), Second Language writing: Research Insights for the Classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1990.
[24]Kubota, R. An investigation of L1-L2 transfer in writing among Japanese university students: Implications for contrastive rhetoric [C].Journal of Second Language Writing 1998, 7/1.
[25]Lado, R. Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1957.
[26]Larey A. Samovar et al. Communication Between Cultures. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000,128-129.
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[32]Odlin,T. Word-order transfer, metalinguistic awareness and constraints on foreign language learning[M]. Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press. 2001
[33]Pennington,M. & So,S. Comparing writing process and product across two languages: a study of six Singaporean University student writers.[C] Journal of Second language Writing, 1993, 2,41-63.
[34]Quick et al. A Grammar of Contemportary English. London: Lonman.1972.
[35]Raimes, A. Techniques in Teaching Writing[A]. New York: Oxford University Press: 1983,3
[36]Richards,J.C.,J. Platt and H.Platt. Longman Dictionary of Language teaching and Applied Linguistics, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.2000.
[37]Robb,T., Ross,S & Shortreed, I. Salience of feedback on error and its effect on EFL writing quality. TESOL Quarterly. 1986,20/1. 83-93
[38]Sadaki,M. Explanatory variables for EFL students’ expository writing [J].language Learning 1996, 46:137-174.
[39]Selinker,L.. Interlanguage[M], International Review of Applied Linguistics 1972,10,3.
[40]Sjoholm,K. A comparison of the test results in grammar and vocabulary between finnish-and Swedish-speaking Applicants for English. In Errors Made by Finns and Swedish-speaking Finns in the Learning of English, ed. By Hakan Ringborm and Rolf Pakmberg. Abo, Finland: Department of English, Abo Akademi. ERIC Report Ed 1976, 122628.
[41]Swan,M.& Smith, B(eds.). Learner English: A teacher’s Guider to interfence and Other Problems[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1987.
[42]Taylor,G. Errors and explanations[J]. Applied Linguistics 1986, 7: 144-66.
[43]Tran-Chi-Chau. Error analysis, contrastive analysis and students’ perceptions: a study of difficulty in second language learning [J]. International Review of Applied Linguistics 1975,13:119-43
[44]Trevise, A. Is it transferable, topicalization? In Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition, ed. By Eric Kellerman and Michael Sharwood Smith[M]. New York: Pegamon Press. 1986.
[45]Wardhaugh, R. The contrastive analysis Hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly,1970,4:123-30.
[46]Whalen, K.,& Menard, N. L1 and L2 writer’s strategic and linguistic knowledge: a model of multiple-level discourse processing.[J] Language Learning, 1995,45,381-418.
[47]Yang Dafu. Error Patterns. Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Press. 2000.
[48] Zobl, H. Markedness and the projection problem. Language Learning 1983,33:293-313.
[50]蔡金亭,“中国学生过度语中的作格动词——一项实证研究”[J].《外语教学与研究》,2000 第 7 期。
[51]戴炜栋、束定芳,“对比分析,错误分析和中介语研究中的若干问题”[J]. 《外国语》,1994 第 5 期。
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[55]马广惠、文秋芳,“大学生英语写作能力的影响因素研究”[J]. 《外语教学与研究》,1999 第 4 期。
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[57]唐承贤,“差错分析综述” [J].《外语教学与研究》,1997 第 2 期。
[58]王初明,“影响外语学习的两大应素与外语教学”. 《外语界》,2001 第 6 期。
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[2]Berman, R. Learners’ transfer of writing skills between languages. TESL Canada Journal, 1994, 12,29-46.
[3] Chun, D.et al. Errors, interaction, and correction: a study of native-non-native conversaltions. TESOL Quartely. 1982, 16/4:
[4] Corder, S.P. The significance of learners’ errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics 1967, 5:161-9.
[5]Cumming, A. Writing expertise and second language proficiency. Language Learning 1989, 39:81-141.
[6]Dulay, H. and M. Burt. Natural sequences in child second language acquisition [J]. Language Learning 1974, 24:37-53.
[7]Elaine Tarone, George Yule. Focus on the language Learner. [C] Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2000.,17-19
[8]Ellis, R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford University Press.1994.
[9]Emig, J. The Composing Processes of Twelfth Garders [C]. Urbana: National Council of Teachers of English. 1971.
[10]Francis, N. Billingualism, writing, and metalinguistic awareness: oral-literate interactions between first and second language [J]. Applied Psycholinguistics 1999, 20:533-561.
[11]Friedlander,A. Composing in English: effects of a first language on writing in English as a second language[M].In B.Kroll(ed.) Second Language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge Applied Linguistics. 1990.
[12] Gass, S.M. Second Language Acquisition. Newjerey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 1994.
[13]Granfors,T, and R.palmberg. LanguageUniversals: With Special reference to Feature Jierarchies[M]. The Hague:Mouton. 1976.
[14] Hall, C. Managing the complexity of revising across languages [M]. TESOL Quarterly 1990 ,24:43-60 .
[15]Hamill,J. Transcultural logic:Testing hypothesis in three languages[M]. In Discourse and Interference from Cognitive Psychology, ed. By M.D.Loflin and J.Silverberg. The Hague:Mouton. 1978.
[16]Hayes, J. R. Identifying the organization of writing process [A].In L. Gregg &E.Steinberg(eds). Cognitive Processing in Writing: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. 1980.
[17]Hyltenstam, K. The use of typological markedness conditions as predictions in second language acquisition; the case of pronominal copies in relative clauses [A] in Andersen. 1984.
[18]James, C. Errors in language learning and use: Exploring Error Analysis[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2001.
[19]Johnson,K.& H.Johnson.Encyclopedic Dictionary of applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language teaching.[M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.2001.
[20]Jones,S. & Tetroe, J. Composing in a second language. In A. Matshuhasi (Ed.), Writing in Real Time Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing. 1987
[21]Kaplan,R.B. Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. Language Learning 1966, 16:1-20.
[22]Kim,C. L1 and L2 educational levels, intelligence, and the second language writing performance of Korean ESL students[M].Unpublished M.A. dissertation. Department of ESL, University of Hawaii at manoa, Honolulu, USA. 1997.
[23]Krapels,A. An overview of second language writing process research[M]. In B. Kroll(Ed.), Second Language writing: Research Insights for the Classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1990.
[24]Kubota, R. An investigation of L1-L2 transfer in writing among Japanese university students: Implications for contrastive rhetoric [C].Journal of Second Language Writing 1998, 7/1.
[25]Lado, R. Linguistics across cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1957.
[26]Larey A. Samovar et al. Communication Between Cultures. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2000,128-129.
[27]Lee,W. Thoughts on contrastives linguistics in the context of language teaching[A]. In J. Alatis(Ed.) Report on the Nineteenth Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Studies, Georgetown University. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. 1968.
[28]Lennon,P. Error: some problems of definition, identification and distinction.. Applied linguistic.1991, 12/2. 180-96.
[29]Lian, Principles of Pragmatics [M]. London: Longman 1993.
[30]Nida, E.A. Componential Analysis of Meaning: An Introduction to Semantic Structures[M]. The Hague:Mouton. 1975.
[31]Odlin, T. Language Transfer: Cross-linguistic Interference in Language Learning [A]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1989
[32]Odlin,T. Word-order transfer, metalinguistic awareness and constraints on foreign language learning[M]. Shanghai: Foreign Language Education Press. 2001
[33]Pennington,M. & So,S. Comparing writing process and product across two languages: a study of six Singaporean University student writers.[C] Journal of Second language Writing, 1993, 2,41-63.
[34]Quick et al. A Grammar of Contemportary English. London: Lonman.1972.
[35]Raimes, A. Techniques in Teaching Writing[A]. New York: Oxford University Press: 1983,3
[36]Richards,J.C.,J. Platt and H.Platt. Longman Dictionary of Language teaching and Applied Linguistics, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.2000.
[37]Robb,T., Ross,S & Shortreed, I. Salience of feedback on error and its effect on EFL writing quality. TESOL Quarterly. 1986,20/1. 83-93
[38]Sadaki,M. Explanatory variables for EFL students’ expository writing [J].language Learning 1996, 46:137-174.
[39]Selinker,L.. Interlanguage[M], International Review of Applied Linguistics 1972,10,3.
[40]Sjoholm,K. A comparison of the test results in grammar and vocabulary between finnish-and Swedish-speaking Applicants for English. In Errors Made by Finns and Swedish-speaking Finns in the Learning of English, ed. By Hakan Ringborm and Rolf Pakmberg. Abo, Finland: Department of English, Abo Akademi. ERIC Report Ed 1976, 122628.
[41]Swan,M.& Smith, B(eds.). Learner English: A teacher’s Guider to interfence and Other Problems[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1987.
[42]Taylor,G. Errors and explanations[J]. Applied Linguistics 1986, 7: 144-66.
[43]Tran-Chi-Chau. Error analysis, contrastive analysis and students’ perceptions: a study of difficulty in second language learning [J]. International Review of Applied Linguistics 1975,13:119-43
[44]Trevise, A. Is it transferable, topicalization? In Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition, ed. By Eric Kellerman and Michael Sharwood Smith[M]. New York: Pegamon Press. 1986.
[45]Wardhaugh, R. The contrastive analysis Hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly,1970,4:123-30.
[46]Whalen, K.,& Menard, N. L1 and L2 writer’s strategic and linguistic knowledge: a model of multiple-level discourse processing.[J] Language Learning, 1995,45,381-418.
[47]Yang Dafu. Error Patterns. Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Press. 2000.
[48] Zobl, H. Markedness and the projection problem. Language Learning 1983,33:293-313.
[50]蔡金亭,“中国学生过度语中的作格动词——一项实证研究”[J].《外语教学与研究》,2000 第 7 期。
[51]戴炜栋、束定芳,“对比分析,错误分析和中介语研究中的若干问题”[J]. 《外国语》,1994 第 5 期。
[52]桂诗春,《语言学教程》. 上海:上海外语教育出版社,1988。
[53]郭纯洁、刘芳, “外语写作中母语影响的动态研究”[J].《现代外语》,1997 第 4期。
[54]李森,“改进英语写作教学的重要举措:过程教学法”[J].《外语界》,2000 第 1期。
[55]马广惠、文秋芳,“大学生英语写作能力的影响因素研究”[J]. 《外语教学与研究》,1999 第 4 期。
[56]孙勉志,《汉语环境与英语学习》[M],上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2001。
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