语义Web中的本体映射与评价
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摘要
语义Web虽发展缓慢但却稳步发展。本体作为语义Web的核心部分受到了广泛关注并且还需寻找一些新的技术来实现本体的发展。为了使语义Web的研究切实可行,毫无疑问,本体映射和映射的评价是我们最很重要的一个研究方向。当前可行的本体映射技术并未充分考虑本体的语义,并且一般都是采用传统的技术来计算本体之间的相似度,因此匹配结果并没有达到实际预期效果。传统技术使用多策略映射技术和通过给每一种映射策略分配固定的权值的方法来合并映射结果,而事实上语义本体的权值应该通过其语义来决定权值的分配。在本文中我们提出了一种通过上下文语义来设置权值和计算相似度的条件信息量的概念。
评价映射结果的算法与本体映射一样重要,不同时期出现了不同的映射评价的技术,其中查全率和查准率是最常用的技术。和传统的映射技术一样,传统的评价技术也没考虑本体的语义。本文提出了纯粹的语义查准率和查全率的一个评价框架,这一框架确保评价方法是纯语义的。我们将把这个框架与一些基本应用的评价方法相结合,将其应用实际操作中。
The world of semantic web is progressing slowly but constantly. Ontologies, being the backbone of the semantic web, needs to be focused and new techniques are required to be developed relating to it. Ontology mapping and mapping evaluation are undoubtedly one of the most important operations we need to develop in order to make the semantic web become practical for usage. The current available techniques for ontology mapping do not consider the semantics of the ontologies and use the traditional techniques for finding similarities between the ontologies. As a result the alignments produced are not as close or not as good as they should be. Traditional techniques use multiple strategies and combine the results by assigning fixed weights to each strategy, while in actual the ontologies are semantic in nature so the weights should also be assigned according to their semantics. We propose the concept of conditional information quantity which modifies formulas for computing similarity and set the weights according to the semantic contexts of strategies. Just as mapping is important, evaluating the results of mapping algorithms is also important. There are various techniques or evaluating alignments developed at different times, but precision and recall are the most commonly used techniques. The traditional evaluation techniques, just like traditional mapping techniques, do not consider the semantics of the algorithms. Here, we propose a framework for purely semantic precision and recall. This framework will make sure that the evaluation measures are purely semantic. We will also instantiate the framework with some application oriented evaluation measures.
评价映射结果的算法与本体映射一样重要,不同时期出现了不同的映射评价的技术,其中查全率和查准率是最常用的技术。和传统的映射技术一样,传统的评价技术也没考虑本体的语义。本文提出了纯粹的语义查准率和查全率的一个评价框架,这一框架确保评价方法是纯语义的。我们将把这个框架与一些基本应用的评价方法相结合,将其应用实际操作中。
The world of semantic web is progressing slowly but constantly. Ontologies, being the backbone of the semantic web, needs to be focused and new techniques are required to be developed relating to it. Ontology mapping and mapping evaluation are undoubtedly one of the most important operations we need to develop in order to make the semantic web become practical for usage. The current available techniques for ontology mapping do not consider the semantics of the ontologies and use the traditional techniques for finding similarities between the ontologies. As a result the alignments produced are not as close or not as good as they should be. Traditional techniques use multiple strategies and combine the results by assigning fixed weights to each strategy, while in actual the ontologies are semantic in nature so the weights should also be assigned according to their semantics. We propose the concept of conditional information quantity which modifies formulas for computing similarity and set the weights according to the semantic contexts of strategies. Just as mapping is important, evaluating the results of mapping algorithms is also important. There are various techniques or evaluating alignments developed at different times, but precision and recall are the most commonly used techniques. The traditional evaluation techniques, just like traditional mapping techniques, do not consider the semantics of the algorithms. Here, we propose a framework for purely semantic precision and recall. This framework will make sure that the evaluation measures are purely semantic. We will also instantiate the framework with some application oriented evaluation measures.
引文
[1]Berners-Lee T, Hendler J, Lassila O. The semantic Web. Scientific American, 2001,284 (5):34～43
[2]Tim Berners-Lee. Semantic Web roadmap. http://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/ Semantic.html,1998
[3]Tim Berners-Lee. Semantic Web-XML2000. http://www.w3.org/2000/Talks/ 1206-xml2k-tbl/slide10～0.html,2000
[4]Alexandra Cristea, Craig Stewart, Spiros Sirmakessis. Adaptivit Personalization and the Semantic Web. Proceedings of the joint international workshop.2006.9933～9934
[5]T. Berners～Lee, Mark Fischetti. Weaving the Web:The Past, Present and Future of the World Wide Web by its Inventor. Harper San Francisco,1999.157～176
[6]John Davies, Rudi Studer and Paul Warren. Semantic Web Technologies～Trends and Research in Ontology based Systems. John Wiley and Sons,2006:1～8
[7]Studer R, Benjamins V R, Fensel D. Knowledge Engineering:Principles and Methods. Data and Knowledge Engineering,1998,25(122):161～197
[8]M.L.Kulkarni, Prakash S.Matadh, C.Ashok et al.Indian Journal of Pediatrics.2007, 74:787～789
[9]Neches R, Fikes R. E, Gruber T. R, et al. Enabling technology for knowledge sharing. AI Magazine,1991,12 (3):16～36
[10]W3C. Resource Description Framework (RDF). http://www.w3.org/RDF/,2004
[11]W3C. OWL Web Ontology Language Overview. http://www.w3.org/TR/owl ～features/,2004
[12]Artem Chebotko and Shiyong Lu. Querying the Semantic Web:An Efficient Approach Using Relational Databases. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing,2009
[13]Bo Zhou, Tinglei Huang. Semantic WEB Service Discovery Search with Ontology Learning. In:2008 International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering, CSSE.2008.1048～1051
[14]Zuo zhihong, Zhou mingtian.Web Ontology Language OWL and its description logic foundation. Fourth International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Computing, Applications and Technologies, p157～160,2003
[15]James Hendler. Agents and the Semantic Web. IEEE INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS. 2001.30～37
[16]Nicholas R. Jennings. On agent-based software engineering. Artificial Intelligence.2000,117(2):277～296
[17]Studer R, Benjamins V R, Fensel D. Knowledge Engineering:Principles and Methods. Data and Knowledge Engineering,1998,25(122):161～197
[18]Isabel F.Cruz, William Sunna,Nalin Makar et al. A visual tool for ontology alignment to enable geospatial interoperability Jouranl of Visual Languages and Computing.2007,230～254
[19]Prasenjit Mitra,Gio Wiederhold,Martin Kersten etal. A Graph-Oriented Model for Articulation of Ontology Interdependencies.2000,1777:86～100
[20]P. Avesani, F. Giunchiglia, and M. Yatskevich. A large scale taxonomy mapping evaluation. In:Proceedings of International Semantic Web Conference,2005, 67～81
[21]H. B. Enderton. A Mathematical Introduction to Logic. San Diego. CA:Academic Press,1972
[22]T. Gruber. A translation approach to portable ontology specifications. In: Knowledge Acquisition,1993,5:199～199
[23]Zhao Zhong-ying, Liang Yong-quan, Ji Shu～juan. Study on Ontology Mapping in Ontological Engineering. Journal of Informatio.2007,8:23～25.
[24]N. Noy, Semantic Integration:A Survey of Ontology-based Approaches. SIGMOD Record.2004,33(4):362～378
[25]AnHai Doan, Jayant Madhavan, Pedro Domingos, and Alon Halevy, Learning to map between ontologies on the semantic web. In:Proceedings of the 11th World Wide Web Conference,2002,662～673.
[26]Davies J, Weeks R. QuizRDF:Search Technology for the Semantic Web. In: Proceedings of the 37th Annual International Conference. Hawaii,2004,112～119
[27]Gruber, T. R.1995. Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing. International Journal of Human and Computer Studies, 43(5/6):907～928
[28]Bouquet P, Serafini L, Zanobini S. Peer-to-Peer Semantic Coordination. Journal of Web Semantics, Volume 2, Issue 1,2005,238～261
[29]I. Horrocks, P F. Patel-Schneider. Three Theses of Representation in the Semantic Web. Proceedings of the 12th international conference on World Wide Web, Budapest, Hungary. May 20th～24th,2003
[30]CJ Acuna, E Marcos. Modeling semantic web services:a case study. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Web engineering.2006,32～39
[31]Giese.M,Mistrzyk.T,Pfau.A,et al. Verification of Object-Oriented Software. The KeY Approach.2007,21～68
[32]Pretorius, A.J.Proceedings. Eighth International Conference on Information Visualisation,2004,58-63
[33]YiminWang, Peter Haase, Jie Bao. A Survey of Formalisms for Modular Ontologies[A]. In International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence 2007 (IJCAI'07) Workshop SWeCKa. Hyderabad, India:2007:209～217
[34]Adil Hameed, Alun Preece, and Derek Sleeman. Ontology reconciliation. In:Steffen Staab and Rudi Studer, editors. Handbook on ontologies. Springer Verlag, Berlin (DE),2004
[35]KeWei Tu, Miao Xiong, Lei Zhang, et al. Towards Imaging Large-Scale Ontologies for Quick Understanding and Analysis. In:Proceedings of International Semantic Web Conference.2005,702～715
[36]JB Bard, SY Rhe. Ontologies in biology:design, applications and future challenges. Nature Reviews Genetics,2004,213～222
[37]Prashant Doshi, Ravikanth Kolli, Christopher Thomas. Inexact matching of ontology graphs using expectation-maximization. Web Semantics:Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web,2009,7(2):90～106
[38]WU Ya-Juan, LANG Ji-Sheng, SHANG Fu-Hua. A Similarity-Based Approach for Ontology Mapping. In:Proceedings of 2009 4th International Conference on Computer Science & Education,2009.165～169
[39]G Stumme, A Maedche. FCA-Merge:Bottom～up merging of ontologies. In: Proceedings of International Joint Conference on Artificial.2001.1-6
[40]Helena Sofia Pinto, Joao P Martins. A methodology for ontology integration. In: Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Knowledge capture.2001. 131～138
[41]James Ressler. Mike Dean. Edward Benson. Application of ontology translation. Proceedings of the 6th international semantic web and 2nd Asian conference on Asian semantic web conference.2007.830～842
[42]Diana Kalibatiene, Olegas Vasilecas. Formal transformation of ontology axioms to application domain rules. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Computer Systems.2008.1～8
[43]Pavel Shvaiko, Jerome Euzenat. Tutorial on Ontology Matching. In:SWAP-2006, Pisa, Italy,2006
[44]Laurent Mazuel, Nicolas Sabouret. A communication protocol for semantic heterogeneity with incomplete ontology alignment. Proceedings of The 8th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems.2009. 1187～1188
[45]Patrick Lambrix, He Tan. A tool for evaluating ontology alignment strategies. Journal on data semantics.2007,182～202
[46]Namyoun Choi, Ⅱ-Yeol Song, Hyoil. A survey on ontology mapping. ACM SIGMOD Record.2006,35(3):34～41
[47]J. Li, J. Tang, Y. Li, et al. RiMOM:A dynamic multi-strategy ontology alignment framework. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering,2009,21(8): 1218～1232
[48]Sergey Melnik, Hector Garcia-Molina, Erhard Rahm. Similarity Flooding:A Versatile Graph Matching Algorithm, In:The 18th International Conference on Data Engineering,2002,112～126
[49]Yves R. Jean～Mary, E. Patrick Shironoshita, Mansur R. Kabuka. Ontology matching with semantic verification. Web Semantics:Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web,2009,7(3):235～251
[50]Fausto Giunchiglia, Pavel Shvaiko and Mikalai Yatskevich. S～MATCH:An Algorithm and An Implementation of Semantic Matching, In:Proceedings of the European Semantic Web Symposum, LNCS, Trento Itely,2004,356～375
[51]M. Nagy, M. Vargas～Vera, E. Motta, DSSim-managing uncertainty on the semantic web. In:Proceedings of ISWC+ASWC Workshop on Ontology Matching,2007,160～169
[52]Doan A., Madhavan J., Donfingos P.,et al. Learning to map between ontologies on the semantic web. In:Proceedings of the 11th World Wide Web Conference, 2002,662～673
[53]R. Dhamankar, Y. Lee, A. Doan, et al. iMAP:discovering complex semantic matches between database schemas, In:Proceedings of the 23th ACM International Conference on Management of Data, ACM Press,2004,383～394
[54]Wei Hu, Ningsheng Jian, Yuzhong Qu,et al. GMO:A Graph Matching for Ontologies. In:Proceedings of K-CAP Workshop on Integrating Ontologies.2005, 41～48
[55]Wei Hu, Yuzhong Qu. Block Matching for Ontologies. In:International Semantic Web Conference 2006,300～313
[56]Wei Hu, Yuzhong Qu, Gong Cheng. Matching large ontologies:A divide-and-conquer approach. Data & Knowledge Engineering,2008,140～160
[57]Ningsheng Jian, Wei Hu, Gong Cheng, et al. Falcon-AO:Aligning Ontologies with Falcon. In:Proceedings of K-CAP Workshop on Integrating Ontologies. 2005.85-91
[58]Yuzhong Qu, Wei Hu, Gong Cheng. Constructing Virtual Documents for Ontology Matching. World Wide Web Conference. in:Proceedings of the 15th International World Wide Web Conference, ACM Press,2006,23～31
[59]Zhiwei Zhang, Dezhi Xu, and Tian Zhang, Ontology Mapping Based on Conditional Information Quantity. In:Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Networking, Sensing and Control, ICNSC 2008, Hainan, China, 2008:587～591
[60]Euzenat J, Semantic Precision and Recall for Ontology Alignment Evaluation. In: Proceedings of IJCAI'07. Berlin:Springer,2007.348～353
[61]Tian Zhang, Dezhi Xu, Jianer Chen, Application-oriented purely semantic precision and recall for ontology mapping evaluation. In:Elsevier: Knowledge-Based Systems,2008,21:794～799
[2]Tim Berners-Lee. Semantic Web roadmap. http://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/ Semantic.html,1998
[3]Tim Berners-Lee. Semantic Web-XML2000. http://www.w3.org/2000/Talks/ 1206-xml2k-tbl/slide10～0.html,2000
[4]Alexandra Cristea, Craig Stewart, Spiros Sirmakessis. Adaptivit Personalization and the Semantic Web. Proceedings of the joint international workshop.2006.9933～9934
[5]T. Berners～Lee, Mark Fischetti. Weaving the Web:The Past, Present and Future of the World Wide Web by its Inventor. Harper San Francisco,1999.157～176
[6]John Davies, Rudi Studer and Paul Warren. Semantic Web Technologies～Trends and Research in Ontology based Systems. John Wiley and Sons,2006:1～8
[7]Studer R, Benjamins V R, Fensel D. Knowledge Engineering:Principles and Methods. Data and Knowledge Engineering,1998,25(122):161～197
[8]M.L.Kulkarni, Prakash S.Matadh, C.Ashok et al.Indian Journal of Pediatrics.2007, 74:787～789
[9]Neches R, Fikes R. E, Gruber T. R, et al. Enabling technology for knowledge sharing. AI Magazine,1991,12 (3):16～36
[10]W3C. Resource Description Framework (RDF). http://www.w3.org/RDF/,2004
[11]W3C. OWL Web Ontology Language Overview. http://www.w3.org/TR/owl ～features/,2004
[12]Artem Chebotko and Shiyong Lu. Querying the Semantic Web:An Efficient Approach Using Relational Databases. LAP Lambert Academic Publishing,2009
[13]Bo Zhou, Tinglei Huang. Semantic WEB Service Discovery Search with Ontology Learning. In:2008 International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering, CSSE.2008.1048～1051
[14]Zuo zhihong, Zhou mingtian.Web Ontology Language OWL and its description logic foundation. Fourth International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Computing, Applications and Technologies, p157～160,2003
[15]James Hendler. Agents and the Semantic Web. IEEE INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS. 2001.30～37
[16]Nicholas R. Jennings. On agent-based software engineering. Artificial Intelligence.2000,117(2):277～296
[17]Studer R, Benjamins V R, Fensel D. Knowledge Engineering:Principles and Methods. Data and Knowledge Engineering,1998,25(122):161～197
[18]Isabel F.Cruz, William Sunna,Nalin Makar et al. A visual tool for ontology alignment to enable geospatial interoperability Jouranl of Visual Languages and Computing.2007,230～254
[19]Prasenjit Mitra,Gio Wiederhold,Martin Kersten etal. A Graph-Oriented Model for Articulation of Ontology Interdependencies.2000,1777:86～100
[20]P. Avesani, F. Giunchiglia, and M. Yatskevich. A large scale taxonomy mapping evaluation. In:Proceedings of International Semantic Web Conference,2005, 67～81
[21]H. B. Enderton. A Mathematical Introduction to Logic. San Diego. CA:Academic Press,1972
[22]T. Gruber. A translation approach to portable ontology specifications. In: Knowledge Acquisition,1993,5:199～199
[23]Zhao Zhong-ying, Liang Yong-quan, Ji Shu～juan. Study on Ontology Mapping in Ontological Engineering. Journal of Informatio.2007,8:23～25.
[24]N. Noy, Semantic Integration:A Survey of Ontology-based Approaches. SIGMOD Record.2004,33(4):362～378
[25]AnHai Doan, Jayant Madhavan, Pedro Domingos, and Alon Halevy, Learning to map between ontologies on the semantic web. In:Proceedings of the 11th World Wide Web Conference,2002,662～673.
[26]Davies J, Weeks R. QuizRDF:Search Technology for the Semantic Web. In: Proceedings of the 37th Annual International Conference. Hawaii,2004,112～119
[27]Gruber, T. R.1995. Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing. International Journal of Human and Computer Studies, 43(5/6):907～928
[28]Bouquet P, Serafini L, Zanobini S. Peer-to-Peer Semantic Coordination. Journal of Web Semantics, Volume 2, Issue 1,2005,238～261
[29]I. Horrocks, P F. Patel-Schneider. Three Theses of Representation in the Semantic Web. Proceedings of the 12th international conference on World Wide Web, Budapest, Hungary. May 20th～24th,2003
[30]CJ Acuna, E Marcos. Modeling semantic web services:a case study. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series Proceedings of the 6th international conference on Web engineering.2006,32～39
[31]Giese.M,Mistrzyk.T,Pfau.A,et al. Verification of Object-Oriented Software. The KeY Approach.2007,21～68
[32]Pretorius, A.J.Proceedings. Eighth International Conference on Information Visualisation,2004,58-63
[33]YiminWang, Peter Haase, Jie Bao. A Survey of Formalisms for Modular Ontologies[A]. In International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence 2007 (IJCAI'07) Workshop SWeCKa. Hyderabad, India:2007:209～217
[34]Adil Hameed, Alun Preece, and Derek Sleeman. Ontology reconciliation. In:Steffen Staab and Rudi Studer, editors. Handbook on ontologies. Springer Verlag, Berlin (DE),2004
[35]KeWei Tu, Miao Xiong, Lei Zhang, et al. Towards Imaging Large-Scale Ontologies for Quick Understanding and Analysis. In:Proceedings of International Semantic Web Conference.2005,702～715
[36]JB Bard, SY Rhe. Ontologies in biology:design, applications and future challenges. Nature Reviews Genetics,2004,213～222
[37]Prashant Doshi, Ravikanth Kolli, Christopher Thomas. Inexact matching of ontology graphs using expectation-maximization. Web Semantics:Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web,2009,7(2):90～106
[38]WU Ya-Juan, LANG Ji-Sheng, SHANG Fu-Hua. A Similarity-Based Approach for Ontology Mapping. In:Proceedings of 2009 4th International Conference on Computer Science & Education,2009.165～169
[39]G Stumme, A Maedche. FCA-Merge:Bottom～up merging of ontologies. In: Proceedings of International Joint Conference on Artificial.2001.1-6
[40]Helena Sofia Pinto, Joao P Martins. A methodology for ontology integration. In: Proceedings of the 1st international conference on Knowledge capture.2001. 131～138
[41]James Ressler. Mike Dean. Edward Benson. Application of ontology translation. Proceedings of the 6th international semantic web and 2nd Asian conference on Asian semantic web conference.2007.830～842
[42]Diana Kalibatiene, Olegas Vasilecas. Formal transformation of ontology axioms to application domain rules. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Computer Systems.2008.1～8
[43]Pavel Shvaiko, Jerome Euzenat. Tutorial on Ontology Matching. In:SWAP-2006, Pisa, Italy,2006
[44]Laurent Mazuel, Nicolas Sabouret. A communication protocol for semantic heterogeneity with incomplete ontology alignment. Proceedings of The 8th International Conference on Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems.2009. 1187～1188
[45]Patrick Lambrix, He Tan. A tool for evaluating ontology alignment strategies. Journal on data semantics.2007,182～202
[46]Namyoun Choi, Ⅱ-Yeol Song, Hyoil. A survey on ontology mapping. ACM SIGMOD Record.2006,35(3):34～41
[47]J. Li, J. Tang, Y. Li, et al. RiMOM:A dynamic multi-strategy ontology alignment framework. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering,2009,21(8): 1218～1232
[48]Sergey Melnik, Hector Garcia-Molina, Erhard Rahm. Similarity Flooding:A Versatile Graph Matching Algorithm, In:The 18th International Conference on Data Engineering,2002,112～126
[49]Yves R. Jean～Mary, E. Patrick Shironoshita, Mansur R. Kabuka. Ontology matching with semantic verification. Web Semantics:Science, Services and Agents on the World Wide Web,2009,7(3):235～251
[50]Fausto Giunchiglia, Pavel Shvaiko and Mikalai Yatskevich. S～MATCH:An Algorithm and An Implementation of Semantic Matching, In:Proceedings of the European Semantic Web Symposum, LNCS, Trento Itely,2004,356～375
[51]M. Nagy, M. Vargas～Vera, E. Motta, DSSim-managing uncertainty on the semantic web. In:Proceedings of ISWC+ASWC Workshop on Ontology Matching,2007,160～169
[52]Doan A., Madhavan J., Donfingos P.,et al. Learning to map between ontologies on the semantic web. In:Proceedings of the 11th World Wide Web Conference, 2002,662～673
[53]R. Dhamankar, Y. Lee, A. Doan, et al. iMAP:discovering complex semantic matches between database schemas, In:Proceedings of the 23th ACM International Conference on Management of Data, ACM Press,2004,383～394
[54]Wei Hu, Ningsheng Jian, Yuzhong Qu,et al. GMO:A Graph Matching for Ontologies. In:Proceedings of K-CAP Workshop on Integrating Ontologies.2005, 41～48
[55]Wei Hu, Yuzhong Qu. Block Matching for Ontologies. In:International Semantic Web Conference 2006,300～313
[56]Wei Hu, Yuzhong Qu, Gong Cheng. Matching large ontologies:A divide-and-conquer approach. Data & Knowledge Engineering,2008,140～160
[57]Ningsheng Jian, Wei Hu, Gong Cheng, et al. Falcon-AO:Aligning Ontologies with Falcon. In:Proceedings of K-CAP Workshop on Integrating Ontologies. 2005.85-91
[58]Yuzhong Qu, Wei Hu, Gong Cheng. Constructing Virtual Documents for Ontology Matching. World Wide Web Conference. in:Proceedings of the 15th International World Wide Web Conference, ACM Press,2006,23～31
[59]Zhiwei Zhang, Dezhi Xu, and Tian Zhang, Ontology Mapping Based on Conditional Information Quantity. In:Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Networking, Sensing and Control, ICNSC 2008, Hainan, China, 2008:587～591
[60]Euzenat J, Semantic Precision and Recall for Ontology Alignment Evaluation. In: Proceedings of IJCAI'07. Berlin:Springer,2007.348～353
[61]Tian Zhang, Dezhi Xu, Jianer Chen, Application-oriented purely semantic precision and recall for ontology mapping evaluation. In:Elsevier: Knowledge-Based Systems,2008,21:794～799